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THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES

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I do not give my disciples any superhuman faculties or supernormal powers so that they can demonstrate them before brāhmaṇas, the sons [and daugh- ters] of wealthy families, or householders. I only teach them how to con- template the path in seclusion, and if they make progress [in the path], to keep it to themselves, and if they transgress while on the path, to explicitly acknowledge it [in public].

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THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES VOLUME I

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BDK English Tripiṭaka Series

THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES VOLUME I

(Taishō Volume 1, Number 1)

Translated from the Chinese by
Shohei Ichimura

Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai America, Inc.
2015

Copyright © 2015 by Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai and BDK America, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means
—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise— without the prior written permission of the publisher.

First Printing, 2015
ISBN: 978-1-886439-55-9
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2015943478

Published by BDK America, Inc. 1675 School Street
Moraga, California 94556 Printed in the United States of America

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka

The Buddhist canon is said to contain eighty-four thousand different teachings. I believe that this is because the Buddha’s basic approach was to prescribe a different treatment for every spiritual ailment, much as a doctor prescribes a different medicine for every medical ailment. Thus his teachings were always appropriate for the particular suffering individual and for the time at which the teaching was given, and over the ages not one of his prescriptions has failed to relieve the suffering to which it was addressed.
Ever since the Buddha’s Great Demise over twenty-ﬁve hundred years ago, his message of wisdom and compassion has spread throughout the world. Yet no one has ever attempted to translate the entire Buddhist canon into English throughout the history of Japan. It is my greatest wish to see this done and to make the translations available to the many English-speaking people who have never had the opportunity to learn about the Buddha’s teachings.
Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha’s eighty-four thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty-nine of the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project.
It is in the nature of this undertaking that the results are bound to be criticized. Nonetheless, I am convinced that unless someone takes it upon himself or herself to initiate this project, it will never be done. At the same time, I hope that an improved, revised edition will appear in the future.
It is most gratifying that, thanks to the efforts of more than a hundred Buddhist scholars from the East and the West, this monumental project has ﬁnally gotten off the ground. May the rays of the Wisdom of the Compassionate One reach each and every person in the world.

NUMATA Yehan Founder of the English
August 7, 1991 Tripiṭaka Project

Editorial Foreword

In January 1982, Dr. NUMATA Yehan, the founder of Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), decided to begin the monumental task of translating the complete Taishō edition of the Chinese Tripiṭaka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year, the Translation Committee of the English Tripiṭaka was ofﬁcially convened.
The initial Committee consisted of the following members: (late) HANAYAMA Shōyū (Chairperson), (late) BANDŌ Shōjun, ISHIGAMI Zennō, (late) KAMATA Shigeo, (late) KANAOKA Shūyū, MAYEDA Sengaku, NARA Yasuaki, (late) SAYEKI Shinkō, (late) SHIOIRI Ryōtatsu, TAMARU Noriyoshi, (late) TAMURA Kwansei, URYŪZU Ryūshin, and YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWA Atsushi, WATANABE Shōgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium.
After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred thirty-nine texts for the First Series of translations, an estimated one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected are not necessarily limited to those originally written in India but also include works written or composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published.
Frankly speaking, it will take perhaps one hundred years or more to accomplish the English translation of the complete Chinese and Japanese texts, for they consist of thousands of works. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue unto completion, even after all its present members have passed away.
Dr. NUMATA passed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven, entrusting his son, Mr. NUMATA Toshihide, with the continuation and completion of the Translation Project. The Committee also lost its able and devoted Chairperson,

Editorial Foreword

Professor HANAYAMA Shōyū, on June 16, 1995, at the age of sixty-three. After these severe blows, the Committee elected me, then Vice President of Musashino Women’s College, to be the Chair in October 1995. The Committee has renewed its determination to carry out the noble intention of Dr. NUMATA, under the lead- ership of Mr. NUMATA Toshihide.
The present members of the Committee are MAYEDA Sengaku (Chairperson), ICHISHIMA Shōshin, ISHIGAMI Zennō, KATSURA Shōryū, NAMAI Chishō, NARA Yasuaki, SAITŌ Akira, SHIMODA Masahiro, Kenneth K. Tanaka, WATANABE Shōgo, and YONEZAWA Yoshiyasu.
The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established in November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publication of the BDK English Tripiṭaka First Series. The Publication Committee was organized at the Numata Center in December 1991. In 2010, the Numata Center’s operations were merged into Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Inc. (BDK America) and BDK America continues to oversee the English Tripiṭaka project in close coop- eration with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo.
MAYEDA Sengaku
Chairperson
Editorial Committee of BDK English Tripiṭaka

Publisher’s Foreword

On behalf of the members of the Publication Committee, I am happy to present this volume as the latest contribution to the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series. The Publication Committee members have worked to ensure that this volume, as all other volumes in the series, has gone through a rigorous process of editorial efforts. The initial translation and editing of the Buddhist scriptures found in this and other BDK English Tripiṭaka volumes are performed under the direction of the Editorial Committee in Tokyo, Japan. Both the Editorial Committee in Tokyo and the Publication Committee, headquartered in Moraga, California, are ded- icated to the production of accurate and readable English translations of the Buddhist canon. In doing so, the members of both committees and associated staff work to honor the deep faith, spirit, and concern of the late Reverend Dr. Yehan Numata, who founded the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series in order to dis-
seminate the Buddhist teachings throughout the world.
The long-term goal of our project is the translation and publication of the texts in the one hundred-volume Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, along with a number of influential extracanonical Japanese Buddhist texts. The list of texts selected for the First Series of this translation project may be found at the end of each volume in the series.
As Chair of the Publication Committee, I am deeply honored to serve as the fifth person in a post previously held by leading figures in the field of Buddhist studies, most recently by my predecessor, John R. McRae.
In conclusion, I wish to thank the members of the Publication Committee for their dedicated and expert work undertaken in the course of preparing this volume for publication: Senior Editor Marianne Dresser, Dr. Hudaya Kandahjaya, Dr. Carl Bielefeldt, Dr. Robert Sharf, and Rev. Brian Kensho Nagata, Director of the BDK America English Tripiṭaka Project.
A. Charles Muller Chairperson Publication Committee

Contents

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka
NUMATA Yehan v
Editorial Foreword MAYEDA Sengaku vii
Publisher’s Foreword A. Charles Muller ix
Translator’s Introduction Shohei Ichimura xiii
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses, Volume I
Preface 3
Sutra 1. The Great Origin 7
Sutra 2. Last Journey and Sojourns 63
First Episode 63
Second Episode 94
Third Episode 133
Sutra 3. A Great Treasury Councilor 173
Sutra 4. Janavasabha’s Exhortation 197
Sutra 5. Lesser Causality 211
Sutra 6. The Universal Ruler’s Practice 225
Sutra 7. Pāyāsi’s Dialogue 245
Sutra 8. Sandhāna 269
Sutra 9. Numerically Assembled Doctrines 283
Sutra 10. Ten Progressively Classiﬁed Doctrines 307
Notes 341
Bibliography 345
Index 349
A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series) 365

Translator’s Introduction

The Textual Origin and Contents of the
Canonical Lengthy Discourses
The complex historical context in which the textual translation of the Dīrgha Āgama took place is beyond the scope of this brief introduction. I attempt to provide here, however, an evaluation of three major features of this canonical tradition: the nature of this sutra collection and its contents, the translators and the times of translation, and the canonical legacy from the point of view of the premodern and modern contemporary Tripiṭaka Buddhist library.
The Chang ahan jing (Skt. Dīrgha Āgama), or the Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses, is one of the four canonical collections that were upheld by the orthodox Dharmaguptaka school. Since this school descended from the Sthāvira orthodoxy that had a prominent position in the few centuries around the Third Buddhist Council, held around 250 to 236 B.C.E.,1 centuries after the Buddha’s demise, the origin of this school’s canonical tradition (Āgamas) may be traced back to some scriptural matrix2 whose contents had been compiled and authenticated by the time of the Third Council.
There were three or four general councils during Buddhism’s early centuries. The First Council was held at Rājagṛha (present-day Rājgīr, Bihar) immediately after Śākyamuni’s passing (485 or 486 B.C.E.) in order to assure the oral preser- vation of the core teachings Śākyamuni Buddha taught directly to his disciples. The Second Council was held at Vaiśālī (Vesālī) a century later to settle some controversies on the Vinaya rules and disciplines set forth by Śākyamuni as the moral and spiritual codes for Buddhist monks and their communities. This council contributed to the ascertainment of legality on the nature of Vinaya codes, despite some challenges and disputes raised by changing historical and social contexts. At that time, it is said that some elder monks still remembered how some of the ﬁrst-generation disciples had upheld the discipline while remain- ing active in daily life.

Though our knowledge of it is conﬁned to Theravāda documents,3 the Third Council was held under the auspices of the Mauryan Buddhist ruler Aśoka in the seventeenth year of his reign (251 B.C.E.) at the capital city Pāṭaliputra (Patna, Bihar). Although this council failed in its intended goal of preventing schism from sectarian movements, the Third Council was pivotal to the subsequent history of the Buddhist canonical tradition for two reasons. First, since the Buddha’s teaching and organization evolved in various forms during the initial two and a half centuries of its development, Buddhist leaders were compelled to reexamine their canonical traditions and establish an authenticated standard to prevent sectarian diversion and doctrinal variation. Second, it was during this council that Buddhist scriptures were formally classiﬁed into the threefold cat- egories of Sutra (teaching), Vinaya (discipline), and Abhidharma (doctrine), i.e., the threefold canonical baskets (Skt. Tripiṭaka; Pāli Tipiṭaka). From that time on, the Tripiṭaka served as the basic categorization of Buddhist literature.
The last general conference was held in Kāśmīra under the auspices of King Kaniṣka, the Kuṣāṇa ruler (known in China as Great Yüeji), toward the end of the ﬁrst century C.E., and it centered on the Hinayana orthodoxy, the Sthāvira- Sarvāstivāda school. Though the historical veracity of this conference is not conclusive, the likelihood of its occurrence can be argued based on the detailed Abhidharma discussions recorded in the Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra,4 and especially in the epilogue left by its translator Xuanzang, as well as the historical fact of the massive Hindu reaction which spurred efforts to compile their literary legacy in the early second century C.E.5 In any case, after the Fourth Council meeting in Kāśmīra, Kuṣāṇa monks began to reach the Chinese continent during the Late Han period.
The Synopsis between the Sanskrit Dīrgha Āgama and the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya
The Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses was one of the four Āgamas essential to the Sutra-piṭaka that was preserved by the Dharmaguptaka school. To explain the nature of this Āgama, it is best to show the synopsis between the content of the Dīrgha Āgama and that of the Dīgha Nikāya (DN), upheld by the Theravāda school as part of the ﬁvefold sutta-piṭaka. The Theravāda school prospered in Sri Lanka and its descendants in Southeast Asia (Burma, Thailand,

and Indochina), preserved the ﬁvefold Nikāyas through the Pāli canonical lan- guage. The Dharmaguptaka school, one of the descendants of the Sthāvira- Sarvāstivāda school that prospered in Northern India, inherited the Dīrgha Āgama as part of their Sutra-piṭaka through the canonical language of Sanskrit or, more precisely, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.6
The fourfold Āgamas that constitute the Sutra-piṭaka of the Hinayana ortho- doxy were preserved throughout the medieval period as part of the Mahayana Tripiṭaka corpus through the Chinese versions since the ﬁfth century C.E. The following is a chart of the synopsis between the four Dharmaguptaka Āgamas originally in Sanskrit and the ﬁve Nikāyas (Pāli sutta collections) preserved by the Theravāda school.
Four Sanskrit Āgamas Five Pāli Nikāyas
(Dharmaguptaka) (Theravāda)
1. Dirgha Āgama (Lengthy 1. Dīgha Nikāya (Lengthy Discourses) Discourses)
2. Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length 2. Majjhima Nikāya (Middle-length Discourses) Discourses)
3. Saṃyukta Āgama (Mixed 3. Saṃyutta Nikāya (Mixed Discourses) Discourses)
4. Ekottarikā Āgama (Gradually 4. Aṅguttara Nikāya (Increasing Each Increased Discourses) by a Doctrine)
5. Khuddaka Nikāya (Short Discourses)
As can be inferred from this table, the Sanskrit Dīrgha Āgama and the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya have many synoptic parallels in their respective content, namely, between the thirty sutras of the Chang ahan jing and the thirty-four suttantas of the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya.7 There are twenty-seven sutras that are identiﬁed with the twenty- seven suttantas, but differences in their respective ordering and arrangement of scriptures must be recognized. Seven suttantas8 are omitted in the Chang ahan jing, but this includes a sutra that is not found in the Dīgha Nikāya. Because of this close synoptic correlations, it is reasonable to assume that the Sanskrit Dīrgha Āgama and the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya had a common canonical matrix that could have been determined as standard during the Third Buddhist Council.

The Chang ahan jing is unique in two ways. First, the editors of the Āgama in organizing the sutras set forth four major sections, reﬂecting their major con- cerns: (1) the centrality of Śākyamuni Buddha as the primary subject, (2) the importance of the Dharma and doctrine, (3) the resultant practice, discipline, and advanced spiritual states, and (4) a record of the cosmological origins of the world. Second, the “Sutra of Cosmology,” which is totally absent in the Dīgha Nikāya of the Pāli canon, was added as the last text in the collection in order to present the Buddha’s teaching more effectively and attractively to a non-Buddhist Hindu audience. According to some scholars, the underlying prin- ciple of the Chang ahan jing reﬂects a conciliatory impulse that was intended to bridge the original Buddha’s teaching (the ninefold or twelvefold categories of discourses) on the one hand, and early Mahayana Buddhist teaching and scriptures on the other.9
The correlations between the two scriptural traditions, the sutras of the Chang ahan jing and the suttantas of the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya, are presented below. In addition, the corresponding texts are noted at the beginning of each sutra in this translation.
Four Sutras on the Subject of Śakyamuni Buddha
1. The Great Origin (Daban jing) DN 14: Mahāpadāna Suttanta
2. Last Journey and Sojourns, DN 16: Mahāpariṇibbāna Suttanta
Parts 1, 2, 3
3. A Great treasury councilor DN 19: Mahāgovinda Suttanta
4. Janavasabha’s Exhortation DN 18: Janavasabha Suttanta
Fifteen Sutras on the Subject of Dharma and Doctrine
5. Lesser Causality DN 27: Aggañña Suttanta
6. Universal Ruler (Cakravartin)’s DN 26: Cakkavatti-sīhanāda Suttanta
Practice
7. Pāyāsi[’s Dialogue] DN 23: Pāyāsi Suttanta
8. Sandhāna DN 25: Udumbarika-sīhanāda Suttanta
9. Numerically Assembled Doctrines DN 33: Saṅgīti Suttanta
10. Ten Progressively Classiﬁed DN 34: Dasuttara-Suttanta
Doctrines
11. Gradual Increase of Doctrines by One No Parallel in DN

12. Doctrines in Groups of Three No Parallel in DN
13. Greater Causality DN 15: Mahānidāna Suttanta
14. Indra’s Question on Causality DN 21: Sakkapañha Suttanta
15. Anupiya Episode DN 24: Pāṭika Suttanta
16. Kalyāṇa-jātika DN 31: Sīṇgālovāda Suttanta
17. Purity DN 29: Pāsādika Suttanta
18. Happiness Caused by Oneself DN 28: Saṃpasānīya Suttanta
19. Great Assembly DN 20: Mahāsamaya Suttanta
Ten Sutras on the Subject of Practice and Resulting Spiritual States
20. Ambaṭṭha DN 3: Ambaṭṭha Suttanta
21. Brahmā’s [Net] DN 1: Brahmajāla Suttanta
22. One Who Cultivates Virtues DN 4: Soṇadaṇḍa Suttanta
23. Brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta DN 5: Kūṭadanta Suttanta
24. Kevaddha DN 11: Kevaṭṭa Suttanta
25. A Naked Brāhmaṇa Ascetic DN 8: Kassapa-sīhanāda Suttanta
26. Knowledge of Three Vedas DN 13: Tevijja Suttanta
27. The Rewards of the Life of a DN 2: Sāmañña-phala Suttanta Śramaṇa
28. Poṭṭhapāda DN 9: Poṭṭhapāda Suttanta
29. Lohitya DN 12: Lohicca Suttanta
Sutra 30 on the Subject of Cosmology (No Parallel in DN)
A 1. The Land of Jambudvīpa
2. The Land of Uttarakuru
3. The Universal Ruler (Cakravartin)

B 4. The Worlds of the Hells
5. Dragons and Birds
C 6. The Asura Demigods
7. The Four Guardian Gods of Heaven
8. The Trāyastriṃśa Heavens

D 9. Three Kinds of Disasters
10. The Asura Demigods
11. Three Kinds of Intermediate Eons

Translators and Historical Times

The translator of the Chang ahan jing was the śramaṇa Buddhayaśas, a native of Kāśmīra who moved to Khotan in Central Asia, where he resided for some time before he was invited to Chang’an speciﬁcally to engage in scriptural trans- lation. There are two stories of how Buddhayaśas was invited to Chang’an and what contribution his translation was to accomplish.
Fifth-century China was divided into northern and southern political regions separated by the Yangzi River. In the north were Louyang and Chang’an, which were the two major government seats of the Han and Tang dynasties, as well as several other political and cultural centers. Since the north was dominated by the descendants of the ﬁve racially foreign regimes, resulting in the short-lived period of sixteen states, Buddhism had a fair chance to develop its inﬂuence despite competition from indigenous Confucian and Daoist traditions. Two cen- turies from the initial introduction of Buddhism to China during the Late Han period, Chinese Buddhists began to be aware that they needed more scriptural sources for deeper understanding as well as for consolidating their communities through Buddhist ethical and moral practice.
According to one story, Buddhayaśas was invited to the capital by the ruler of the Late Qin, Yaoxing (r. 394–415 C.E.), with the assistance of Kumārajīva, his religious counselor. Kumārajīva (344–413) was a scholar-monk from the country of Kuccha in Eastern Turkestan. Born to Indian and Central Asian parents, he excelled in training in Buddhist studies in Kāśmīra and acquired lin- guistic skill in Chinese. He had been brought to Liangzhou as the captive of Fujian’s general, Lüguang, and was subsequently invited to Chang’an in 401 to serve as Yaoxing’s religious counselor and lead the government’s Buddhist trans- lation project. Buddhayaśas had been Kumārajīva’s teacher on the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya (the Daśabhāṇavāra-vinaya, the subject of Abhidharma treatises) more than two decades previously.10 Because he had once been Kumārajīva’s teacher, Buddhayaśas was reverentially nicknamed the “red-bearded professor” or the “senior doctrinal professor” (Vaibhāṣika) in Chang’an.
It is said that, in part, Kumārajīva needed Buddhayaśas’ help in collaborating on completing the translation of the Daśabhūmika-sūtra (Sutra on the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva Career), and that the ruler Yaoxing also requested the śramaṇa

in 410 C.E. to translate both the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (Dharmaguptaka-vinaya; Sifen lü; Vinaya in Four Divisions) and the Dīrgha Āgama of the same school. The Vinaya translation was completed 412 C.E. The next year, 413, Buddha- yaśas began to translate the Dīrgha Āgama with Zhu Fonian, a śramaṇa of Liangzhou, as co-translator, and the translation was completed that same year. As for the reasons the Chang ahan jing originally belonged to the Dharma- guptaka school, we have four indirect proofs. First, the editorial point of view of the Chang ahan jing itself coincides with the Dharmaguptaka tradition in which the principle of the centrality of the Buddha is emphasized in terms of veneration for Śākyamuni as founder of the religion. Second, the text displays a great emphasis on the merit to be accrued by the cult worship of the sacred relics enshrined in stupas (commemorative towers). Third, the text’s translator, Buddhayaśas, who also translated the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, was a bhikṣu afﬁliated with the Dharma- guptaka school. Finally, the Vinaya text, especially its ﬁfty-fourth chapter, refers to seven sutras that were included in the Chang ahan jing, including the “Sutra
of Buddhist Cosmology” that is not found in the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya.11
The second story comes from the introduction to the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya, which gives a somewhat different version. Zhi Faling, a Chinese śramaṇa, trav- eled to the Central Asia on the instructions of his master, Huiyüen, to search for Vinaya texts, and happened to meet Buddhayaśas in Khotan, where he was already renowned as a Mahayana Tripiṭaka master. With due respect, Faling requested him to visit Chang’an and accompanied him there, transporting Uighur textual sources. Faling’s master Huiyüen was a close friend of Kumarajīva, and is known to have organized the Lotus Association at Lushan in the Pure Land sectarian faith, whose adherents devoted their lives to the ideal of rebirth in the Pure Land. There was a growing concern among Chinese Buddhists at the time to consolidate their growing communities and regulate the conduct of their fol- lowers, and so there was a need for the Vinaya-piṭaka. As requested, Buddhayaśas immediately began to translate the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya with the assistance of three hundred monks and scholars involved in the project. Zhi Faling is said to have had his own disciple, Huibian, participate in the sessions as he had excel- lent knowledge of Central Asian languages. The fact that active pursuit of Vinaya texts was the major trend of the time can be attested by the independent case of the monk Faxian’s (339–420) risky journey to India in search of Vinaya texts.12

Buddhayaśas did not extend his stay in Chang’an upon completion of the translation project and soon returned to Kāśmīra. Kumārajīva likely suffered an illness (Huangshi, thirteenth year) soon after completing the translation of the Satyasiddhi-śāstra (Cheng shi lun; Treatise on the Establishment of Truth) and passed away in 413 (Huangshi, ﬁfteenth year). Yaoxing abdicated his rule in the seventeenth year of Huangshi (415 C.E.). Buddhayaśas is said to have sent the Xukongyun pusa jing (Ākāśagarbha-sūtra; Sutra on Ākāśagarbha Bodhisattva) as a gift to the sangha of Liangzhou through a traveling messenger. In fact, the translation of this text ascribed to him is recorded in the Chu sanzang ji ji (Col- lection of the Tripiṭaka Textual Records) (Taishō vol. 13, no. 405) compiled by Sengyou (445–518).
The Significance of the Text in the New Taishō Tripitaka Edition
The Chang ahan jing is placed at the very beginning of the ﬁrst volume of the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō (Taishō New Tripiṭaka Edition) compiled by Japanese Buddhists from 1924–1934 (Taishō 13 to Shōwa 9). This may represent an entirely different reorganization of the Buddhist canon from all of the preceding Tripiṭaka editions. The format of the preceding editions were based on the clas- siﬁcation order of Mahayana ﬁrst, Hinayana second, each of which was again divided into the order of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma texts. The historical legacy of the Chang ahan jing should be examined as to what the text is meant to represent in the modern Taishō edition.
The earliest reliable catalogue of Buddhist texts was due to the work of Dao’an (314–385), author of the Zhongjing mulu (Comprehensive Record of the Textual Catalogues), and Sengyou, author of the Chu sanzang ji ji. Of the two, Dao’an’s catalogues formed the core foundation of Sengyou’s enlarged record of textual catalogues. These two sets of catalogues thus mark the reliable beginning of all subsequent Chinese Tripiṭaka editions.
By the turn of the ﬁfth century, Buddhist communities in Chang’an began to exercise their own choices in the history of Buddhist affairs. This change was a natural development, because Buddhist leaders were more or less trained in Confucian academism or Daoist philosophical training. Dao’an was invited to Chang’an to serve as the religious counselor of Fujian (Yaoxing’s predecessor) from the capital of a southern state. Dao’an profoundly regretted that the Buddhist

communities in China had not been properly equipped with the Tripiṭaka divisions of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma. He actively promoted study on the Mahayana Wisdom sutras, especially the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, and he recruited talented young Buddhist converts to engage in exploration of their philosophical and spiritual meaning. It is within this historical circumstance that Kumārajīva was invited to Chang’an in 401 by Yaoxing (Fujian’s successor) as his religious coun- selor. Sengzhao (374–414), a young Buddhist convert from a Daoist background, became Kumārajīva’s dedicated disciple and quickly proved himself to be an excellent scholar-monk among the Chang’an academic community. His monograph, the Zhao lun, was praised as exhibiting superb comprehension of prajñā insight and the philosophy of emptiness (śūnyatā),second only to that of his master. Sengzhao’s introduction to the Chang ahan jing reﬂects Dao’an’s cherished objective. At the outset he calls attention to the Tripiṭaka canonical tradition:
The great teaching consisted of three [basic] divisions. For regulating physical and verbal behavior there is the collection of injunctive disciplines (Vinaya). For guiding human conduct by distinguishing good and bad there is the collection of doctrinal scriptures (Sutra). For differentiating subtle and delicate subject matter, there is the collection of analytical char- acteristics of the mental and conscious elements (Abhidharma). Thus, there came to be the three baskets of scriptures (Tripiṭaka).
Buddhayaśas’ translation of the Chang ahan jing was perhaps partial fulﬁll- ment of the goal sought by Dao’an.
Following Dao’an’s and Sengyou’s catalogues, a series of records of Buddhist textual catalogues was compiled in the Gezhong qinding zhongjing mulu (Buddhist Canonical Textual Catalogues or Complete Buddhist Tripiṭaka Library, literally, “Great Textual Storehouse”). During the sixth century, the four catalogues came to exist under the auspices of four different regimes. Unlike Dao’an’s and Seng- you’s catalogues, which placed the texts by the translators’ names in chronological order, these state-supported enterprises adopted the new order of classiﬁcation by placing the Mahayana Tripiṭaka catalogues ﬁrst, followed by those of the Hinayana Tripiṭaka. The short-lived Sui dynasty (which dissolved at the uniﬁcation of north and south into an empire in 589), twice supported the compilation of the entire inclusive catalogues of the Tripiṭaka library: ﬁrst, the Sui Kaihuang lidai sanbao ji (Sui Kaihuang Record of the Threefold Buddhist Treasures of the

Successive Dynasties) in 598, followed by its revised edition, the Renshou zhongjing mulu (Renshou Record of Textual Catalogues) in 602, which stream- lined the preexistent catalogues and scrutinized the authenticity of each text. The Renshou zhongjing mulu became the basic model of all subsequent Buddhist Tripiṭaka libraries.
The ﬁling of the catalogues of the Tripiṭaka library reached its apex during the Tang period. The dynastic enterprises successfully compiled seven major editions together with their respective records of catalogues. Any record of cat- alogues is supposed to provide not only the basic principles of textual classiﬁ- cation and those texts already catalogued as authentic, but also include new translations and new discoveries as well as exclude suspicious and fraudulent texts. For instance, the Kaiyuan shijiao lu (Kaiyuan Record of Buddhist Textual Catalogues), compiled in 731, is said to have represented the best model format, so that all subsequent editions followed it in recording catalogues of hand-copied texts as well as printed texts. The classiﬁcation order, however, was unchanged from the Sui-era Renshou zhongjing mulu of 602, following the format of: (1) Mahayana sutras, (2) Mahayana Vinaya texts, (3) Mahayana Abhidharma texts,
(4) Hinayana sutras, (5) Hinayana Vinaya texts, (6) Hinayana Abhidharma texts, and (7) works written by the “wise and saints.” We know. therefore, that the Renshou zhongjing mulu model and that of Kaiyuan shijiao lu together became the standard format of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka library as a whole, of which very little had changed until the modern Taishō Tripiṭaka edition.
This extremely conservative nature developed due to two reasons. First, toward the end of Tang dynasty the dissemination of the complete Tripiṭaka library was based on hand-copied texts made under government supervision. Second, from the Northern Song period on, the dissemination of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka was based on printed texts, for which printing blocks had to be carved, a laborious and expensive process. In the Northern Song, for instance, a 972 decree stipulated the production of the entire set of textual woodcut prints and the carving of one hundred and thirty thousand woodblocks by the year 983. The dissemination of the Buddhist scriptures was under government supervision for centuries but gradually transferred to a number of Buddhist temples. While the main task of carving woodblocks was still carried out by dynastic enterprises, private temple versions began to appear and the distribution of texts was soon widely localized and even spread beyond the Chinese border. This was roughly

the history of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka library through the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Jing periods.
The Taishō Tripiṭaka edition shows a striking innovation, especially in the change of classiﬁcation order that follows the general historical development of Buddhism. The method of detailed examination of textual contents for the sake of new classiﬁcations also developed more precision due to modern schol- arship. First, the Taishō Tripiṭaka editors changed the order by placing the Hinayana Sutra-piṭaka before the Mahayana texts. They set the Hinayana canon of the four Āgamas and individual texts bearing their strains in the ﬁrst two vol- umes, under the Āgama section. Second, they created a new classiﬁcation under the name of “original causality” to collect those texts in which the bodhisattva ideal and career is germinated in reference to early Mahayana history. Third, the remaining Mahayana sutras are classiﬁed, more or less, similarly to those of preceding editions, but each is assigned to different volumes by specifying type or class:
1. Prajñā section: Taishō Tripiṭaka vols. 5–8;
2. Lotus and Huayan section: vol. 9 (both groups) and vol. 10 (Huayan only);
3. Ratnakūṭa and Nirvana section: vol. 11 (Ratnakūṭa only) and vol. 12 (both groups);
4. Mahāsaṃnipāta-sūtra (Great Collection Sutra) section: vol. 13;
5. Sutra collection (Hinayana and Mahayana) section: vols. 14–17;
6. Esoteric sutras section: vols. 18–21.
Fourth, the Taishō Tripiṭaka editors also placed the Vinaya- and Abhidharma- piṭakas after the Sutra-piṭaka in the order of Hinayana ﬁrst, then Mahayana:
1. Vinaya section: vols. 22–23 (all Hinayana) and vol. 24 (both Hinayana and Mahayana);
2. Sutra expository treatise section: vols. 25–26 (partial Abhidharma);
3. Abhidharma section: vols. 27–29;
4. Madhyamaka-Yōgācāra section: vol. 30 (Madhyamaka only), vol. 31 (par- tially Yogācāra), and vol. 32 (Yogācāra only);
5. Collected logical treatises section: vol. 32.
From here, the Taishō Tripiṭaka places texts written as commentaries on sutras and treatises (śāstras),13 sectarian documents and writings, and so forth

up to the one-hundredth volume, but for the purpose of evaluating the legacy of the Chang ahan jing, these can be excluded from consideration.
Modern scholarship focuses on the fundamental spirituality of Śākyamuni Buddha, because his spiritual insight and evangelical life were the foundation of all the doctrines and practices that developed in the later history of Buddhism. In medieval China, every Tripiṭaka library started with the class of Wisdom texts (Prajñāpāramitā sutras) under the Mahayana category, beginning with the massive, six hundred-fascicle Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra (Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra) translated by Xuanzang. In contrast, the Hinayana Āgamas, which are supposed to comprise the original, earliest sources and present Śākyamuni’s life and teaching as closely as possible to his original time and social context, were all buried amid thousands of ﬁles of textual catalogues or among the books and fascicles in the Hinayana section. Finally, after many centuries, the Taishō edition restored the proper place for the Hinayana Āgamas by moving this text to the very beginning of the collection.
In his preface to the Chang ahan jing, Sengzhao deﬁnes Ahan (Āgama) as “the authority to which the laws return” (fa-gui). The “authority to which laws return” means, in all probability, the profound collection of all that is good upheld by the secluded cloister of contemplative recollection (dhāraṇī). These are made into the collection of sutras as the source of authority. It was in this sense that Chang’an’s Buddhist communities, by the turn of the ﬁfth century, were motivated to have the Prajñāparāmitā texts translated rapidly, within a decade, and to also have the earliest canonical Sutra-piṭaka translated along with the Vinaya texts. Most of all, this active motivation arose from the critical study of textual records of translation and visually corroborated reliable textual collections.
Modern Buddhist studies began in the mid-nineteenth century, based on the method of text criticism and aided by scholars’ knowledge of Pāli, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan, and it has successfully promoted Buddhist studies through- out the world. It beneﬁted contemporary Japanese Buddhists in publishing the Taishō Tripiṭaka library and its catalogue, with some success in reforming and improving the longstanding Tripiṭaka traditions. Nearly three quarters of a century after publication of the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, Dr. Yehan Numata and his associates established the project to put the entire corpus of texts collected in the Taishō Tripiṭaka into English translation, with the global cooperation of Buddhist scholars. When this massive project is completed, there will be a new

demand to build another ediﬁce of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka library for the sake of Buddhist and human communities worldwide. Once again, the Chang ahan jing will be highlighted as representing the earliest phase of Buddhism that marked its beginning.
Epilogue
I would like to make a few points regarding the way in which this translation has been accomplished. First, since the original Sanskrit text is no longer extant, I relied almost exclusively on the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya and its English translation, especially that rendered by the founding members of the Pali Text Society, as the sole corroborative references for the Chinese text.14 For instance, it is extremely difﬁcult to identify from Chinese transliteration what a given proper name or proper noun might be in the Sanskrit original. Second, I preferred a straightforward style of narration to the Chinese idiomatic deﬁnitive style. As a cognate language of Sanskrit, though to a lesser degree, Pāli has an intricate case system to specify the contextual relationships between things that are referred to by words through case indicatives, whereas Chinese expression often relies on word order alone, without case indicative changes. Hence, in my English presentation of the Chang ahan jing, I have relied on the English version of the Dīgha Nikāya presented in scholarly translations of the text. This English version of the Chang ahan jing may thus appear to be more like a translation made from the Pāli Nikāya than a directly rendered English version vis-à-vis the Chinese original. As English is not my native language, I did not consider that presenting the textual contents only through a grammatically learned second language would be successful. Due of the length of the original text, this translation will be presented in three volumes, to be published in sucession. Volume I contains sutras 1–10; Volumes II and III will contain the remaining twenty sutras, 11–30. A glossary will be included with the third, ﬁnal volume of the translation. I looked for a model narrative format to translate foundational Buddhist texts, such as the Chang ahan jing. After searching for a feasible format among various samples of translations of Buddhist texts, I ﬁnally decided that it was best to follow the traditions established by the Pali Text Society in dealing with ancient Buddhist literature by means of modern languages. I am, however, obliged to assert that this translation has been produced totally based on my own understanding of
Buddhism accrued through my lifelong study and practice of the religion.

Śākyamuni’s religion began with a dialectical insight underling the fourfold truths of the life process. While engaged in ﬁnal revision of this translation, I personally encountered the messengers of old age, illness, and death, and my attention was drawn to these messagers more acutely because of my engagement in rereading the draft translation. It is my hope that readers of this text will realize the fundamental wisdom of Buddhist spirituality in regard to these serious matters. May the reader discover from this text his or her successful pathway toward liberation.

THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES
VOLUME I

Preface to the Canonical Book of Lengthy Discourses
Shi Sengzhao at Chang’an

The ultimate truth of religion transcends the words of naming and describing. It is because of this that wise and holy people remain in complaisant silence. The subtle meaning, [however,] cannot be communicated unless it is expressed by word. This is why Śākyamuni laid out his teaching, and the enlightened [Tathāgata] appeared in this world. The great teaching consisted of three [basic] divisions. For regulating physical and verbal behavior there is the collection of injunctive disciplines (Vinaya). For guiding human conduct by distinguishing good and bad there is the collection of doctrinal scriptures (Sutra). For differentiating subtle and delicate subject matter, there is the col- lection of analytical characteristics of the mental and conscious elements (Abhidharma). Thus, there came to be the three baskets of scriptures (Tri- piṭaka). The original source accommodated the particular divisions and yet united them in terms of the ultimate truth. Though the ways are varied, they all have one and the same goal.
The injunctive disciplines make up the branch of Vinaya, which comprises four major divisions and ten sections. The analyses of mental and conscious elements (dharmas) make up the branch of Abhidharma, which comprises four major divisions and ﬁve sections. The branch of Sutras comprises four Āgamas: the Chang ahan (Dīrgha Āgama; Collection of Lengthy Discourse), the Zengyi ahan (Aṅguttara Āgama; Discourses Increasing Each by One Doctrine), which comprises four major divisions and eight sections; the Zhong ahan (Madhyama Āgama; Middle-length Discourses), which comprises four major divisions and ﬁve sections; and the Za ahan (Saṃyukta Āgama; Mixed Discourses), which comprises four major divisions and ten sections. The present Chang ahan (Dīrgha Āgama) comprises four major divisions and four sections, altogether thirty sutras, making up one composite unit. Ahan (Āgama) in the Qin (Chinese) language means “the authority to which the laws return” ( fa-gui). The “authority to which laws return” means,

in all probability, the profound collection of all that is good upheld by the secluded cloister of contemplative recollection (dhāraṇī). These are made into the collection of sutras as the source of authority. It is profoundly abundant and liberally rich, enclosing and yet ﬁlling far and wide, intelligently declaring the cases of fortune and misfortune by tracing [the deeds of] the wise and the foolish, giving judgment to whatever case it may be as to its truth or falsity, its difference or similarity, historically recording the destiny of success and the fate of failure in ancient and present times. There is no place, [even] in frontier regions, where the path is not followed or the law nonexistent, just as the two primordial principles [of yin and yang] operate everywhere with the natural relation of things classiﬁed. Like the great ocean to which a hundred rivers return, the branch of Sutras is called the authority where all laws return.
In exposition and analysis of the path of practice, whatever is recorded [in the sutras of this collection] is long and detailed. Because of this, the initial word of this collection is “Lengthy.” Whoever spends time with this source of authority may be lost for a long time but suddenly awaken at dawn. Right and wrong are difﬁcult to distinguish, but once revealed they are like day and night. In announcement they are dark and vague, and under shedding light they are revealed like anything that has a shadow or an echo. The num- bers of eons (kalpas), though they indicate distance [in time], are felt to be as near as the morning and evening, and the expanse [of space] in the six directions, though far-reaching, is seen [to be] as close as if before one’s eyes. This may be expressed as follows: reciting the great wisdom (the sutras) in a dark room, one may provide many blind [people] with the ﬁve extraor- dinary powers of vision, so that even without opening a window of the house, their knowledge permeates everywhere.
The emperor of the great Qin, [endowed with intelligence] in viewing the essentials beyond peripheries, surpassing all others with his sublime deportment, thus nurturing his quiet wisdom, governs both the religious and secular but has been concerned with [the matter of the people’s] understanding about dif- ferent customs (culture) because of the subtle language of Buddhist religion. The duke of Jin, Yaoshuang, an ofﬁcial attached to the district subdivision as envoy of the Junior (right) General, is by nature straightforward, pure and gentle, endowed with a subtle mind transcending to reach anywhere, with

4

respectful concern for the great Dharma, with subtle insight arising sponta- neously, and on whom the [emperor] has bestowed his [favorable] attention. Thus the emperor appointed Duke Yaoshuang to conduct religious affairs. In the twelfth year of Hongshi (412 C.E.), the year order of Geng (shang- zhang) and Xu (yan-mao), the emperor requested the Tripiṭaka master from Kāśmīra named Buddhayaśas to translate the Vinaya-piṭaka as one unit con- sisting of forty-ﬁve rolls. This was completed by the fourteenth year of Hong- shi (414 C.E.). From the ﬁfteenth year (415 C.E.), the year order of Gui (zhao- yang) and Chao (chifen-ruo), the translation project of this Chang ahan jing was completed. The śramaṇa [Zhu] Fonian from the province of Liang assisted [with the] translation, and the Daoist Daohan, a citizen of Qin, [was]
in charge of writing it down.
At that time, those Buddhist monks (śramaṇas) who were renowned in the capital as well as in the country of Xia (which represents Qin) were invited to participate in a series of editorial revisions. Respectfully receiving the statements on doctrines and conﬁrming the absence of discordance, they made the essences illustrious, venerated the substances, and devoted their attention to retaining the intended meaning of the emperor. I happened to receive such auspicious opportunities and participated by listening on many occasions. Though I did not make any merit of [providing] good assistance, I am assigned to [conclude] this translation project. Thus I have made this brief note about the times and events to show to those wise people who will come to read this sutra collection.

Sutra 1
The Great Origin
(Dīgha Nikāya 14: Mahāpadāna Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was staying in the country of 1b
Śrāvastī in the Kareri-kuṭikā quarter of Jetavana Monastery, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus (disciples, monks).
At that time, after the morning almsround was completed, some bhikṣus gathered at the hall adjacent to the Kareri-kuṭikā, and each engaged in dis- cussion with others, saying:
Venerable monks, the Unsurpassed Honorable One (anuttarā) is alone extraordinary. His supernormal power is far-reaching and has wide and great inﬂuence. Thus he [alone] knows those innumerable past buddhas who entered into nirvana, terminating all the deﬁlements and extin- guishing obsessive conceptualization. Again, he knows the numbers of eons ago when each of these respective buddhas appeared, their titles and names, the families into which they were born, the kinds of food of which they partook, whether their respective life spans were long or short, and in what social contexts they experienced the change between suffering and happiness. Again, he knows that each of those buddhas upheld a certain respective precept, taught a certain doctrine, realized a certain insight, acquired a certain understanding, and stayed in a certain state of realization. How extraordinary is his knowledge, venerable colleagues! The Tathāgata distinctly knows the nature of things. Because he knows these things of the past, the heavenly gods (devas) come to talk to him.
At that time, the World-honored One was staying at a secluded place. As his supernormal power of hearing was crystal clear, he happened to listen to the foregoing discussion that went on among the disciples. He arose from his seat at once, went to the Kareri-kuṭikā hall, and took his proper seat in the set position. Then, knowingly, the World-honored One deliberately asked

his disciples, “O bhikṣus, having gathered here, what have you been dis- cussing?” The bhikṣus recounted the subject of their discussion in detail. Thereupon the World-honored One said to them:
Very good, very good. You have renounced family life, each equally motivated by faith, and have been engaged in the practice of the path. Of those prescribed practices, there are two kinds in general. First, the preaching of the wise and holy; and second, the silence of the wise and holy. O monks, the subject of your discussion must be formulated in the following manner: “The Tathāgata’s supernormal power has wide and great inﬂuence. Thus, he alone knows all events of the past
1c through innumerable eons. As he thoroughly understands the nature of things, and because the heavenly gods come to talk to the Buddha, these things are known to him.”
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The bhikṣus assembled in the lecture hall,
Engaged in discussion on the nature of the wise and holy. The Thus-come One remained in a secluded room, Knowing all through his supernormal hearing.
Like the rays of the sun, the Buddha illuminates the world, Discriminates the spheres of elements, and
Knows all things of the past.
He knows of the ﬁnal nirvana of those perfectly enlightened [ones], Their titles, names, ancestry, and their birthplaces.
Following their lives wherever they were in place and time, The Buddha records everything
Through his witness by pure vision.
Heavenly gods appeared with great authority and handsomeness,
Descended to inform me of the nirvana of those three groups of past buddhas,
Their titles and names, and the sound of mourning upon their [entrance into] nirvana.
The Unsurpassed Honorable One above heaven [and earth] Thus has recorded [the destinies of] the past buddhas.

The World-honored One again addressed his disciples:
O bhikṣus, do you wish [the Tathāgata] to impart my supernormal knowledge about the destinies of the past buddhas and their causes and conditions, or not? [If you do], I shall recount it for you.
The disciples replied:
World-honored One, this is the most opportune time, sir. We are your joyful audience. Indulge us, World-honored One! May your reverence transmit to us the wisdom of the past buddhas at once. We shall follow intently the instruction that is imparted, sir.
The Buddha spoke to the bhikṣus: “Listen attentively, you should retain and consider well the following. I shall deliver analysis and explanation for your sake.” Thereupon the bhikṣus listened to the teaching.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Ninety-one eons ago there was a buddha in this world; the Tathāgata and Arhat, Vipaśyin by name, appeared in this world. Again, O bhikṣus, a buddha next came forth thirty-one eons ago; the Tathāgata and Arhat Śikhin by name appeared in this world. Again, O bhikṣus, during that same eon, there was yet another buddha; the Tathāgata and Arhat Viśvabhū by name appeared in this world. Again, O bhikṣus, in the present auspicious eon (bhadrakalpa) there appeared in this world a series of buddhas, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa by name, and now again, during this same auspicious eon, I myself have realized highest, perfect enlightenment (anuttara samyaksaṃbodhi).
The Buddha then continued in verse:
Ninety-one eons ago,
There was Vipaśyin Buddha; Next, thirty-one eons ago, There appeared Śikhin Buddha; In that same eon,
There appeared Viśvabhū Tathāgata. 2a
Now, during this present auspicious eon,

A period of many innumerable nayutas of years, There came forth four great sages,
Known for their compassion for all sentient beings: Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, Kāśyapa, and Śākyamuni.
You should know that when Vipaśyin Buddha appeared, human life span was as much as eighty thousand years. When Śikhin Buddha appeared, human life span was as much as seventy thousand years. When Viśvabhū Buddha appeared, human life span was as much as sixty thousand years. When Krakucchanda Buddha appeared, human life span was as much as forty thousand years. When Kanakamuni Buddha appeared, human life span was as much as thirty thousand years. When Kāśyapa Buddha appeared, human life span was as much as twenty thousand years. Now that I have appeared, human life span is less than a hundred years for most, with only a few living longer than that.
Then the Buddha continued in verse:
In the time of Vipaśyin,
Human life span was eighty-four thousand years; In the time of Śikhin Buddha,
Human life span was seventy thousand years; In the time of Viśvabhū,
Human life span was sixty thousand years; In the time of Krakucchanda,
Human life span was forty thousand years; In the time of Kanakamuni,
Human life span was thirty thousand years; In the time of Kāśyapa Buddha,
Human life span was twenty thousand years; Now, I myself do not exceed
The current human life span of a hundred years.
Vipaśyin Buddha came from the class of kṣatriyas, bearing the family name of Kauṇḍinya (Pāli Koṇḍañña). Śikhin Buddha and Viśvabhū

Buddha also came from the same kṣatriya class, bearing the same family name. Krakucchanda Buddha came from the brāhmaṇa class, bearing the name of Kāśyapa. Both Kanakamuni Buddha and Kāśyapa Buddha came from the same brāhmaṇa class, bearing the same family name. Myself, being the highest and most honorable, come from the kṣatriya class and bear the name of Gautama.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The tathāgatas Vipaśyin, Śikhin, and Viśvabhū, These three perfectly enlightened beings
Came from the kṣatriya class with the family name of Kauṇḍinya. The next three tathāgatas
Came from the brāhmaṇa class with the name of Kāśyapa. Myself now, the highest and most honorable,
For the purpose of guiding sentient beings, Come from the family of courage and valor, Primary among all heavenly gods,
With the name of Gautama.
The ﬁrst three perfectly enlightened beings Came from the kṣatriya class,
While the second three tathāgatas Came from the brāhmaṇa class.
Now I, myself, the highest and most honorable, Come from the kṣatriya class with courage and valor.
Vipaśyin Buddha sat under a pippala tree and realized perfect enlight- enment. Śikhin Buddha sat under a puṇḍarīka tree and realized perfect enlightenment. Viśvabhū Buddha sat under a śāla tree and realized 2b perfect enlightenment. Krakucchanda Buddha sat under a śirīsā tree
and realized perfect enlightenment. Kanakamuni Buddha sat under an udumbara tree and realized perfect enlightenment. Kāśyapa Buddha sat under a nyagrodha tree and realized perfect enlightenment. Now I, the Buddha and Arhat, sat under an paṭala tree and realized perfect enlightenment.

The Buddha then continued in verse:
Vipaśyin Tathāgata approached a pippala tree
And under that tree he realized perfect enlightenment.
Śikhin Tathāgata extinguished deﬁlement under a puṇḍarīka tree; Viśvabhū Tathāgata sat under a śāla tree
And there he realized the knowledge of his deliverance and The freedom of supernormal power.
Krakucchanda Tathāgata sat under a śirīsā tree And realized his omniscience, pure and genuine, To be neither deﬁled nor attached.
Kanakamuni sat under an udumbara tree
And under that tree extinguished desire, sorrow, and afﬂiction. Kāśyapa Tathāgata sat under a nyagrodha tree
And under that tree terminated the origin of varied existence. I, now, as Śākyamuni, sat under an paṭala tree
And as the Tathāgata, I have acquired the ten powers of insight, Terminated many deﬁlements,
Overcame the spells of [Māra], the Evil One, and
Have now been imparting great knowledge to the disciples. The seven buddhas’ powers of exertion
Emitted rays of light that destroyed the darkness of ignorance. Each of the buddhas sat under a tree
And there each realized perfect enlightenment.
Vipaśyin Tathāgata taught his Dharma before the assembly of disciples on three occasions; attendance was one hundred and sixty thousand in number at the initial assembly, one hundred thousand at the second, and eighty thousand at the third. Śikhin Tathāgata also taught his Dharma before the assembly of disciples on three occasions; attendance was one hundred thousand in number at the initial assembly, eighty thousand at the second, and seventy thousand at the third. Viśvabhū Tathāgata taught his Dharma before the assembly of disciples on two occasions; attendance was seventy thousand in number at the initial assembly and sixty thousand at the second. Krakucchanda Tathāgata

taught his Dharma before the assembly of disciples on one occasion, with an attendance of forty thousand. Kanakamuni Tathāgata taught his Dharma before the assembly of disciples on one occasion, with an attendance of thirty thousand. Kāśyapa Tathāgata taught his Dharma before the assembly of disciples on one occasion, with an attendance
of twenty thousand. I now teach the Dharma before the assembly of 2c disciples on a single occasion, with an attendance of one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
Vipaśyin excelled in the contemplation of names; His insight was immeasurable.
He had no fear whatsoever in lecturing
Before the assembly of his disciples on three occasions. Śikhin’s light [of wisdom] was immovable and
Thus destroyed all deﬁlements.
No one could fathom his authority and virtue, So immeasurable and great.
This buddha also held on three occasions The assembly of his disciples
Gathered together from all places. Viśvabhū terminated deﬁlements, and
Many great sages assembled for his teaching. His name was heard in all regions, and
The great name of his Dharma arose.
The disciples of the two assemblies propagated everywhere The profound meaning [of his teaching].
Krakucchanda taught his Dharma Before the assembly on one occasion,
And as their guide helped, with his compassion, The disciples thus assembled
To overcome suffering and accomplish conversion. Kanakamuni Tathāgata
Realized highest enlightenment and

Likewise taught his Dharma.
His physical features looked splendid, of purplish-gold color, Every aspect of his physical form was equally perfect.
The disciples of his assembly spread his teaching everywhere. [When Kāśyapa taught his Dharma before the assembly,] There was no bristling of his hair,
Nor any confusion in his thought,
Nor any word of unnecessary repetition. The disciples of his single assembly
Revered his contemplation of compassion in [perfect] quiescence. I, from the Śākya family,
Superior to all the śramaṇas,
Center of all heavenly quarters, most honorable, Have the disciples of my single assembly.
It is the intention of my appearance before that assembly To propagate the pure and genuine teaching.
With my mind ﬁlled with delight, With all deﬁlements extinguished, I have no subsequent existence.
Vipaśyin and Śikhin taught their Dharma before three assemblies, Viśvabhū Buddha taught before two assemblies,
The remaining four buddhas each taught [the Dharma] On single occasions before an assembly of sages.
Vipaśyin Buddha had two disciples, Khaṇḍa and Tiṣya; they surpassed all the other disciples. Śikhin Buddha had two disciples, Abhibhū and Saṃbhava; they surpassed all the other disciples. Viśvabhū Buddha had two disciples, Soṇa (Pāli) and Uttama; they surpassed all the other disciples. Krakucchanda Buddha had two disciples, Sañjīva and Vi-
3a dhūra (Pāli); they surpassed all the other disciples. Kanakamuni Buddha had two disciples, Bhiyyosa (Pāli) and Uttara; they surpassed all other disciples. Kāśyapa Buddha had two disciples, Tiṣya and Bharadvāja; they surpassed all other disciples. I have two disciples, Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana; they surpass all the other disciples.
Then the Buddha continued in verse:

Khaṇḍa and Tiṣya were the disciples of Vipaśyin;
Abhibhū and Saṃbhava were the disciples of Śikhin Buddha; Soṇa and Uttama surpassed all the other disciples and Equally overcame the spells of the devil;
They were the disciples of Viśvabhū.
Sañjīva and Vidhūra were the disciples of Krakucchanda; Bhiyyosa and Uttara were the disciples of Kanakamuni; Tiṣya and Bharadvāja were the disciples of Kāśyapa Buddha; Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana are my ﬁrst-rank disciples.
Vipaśyin Buddha had a disciple by the name of Aśoka, who was his chief personal attendant. Śikhin Buddha had a disciple by the name of Kṣema- kāra [as his personal attendant]. Viśvabhū Buddha had an attendant dis- ciple, Upaśāntā by name; Krakucchanda Buddha had an attendant dis- ciple, Buddhija by name; Kanakamuni Buddha had an attendant disciple, Sotthija (Pāli) by name; Kāśyapa Buddha had an attendant disciple, Sarvamitra by name. Śākyamuni Buddha has an attendant disciple, Ānanda by name.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
Aśoka, Kṣemakāra, Upaśāntā, Buddhija, Sotthija, Sarvamitra, and Ānanda as the seventh; They each became personal attendants
Of their respective buddhas and
Assisted them in various roles, endowed with goals and means. Refraining from indolence day and night,
Beneﬁting themselves as well as others,
These seven wise disciples closely attended the seven buddhas, Dedicated their service with delight, and
Quietly entered nirvana.
Vipaśyin Buddha had a son, Fangying by name; Śikhin Buddha had a son, Apramāṇa by name; Viśvabhū Buddha had a son, Subuddha by name; Krakucchanda Buddha had a son, Shangsheng by name; Kanaka-
muni Buddha had a son, Lokanāyaka by name; Kāśyapa Buddha had 3b
a son, Sanghasena by name; now I have a son, Rāhula by name.

Then the Buddha continued in verse:15
Fangying, Apramāṇa, Subuddha, Shangsheng, Lokanāyaka, Sanghasena, and Rāhula as the seventh;
These scions, successors of the heroic lineages of the buddhas, Dedicated themselves to morality,
Delighted in charity, and
Had no fear of conscience before the sacred Dharma.
The father of Vipaśyin Buddha was Bandhumant, from a royal family of kṣatriyas, and his mother was Bandhumatī. The city ruled by the king was called Bandhumatī.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The father, perfect-eyed one,
Was Bandhumant, the mother was Bandhumatī. The city ruled by Bandhumant was Bandhumatī, Where the Buddha taught his Dharma.
The father of Śikhin Buddha was Aruṇa, from a royal family of kṣa- triyas, and his mother was called Prabhāvatī. The city ruled by the king was Aruṇavatī.
Then the Buddha continued in verse:
Śikhin’s father was Aruṇa, and His mother [was] Prabhāvatī.
While Aruṇa remained in the capital
His authority and virtue vanquished his enemies.
The father of Viśvabhū Buddha was Suppatīta (Pāli), from a royal family of kṣatriyas, and his mother was called Yaśavatī. The city ruled by the king was called Anopama.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The father of Viśvabhū Buddha Was Suppatīta by name and From the kṣatriya class, and

His mother was called Yaśavatī. The capital was called Anopama.
The father of Krakucchanda Buddha was Agnidatta, from a brāhmaṇa family, and his mother was called Viśākhā. The king was called Kṣema (Pāli Khema), and the capital ruled by him was [called] Kṣema, after the king’s name.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The father of Krakucchanda Buddha, Agnidatta, was a brāhmaṇa,
The mother was Viśākhā by name.
The king [of his time] was called Kṣema and Ruled the city of Kṣema.
The father of Kanakamuni Buddha was Yajñadatta, from a brāhmaṇa family, and his mother was Uttarā. The king of his time was Śubha, and his capital was called Śubha after his name.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The father of Kanakamuni Buddha, Yajñadatta, was a brāhmaṇa, and His mother was called Uttarā.
The king [of his time] was Śubha and Ruled the city of Śubha.
The father of Kāśyapa Buddha was Brahmadatta, from a brāhmaṇa family, and his mother was called Dhanavatī. The king of his time was 3c Kikin (Pāli) by name and the city ruled by the king was Vārāṇasī.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The father of Kāśyapa Buddha, Brahmadatta, was a brāhmaṇa, and His mother was called Dhanavatī. The king of his time was Kikin Who ruled the city of Vārāṇasī.

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My father was called Śuddhodana, from a royal family of the kṣatriyas, and my mother was Mahāmāyā. The capital ruled by the king was called Kapilavastu.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
My father was a kṣatriya, Śuddhodana by name, and
My mother was called Mahāmāyā.
His land was vast and his people prosperous. I was born to them.
These are the stories of the buddhas, their names, familial backgrounds, and the places of their birth. How could a wise person, having listened to these stories, not rejoice and give rise to a feeling of dedication?
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Listen attentively, you should retain and consider well the following. I shall deliver analysis and explanation for your sake. O bhikṣus, you should know the regularity of the buddhas. The bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended from Tuṣita Heaven to enter the womb of his heavenly mother through her right side, and remained therein in the state of mindfulness, his mind undisturbed. At that moment, the earth trembled and a great ray of light illumined the entire world. The illumination reached even to the region where the sun and the moon cannot give their great illumination to every sentient being. Even those sentient beings of the dark underworld could see each other and recognize the place of their destiny. At that time the light also illuminated the palace of the Evil One. Although illumination was extended to all the heavenly beings, with Indra as their head, the god Brahmā, śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, as well as other sentient beings, only the gods were not revealed because of their own rays of light.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
While heavy clouds gathered thickly in midair, Bolts of lightning illuminating heaven and earth,
Vipaśyin descended and entered into his mother’s womb.

The ray of light equally illuminated the regions Where the sun and moon cannot reach.
There was hardly anyone
Who did not receive the great illumination.
The one thus impregnated is immaculate and stainless. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
O bhikṣus, you should [further] know the regularity of the buddhas. Being in his mother’s womb, the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was steadfast 4a with his concentration, his mind undisturbed. The four heavenly guardians of the four heavenly quarters took up halberds and protected
the Bodhisattva. Neither human nor nonhuman [beings] could approach and disturb him. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The four princes (guardians) of the four quarters of heaven Were renowned for their authority and virtue.
Commanded by the god Indra,
They protected the Bodhisattva well. They took up the arms of the halberd and
Always guarded him, without leaving his side,
Against the approach of any [evil] human or nonhuman [being]. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
The heavenly gods protected the Bodhisattva well As though nymphs guarding a heavenly palace.
All the retainers of the gods were also thus delighted. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
Again the Buddha spoke to the bhikṣus on the regularity of the lives of the buddhas:
The bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended from Tuṣita Heaven to enter into his mother’s womb and abided there in concentration, his mind undis- turbed, while his mother’s body was safe and in peace with no prob- lems. With her wisdom increased, she examined her fetus and saw the well-developing body of the Bodhisattva endowed with limbs and

senses as spotless as purplish-gold. It was like a [perfect] lapis lazuli gem; an expert on examining its [perfect] transparency within and without would ﬁnd neither shadow nor ﬂaw. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
At that moment the Buddha continued in verse:
As pure as a gem of lapis lazuli and As clear as the bright sun and moon,
The Honorable One remained in his mother’s body, Disturbing not his mother’s gestation.
With her wisdom increased, She examined her fetus and
Saw the body of her child like a golden image. Her pregnancy was safe and peaceful.
This is the regularity of the buddhas.
The Buddha told the bhikṣus:
The bodhisattva Vipaśyin descended from Tuṣita Heaven to enter into his mother’s womb and abided there in concentration, his mind undis- turbed. His mother’s mind was pure and genuine. She was free from any thought of desire or from being burned by immoral desire. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
At that time, the World-honored One continued in verse:
While the Bodhisattva abided in the mother’s womb, Heavenly blessings increased,
Bestowed [upon the Bodhisattva] from the highest heavens. The thoughts of the mother were pure and genuine,
With no thought of desire. Forsaking sensual longing, Unstained and unapproached,
She was free from the ﬂame of immoral desire. This is the regularity of the buddhas’ life-careers.
The Buddha [again] spoke to the bhikṣus on the regularity of the buddhas:

The Bodhisattva descended from Tuṣita Heaven to enter his mother’s womb and abided there in concentration, his mind undisturbed. His mother upheld the ﬁve precepts (pañca-śīla) and her practice of austerity 4b was pure and genuine. With her sincere faith, compassion, and goodwill,
well fulﬁlled, with nothing but happiness, she was born in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven at the time of her body’s dissolution at the end of her life. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
At that time, the World-honored One continued in verse:
While carrying within her body
The highest, most honorable among humans, Upholding the precepts with vigor,
She was destined to gain
A heavenly body in her future life.
Because of this she is called the mother of the buddhas.
The Buddha [again] spoke to the bhikṣus on the regularity of the lives of the buddhas:
When the bodhisattva Vipaśyin was born, he came from his mother’s right side. At that moment the earth trembled and a ray of light illu- minated the entire world. Just as when the Bodhisattva initially entered his mother’s womb, the illumination reached even to the dark under- world, beneﬁting every sentient being with its great illumination. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
At that time, the World-honored One continued in verse:
When the prince was born, the earth trembled,
A ray of light illuminated everywhere without exception, This world as well as the other worlds,
Above and below in all directions,
Thus granting the pure and genuine cause [of salvation]. Endowed with the sublime voice of rejoicing,
One after another the heavenly beings praised The name of the Bodhisattva.

The Buddha [again] spoke to the bhikṣus on the regularity of the lives of buddhas:
The bodhisattva Vipaśyin came from his mother’s right side at the time of his birth and remained there in concentration, his mind undisturbed. At that moment the mother of the Bodhisattva pulled down a tree branch [to support herself], neither sitting nor lying down. Then the four heav- enly guardians respectfully offered scented water and spoke to the mother: “As was ordained, O heavenly mother, now the holy child is born. May your ladyship be free from worry and sorrow.” This is the regularity of the buddhas.
At that time the World-honored One continued in verse:
The mother of the Buddha
Neither took a seat nor reclined upon the ground, But was steadfast in the precepts and
The practice of austerity. Born in the house of nobility,
She never slackened in her exertion While attended by heavenly beings.
The Buddha [again] spoke to the bhikṣus on the regularity of the buddhas:
The bodhisattva Vipaśyin came from his mother’s right side at the time of his birth and abided there in concentration, his mind undisturbed. His body was immaculate, never subjected to deﬁlement by ﬁlth or evil thoughts. [It was] like a gem, pure and genuine, [which] when expertly mixed with white paint neither affects nor is affected [by the paint], because it is pure and genuine. It is the same with the Bodhi- sattva’s emerging from his mother’s womb. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
At that time the World-honored One continued in verse:
Like a gem, pure and genuine,
[When] mixed with paint [it] neither affects nor [is] affected [by the paint],

When the Bodhisattva emerged from his mother’s womb, He was pure and spotless.
The Buddha [again] spoke to the bhikṣus on the regularity of the buddhas:
The bodhisattva Vipaśyin, at the time of his birth, came from his mother’s right side and abided there in concentration, his mind undis- turbed. Coming down to the ground from his mother’s right side, he
took seven steps and, without any help from others, glancing in all 4c
directions, he raised his hand and declared: “Above heaven and below, I alone am most honorable. I am here to save sentient beings from the woes of birth, old age, sickness, and death.” This is the regularity of the buddhas.
At that time the World-honored One continued in verse:
Just as a lion walks,
[The Bodhisattva] glanced in the four directions, and A lionlike child, he took seven steps upon the ground. Again, as with a great dragon’s movement,
[The Bodhisattva] glanced in the four directions, and [Like] a dragonlike child, when born
He took seven steps on descending to the ground. At the time of [his] birth,
The two-legged (i.e., human) Honorable One Took seven ﬁrm steps, and
Glancing in the four directions,
Raised his voice to declare the termination of the suffering of life and death.
At the very beginning of his birth,
He had no equal [but was] equal [only] to other buddhas. He perceived the origination of life and death, and
That this life [would be] his last.
The Buddha [again] spoke to the bhikṣus on the regularity of the buddhas:
The bodhisattva Vipaśyin, at the time of his birth, came from his mother’s right side and abided there in concentration, his mind undisturbed. Two

fountains sprang out, one warm and the other cool, as an offering for the bathing of the Bodhisattva. This is the regularity of the buddhas.
At that time the World-honored One continued in verse:
When the two-legged Honorable One was born, Two fountains sprang out as an offering
For the bathing of the Bodhisattva.
The infant, endowed with his perfect eyes,
Was bathed clean in [the water of] these fountains. The two fountains sprang out naturally;
The water was very pure and clean;
One was a warm spring while the other was cool, Both for the bathing of the Omniscient [One].
When the prince was born, his father, King Bandhumant, invited a host of soothsayers who specialized in magical formulas to see the prince and prophesy about his fortune or fate. The soothsayers came to see the prince as instructed. Having noted the eminent marks the child bore when they opened his clothing, the soothsayers told the king of his fortune:
We have no doubt in our mind that whoever bears these marks is bound to have one of two destinies. If he remains in household life, he will become the universal ruler (cakravartin) who turns the sacred wheel and will become king of all four quarters on earth. He will acquire the four divisions of armies and will rule the land under the right Dharma with impartiality, beneﬁting everything under the heavens. He will spontaneously acquire the seven kinds of treasures and, accompanied by a thousand brave and strong soldiers, he will be able to overcome any foreign enemy [even] without [resorting to] arms in punishment; thus he will keep the peace of all lands under the heavens. Should he renounce household life and pursue the path [of salvation], he is destined to realize perfect enlightenment and be named by ten sacred titles of buddhahood.
Then the soothsayers said to the king:

Your majesty, the prince bears the thirty-two eminent marks. We have no doubt in mind that he is bound to realize one of two des- tinies, sire. Should he stay in household life, he will become the universal ruler who turns the sacred wheel. Should he renounce household life, he will realize perfect enlightenment and be named
by ten epithets of buddhahood. 5a
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The prince was born endowed with innumerable fortunes. The soothsayers said:
“We have no doubt in our mind that,
Like a case predetermined in the book of legal codes, The prince has two destinies, sire.
Should he choose household life,
He is bound to become a universal ruler Who turns the sacred wheel.
He will spontaneously acquire
The seven kinds of treasures [that are] ordinarily difﬁcult to obtain. He will acquire the sacred wheel
Which is made of a thousand golden spokes,
With a golden thread attached around its outer edge. When it is turned,
It can run to any place as though ﬂying;
Hence it is called the ﬁrst treasure, the heavenly wheel. He will acquire the well-trained elephants
Endowed with seven tusks, huge and wide, and As white as snow, capable of ﬂying in midair. This is called the second treasure, the elephant. He will acquire horses that, when they run, Can go any place under the heavens,
Leaving in the morning and Returning in the evening for feed,
With shining hair and the voice of a peacock. This is called the third treasure, the horse.

He will acquire the lapis lazuli gem, pure and genuine,
Which reﬂects a light that shines over the distance of a yojana,
Illuminating the night as brightly as the day.
This is called the fourth treasure, the divine gem (maṇi-ratna). He will acquire the queen whose ﬁgure,
Voice, scent, taste, and touch have no equal, Foremost among all women.
This is called the ﬁfth treasure, the queen. He will acquire men of wealth
Who, to their hearts’ content, Make gifts of lapis lazuli gems and All other precious stones.
This is called the sixth treasure, the treasury household. He will acquire bands of armies, brave and strong, Which can swiftly move back and forth as he commands.
This is called the seventh treasure, the military commander. These are the seven treasures of the universal ruler, sire: The wheel, the white elephant, the horse, the gems,
The woman, the wealthy men, and the army. The prince will like these things and
Enjoy a life of fulﬁllment
With the ﬁve kinds of desire, and yet,
Just as an elephant decisively breaks its reins, He will renounce household life and
Realize perfect enlightenment.
Your Majesty, this is the fortune, sir,
Due to this prince, Most Honorable among Humans, Who will turn the wheel of Dharma in this world, Without ceasing, even after his realization of the path.”
At that moment, the father-king [again] asked the soothsayers three times with due courtesy, “May you also examine the thirty-two marks of the prince and, naming them, explain their respective meanings.” Then the soothsayers at once opened the prince’s clothing and explained the thirty-two eminent marks: (1) even and ﬂat soles of the feet, for

steady footing; (2) the two soles marked symmetrically with the symbol
of the thousand-spoked wheel; (3) webbed hands and feet like those 5b
of a goose; (4) hands and feet as smooth and delicate as the fabric of a heavenly robe; (5) unequaled delicate, elongated ﬁngers and toes;
(6) wide-surfaced, rounded feet of pleasant appearance; (7) rounded heels narrowing gradually to straight calves like those of a deer; (8) well-connected ribs like the links of a chain; (9) a genital organ hidden within folds [of skin], like that of a horse; (10) elongated upper limbs, hands touching the knees even in an upright position; (11) each hair growing from its respective root, coiling to the right, the color of lapis lazuli; (12) bodily hairs coiling to the right, the color of navy blue, growing upward; (13) a physical body of golden complexion (suvarṇa- varṇa); (14) dust-repellent, delicate, tender skin; (15) symmetrically even and round shoulders ﬁlled with vigor; (16) a chest marked with the auspicious sign of a mirror-image svastika; (17) physical stature twice as tall as a normal body; (18) well-developed seven parts of the body (hands, feet, lower shoulders, and nape); (19) a wide and grand body like a banyan tree; (20) rounded, pronounced cheeks like those of a lion; (21) an upper torso straight and upright, lionlike in form;
(22) a set of forty teeth; (23) teeth of neat, square form and in good alignment (sama-danta); (24) teeth having no spaces [in between];
(25) white and clean teeth; (26) a pure throat and palate ﬁt for the best of partaken food; (27) a wide and elongated tongue that reaches the ears (prabhūta-tanu-jihvā); (28) a beautiful, heavenly voice; (29) dark- blue eyes; (30) twinkling eyes and eyelids like those of an ox; (31) a curl of white hair on the forehead (ūrṇā), ﬂexible and long, stretching ten feet, coiling back to the right like a trumpet shell when stretched and released; and (32) a protuberance on top of the head (uṣṇīṣa). These are the thirty-two eminent marks of a buddha.”
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The steady feet, soft and pliant,
Do not leave traces of their passing on the ground. The symbol of the wheels

With a thousand spokes is magniﬁcent, Embellished with bright colors.
Like a nyagrodha tree,
His physical stature is equally wide and tall. Marvelously hidden is the Tathāgata’s male organ Like that of a horse.
In his body, well embellished with golden accessories, All the other eminent marks are mutually reﬂected.
Though passing through this ordinary world, Neither dust nor soil deﬁles his body,
Which bears the heavenly complexion, Exceedingly soft and tender.
The royal canopy spontaneously covers his presence, and His body, the source of the heavenly voice,
Is purplish-gold, as fresh as [lotus] ﬂowers Blooming for the ﬁrst time on the surface of a pond. The king asked the soothsayers, and
They respectfully replied to him,
Praising the eminent marks of the Bodhisattva. The entirety of his body is enveloped
With bright light revealing all his limbs,
5c His feet and hands, externally and from within.
He tastes the essence of all foods;
His upper torso, upright without stooping, The wheels of his soles are revealed, and
His voice sounds like that of a kalaviṅka bird. Endowed with the form of rounded heels Gradually narrowing toward straight calves,
This is the meritorious reward of his past destiny. His upper arms and elbows,
Rounded and perfect, are nice to look at,
While his facial features are exceedingly handsome. The honorable lion among humans
Surpasses all others in his might,
Both of his cheeks round and balanced,

With the poise of a reclining lion.
The set of his teeth, forty in number, is regular and Evenly aligned with no spaces in between.
His unearthly voice is marvelous and Attracts everyone from far and near. He stands upright without stooping,
Both hands reaching down to the knees. His hands are evenly developed and soft. It is the form of beauty ever endowed
To the honorable and best among all humans. His bodily hairs each grow from respective roots, His hands and feet are endowed with webbing.
He has a protuberance on top of his head, Dark-blue eyes, twinkling,
Both eyelids moving,
Both shoulders bearing rounded fullness.
He is thus endowed with thirty-two eminent marks. There is no imbalance of high or low
With his heels and straight calves, Delicate like those of the deer.
As if the best of all heavenly beings descended to the earth, Just as an elephant decisively tears away its reins,
He was prepared to have all sentient beings Rescued from suffering,
Himself facing the cycle of birth, Old age, sickness, and death.
Moved by his compassion,
He taught the Four Noble Truths,
Explained the meaning of the verses on Dharma, and
Had his disciples dedicate themselves to the Most Honorable One.
The Buddha [again] spoke to the bhikṣus:
When Vipaśyin Buddha was born, the heavenly gods hovered in midair holding a white canopy and fans, thereby protecting him from coldness and heat, wind and rain, dust and dirt.

29
The Buddha then continued in verse:
Having never before appeared among humans,
The Most Honorable One is [now] born as a two-legged being. The gods pay him their respects
In offering the canopy and fans.
At that time the father-king provided the prince with four nursing maids: the ﬁrst fed him milk, the second bathed him, the third applied scented oil to his body, and the fourth accompanied him in play. Joyful in heart, they reared him diligently.
Thus continued the Buddha in verse:
With love and affection,
The nursing maids reared the prince; The ﬁrst feeding him milk,
The second bathing him,
The third applying scented oil to his body, The fourth accompanying him in play.
The best of scented oils,
6a They applied to the Most Honorable among Humans.
When he had grown to adolescence, all the maidens of the country never tired of looking at the young prince.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
Adored by many with much respect Like a golden image initially cast,
Men and women watched him attentively, Never tiring of gazing at him.
When he had grown to adolescence, all the citizens, male and female, adored him as if embracing and savoring the scent of a precious ﬂower.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
When the Most Honorable [One] was born, He was adored by many with love and respect.

One after another they embraced him,
[Just as if] holding a precious ﬂower and savoring its fragrance.
When the Bodhisattva was born, he did not blink his eyes, much like the gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven. Because of the absence of blinking, he was called Vipaśyin.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
The best of all among the heavens did not blink, Just like the gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven.
Staring at an object (i.e., form), He contemplated it with insight. Hence he was called Vipaśyin.
When the Bodhisattva was born his voice was exceedingly clear, tender and graceful like the voice of a kalaviṅka bird.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
Even as a Himalayan bird enhances its voice With a diet of fruit juice,
So was the voice of the Honorable One Clear and penetrating like that of the bird.
When the Bodhisattva was born, his eyes were able to see across the distance of a yojana.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
In reward for his past deeds, pure and genuine, He obtained the miraculous light of the heavens. His eyes we were able to see everything
Within the radius of a yojana.
After his birth, year by year, the Bodhisattva grew up to be a young man and took up his ofﬁce in the main hall, inculcating the path of morality in the citizens, thus beneﬁting them. His name and virtue were renowned even in distant regions.

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The Buddha continued in verse:
While he was still a young man, Taking up his ofﬁce at the main hall,
He beneﬁted the citizens by inculcating the path of morality and Dealt with varieties of decision-making.
Because of this he was called Vipaśyin. His knowledge, pure and genuine,
Is vast and detailed and
As profound as the great ocean. He thus helped the people
To gladly accept his inculcation and Increase and expand their wisdom.
Then the Bodhisattva, wishing to go on an excursion, ordered his atten- dant, “Make the chariot be ready. I wish to visit that [royal] grove to look at things and sites.”
Having prepared the chariot, the attendant reported, “It is ready, sir.” The prince at once boarded [the chariot] and set out on the road toward the grove. On the roadway, however, he saw an old white-haired man, his teeth all gone, his face wrinkled, his body bent down and sup- ported by a cane, his steps slow and weak, his breath labored. Looking
6b back at that old man, the prince questioned his attendant, “What kind of person is that?”
[The attendant] replied, “That is an old man, sir.”
The prince again asked, “What does it mean to be old?”
The attendant replied, ‘Sir, it means that the span of life is approach- ing its end, leaving only a limited duration of time to live. This is called old age, sir.”
The prince asked again, “I too will become like this and am unable to escape it, is this not so?”
The attendant replied, “Yes, sir. Whosoever is born is bound to become old. There is no difference between rich and poor [in this regard], sir.”
At that moment the prince lost interest [in the excursion]. He told the attendant to turn the chariot around at once and return to the palace.

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While withdrawing in contemplative silence, he thought to himself, “This suffering of old age must also be with me.”
Here the Buddha again continued in verse:
Having seen an old man
Whose life was nearing the end, Walking with feeble steps, Supported only by his cane,
The Bodhisattva thought to himself:
“I too cannot escape this fate.”
At that time the father-king questioned the attendant, “Did the prince enjoy his excursion?”
[The attendant] replied, “No, sire.” The king asked why. The atten- dant replied, “Sire, we encountered an old man on the roadway. The prince was not pleased because of that, sir.”
At that moment, the father-king did not say anything to the attendant but thought to himself:
Once, when a group of soothsayers prophesied the prince’s fortune, they told me that he was bound to renounce household life. Now he is unhappy with his life here. Is there not some means by which to change his feeling? I must contrive some sort of expediency, such as to place his new quarters in the rear part of the palace. Let him enjoy his ﬁve senses fully, distracting his mind, thereby preventing him from leaving household life.
At once the king had the prince’s new quarters attractively decorated and assigned selected palace ladies to entertain him.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
Having listened to the words of the attendant, The father-king contrived an expediency
To have the prince’s quarters decorated and
To attract his ﬁve senses with increased entertainment, Hoping to prevent him from giving up household life.

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The prince later ordered his attendant to again prepare a chariot and visited the outside world on an excursion. [This time] he met an ailing man. The man’s body was weakened, his belly distended, his face was dark, he lay amid his own excrement and ﬁlth with no one attending him, and his illness was so serious that he could not speak. The prince, asked his attendant, “What kind of person is this?”
The attendant replied, “He is a sick man, sir.”
The prince asked again, “What is meant by ‘sick’?”
The attendant replied: “Sir, it means that many sharp pains torment an ailing person, making it uncertain as to whether or not he may live. Hence this is called sickness, sir.”
The prince asked, “I too will become like this and am unable to escape it, is that not so?”
The attendant replied, “Yes, sir. Whoever is born is bound to become sick. There is no difference between the noble and the humble [in this regard], sir.”
At that moment, the prince lost interest [in the excursion]. He told the attendant to turn the chariot around at once and return to the palace. While withdrawing in contemplative silence, he thought to himself, “This suffering of illness must also be with me.”
Here the Buddha again continued in verse:
Having seen a man with chronic illness Whose complexion was emaciated and dark,
The Bodhisattva withdrew in silent contemplation, Thinking to himself, “I too cannot escape this fate.”
At that time the father-king questioned the attendant, “Did the prince enjoy his excursion?”
6c He replied, “No, sire.” The king asked again as to why. The attendant replied, “Sire, we encountered an ailing man on the roadway. The prince was not pleased because of that, sir.”
At that moment, the father-king did not question the attendant again but thought to himself:

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Once when a group of soothsayers prophesied the prince’s fortune, they told me that he was bound to renounce his household life. Now he is unhappy with his life here. Is there not some means by which to change his feeling? I must contrive some sort of experiency, to increase his entertainment with music and dance, distracting his mind, thereby preventing him from leaving household life.
At once, [the king] had the new quarters attractively decorated and assigned selected palace ladies to entertain the prince.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
Form, sound, smell, taste, and touch Are delicate and pleasurable.
As the merit due to the Bodhisattva,
He thus enjoyed his life among these pleasures.
Again, on another occasion, the prince ordered his attendant to prepare a chariot and visited the outside world on an excursion, but he encoun- tered a dead man on the roadway. The family and relatives, lamenting and crying loudly, went out of the city in funeral procession, with var- ious banners to the front and rear.
The prince again questioned his attendant, “What is this man?” He replied: “This is a dead man, sir.”
The prince asked, “What is meant by death?” The attendant replied:
Sir, it means extinction, which is preceded by the ceasing of the breath, next the loss of warmth, and then the dissolution of the senses. The living and the dead are in [totally] different worlds. This [completely] separates one from his household. Hence, this is called death, sir.
The prince once again asked, “I too will become like this and be unable to escape it, is that not so?”
The attendant replied, “Yes, sir. Whosoever is once born is bound to die. There is no difference between the noble and the humble [in this regard], sir.”

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At that moment, the prince lost interest [in the excursion] and told the attendant to turn the chariot around at once and return to the palace. Withdrawing in contemplative silence, he thought to himself, “This suffering of death must also be with me.”
Here the Buddha again continued in verse:
Having seen a dead man for the ﬁrst time, and Knowing the rebirth of the dead,
He withdrew in silent contemplation, Thinking, “I too cannot escape this fate.”
At that time the father-king asked the attendant, “Did the prince enjoy his excursion?” He replied, “No, sire.”
The king asked again as to why. The attendant replied, “Sire, we encountered a dead man on the roadway. The prince was not pleased because of that, sir.”
At that moment, the father-king did not question the attendant any more but thought to himself:
Once when a group of soothsayers prophesied the prince’s fortune, they told me that he was bound to renounce household life. Now he is unhappy with his life here. Is there some means to change his feeling? I must contrive some sort of expediency, to increase his entertainment with music and dance, distracting his mind, thereby preventing him from leaving household life.
At once, [the king] had the new quarters attractively decorated and assigned selected palace ladies to entertain the prince.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
The young prince, widely renowned, Surrounded by palace ladies,
Enjoyed the pleasures of the ﬁve senses,
7a Just like the god Indra.
Again, on another occasion, the prince ordered his attendant to prepare a chariot and visited the outside world on an excursion. He encountered

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a wandering mendicant (śramaṇa) on the roadway. He wore a bhikṣu’s saṃghāṭī robe and with his almsbowl in hand walked with his eyes cast down on the road.
The prince at once asked the attendant: “What is this man?” He replied, “This is a śramaṇa, sir.”
The prince asked, “What is meant by śramaṇa?” The attendant replied:
Sir, it means that the man has renounced his familial relations, having gone forth from household life. He is engaged in the practice of religion, controlling his senses and preventing himself from being drawn to external objects of desire. Due to his compassion, he refrains from any injurious action, neither entrapped by worries of suffering, nor delighted in experiencing pleasure; long persevering like the earth, hence he is called śramaṇa, sir.
The prince said:
Very good. This man’s path must be true and right, transcending the world of dust and dirt forever. Delicate and subtle, noble and humble, I consider it most satisfactory!
At once he instructed the attendant, “Turn the chariot around and stop next to that man.” Thereupon he questioned the wandering mendicant, “Having shaven your hair and beard, donned a saṃghāṭī robe, and car- rying an almsbowl in your hand, what do you seek?” The śramaṇa replied:
Whosoever has renounced family life should be concerned with restraining his mind and will, transcending worldly things. Helping sentient beings with compassion, yet not being drawn to them, with an unprejudiced mind and a mind of quiescence, he concentrates on the practice of the path.
The prince responded, “Very good. This path of yours is most true and right.” Next he said to his attendant, “Take my garment and the chariot, and return to convey my words to the king”:

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I will shave my hair and beard in this place, wear the mendicant’s three robes, leave household life, and practice the path of religion. The reason [for this] is that I am concerned with restraining my mind and will, transcending worldly things; I wish to keep my mind pure and genuine, thereby learning the method of the path.
Thereupon the attendant turned the chariot [toward the palace] in order to convey the prince’s message to his father, the king. Subsequently, the prince shaved his hair and beard and donned the three mendicant robes, thus accomplishing his renunciation of household life.
The Buddha told the bhikṣus:
The prince saw an aged and ailing person and came to realize the facts of suffering and agony. When he saw a dead person, he lost his attach- ment to the ordinary world. But as soon as he saw a śramaṇa he at once achieved a profound spiritual breakthrough. When he alighted from his chariot he tempered his stride, proceeding at one half his reg- ular pace, and removed his garments of bondage. This is the true renun- ciation of family life. This is the true withdrawal from the ordinary world. Then, having shaved his hair and beard, he donned a saṃghāṭī robe, and with an almsbowl in hand he went forth to practice the path.
The countrymen said to each other:
This must be the true path, because it has caused even the prince to decide to forsake the splendor of his career and position. This resulted in the occurrence of many similar renunciations. From throughout the country, there then came to the prince eighty-four thousand cit- izens, who became his disciples, renouncing family life, and entering into the practice of the path.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
Having heard that [the prince] chose The profound and sublime Dharma, Many followed his lead
In renouncing their family life.

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Distancing themselves from
The bondage of indebtedness and love,
They were freed from the cause of attachment.
Thereupon, accepting these new converts and allowing them to accom- pany him, the prince wandered from village to village, from country to country, promulgating his teaching wherever he happened to stop.
Wherever he sojourned, people invariably offered four kinds of support 7b (i.e., food and drink, robes or cloth, bedding, and medicine) out of respect and honor. The Bodhisattva thought to himself:
I have been traveling with a host of disciples among the citizens of various countries, but I no longer enjoy the congestion and noise. I must ﬁnd ways to leave these crowds and seek the ultimate path in some quiet location.
Later on, the prince accomplished his wish of solitary pursuit and con- centrated on his practice in a secluded place. But again he was pressed by a thought:
It is a pity to see that all living beings remain always in the darkness of ignorance and face a variety of dangers, whether of birth, old age, illness, or death; in this darkness all these forms of suffering occur at once, with death here and rebirth there, death there and rebirth here. Because this aggregate (i.e., physical and mental ele- ments) is itself suffering, the cycle of sansaric life is endless. I will someday accomplish a thorough understanding of this aggregate that is by nature suffering, and thereby [once and for all] bring the suffering of birth, old age, and death to total cessation.
Again the prince thought to himself:
In following or in depending upon what does the process of birth and death arise? Examining through analytical insight the cause of this arising, I see it this way: Following birth ( jāti) there arises the process of old age and death. Birth is the indirect causal condition of the process of old age and death ( jarāmaraṇa). Birth arises following a

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will-to-becoming (bhava); the will-to-becoming is the condition of birth. The will-to-becoming arises following an act of grasping (upādāna); the act of grasping is the condition of the will-to-becom- ing. The act of grasping arises following attachment or thirstlike craving (tṛṣṇā); thirstlike craving is the condition of an act of grasp- ing. Thirstlike craving arises following sensation or feeling (vedanā); sensation is the condition of thirstlike craving. Sensation arises fol- lowing sense contact (sparśa) [with an object]; sense contact is the condition of sensation. Sense contact arises following the operations of the six sense faculties (āyatana) (i.e., sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and thought); the sixfold sense operations are the condition of sense contact. The sixfold sense operation arises following a mental and physical process (nāmarūpa); a mental and physical process is the condition of the sixfold sense operation. A mental and physical process arises following consciousness (vijñāna); con- sciousness is the condition of a mental and physical process. Con- sciousness arises following the forces of disposition (saṃskāra); the forces of disposition are the condition of consciousness. The forces of disposition arise following ignorance (avidyā). In regard to the truth of the foregoing dependent origination (pratītya- samutpāda), ignorance is the condition of the forces of disposition. Thus, depending on the state of ignorance, there arise the forces of disposition. Depending on the forces of disposition, there arises consciousness. Depending on consciousness, there arises a mental and physical process. Depending on a mental and physical process, there arises a sixfold sense operation. Depending on the sixfold sense operation, there arises sense contact (with an object). Depend- ing on sense contact, there arises sensation (sense perception). Depending on sensation, there arises thirstlike craving. Depending on this craving, there arises the act of grasping. Depending on grasp- ing, there arises a will-to-becoming. Depending on the will-to- becoming, there arises birth. Depending on birth, there arises the process of old age, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and agony. This aggregate that is suffering in itself arises on the basis of birth. This is called the causal aggregate of suffering. When

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the Bodhisattva contemplated this causal aggregate of suffering, there arose in him knowledge, vision (cakṣus), awareness, wisdom, insight, and testimony (experience).
Then the Bodhisattva again thought to himself:
In the absence of what can I say that there is no more process of old age and death? In the cessation of what does the process of old age and death cease to be? Examining the cause of this cessation through [analytical] insight, I see it this way: When birth is absent, there is no more process of old age and death; in the cessation of birth, the process of old age and death ceases to be. When the will- to-becoming is absent, there is no more birth; in the cessation of the will-to-becoming, birth ceases to be. When there is no act of grasping, there is no more will-to-becoming; in the cessation of grasping, the will-to-becoming ceases to be. When there is no thirst- like craving, there is no more act of grasping; in the cessation of thirstlike craving, the act of grasping ceases to be. When there is no sensation or feeling, there is no more thirstlike craving; in the cessation of sensation, thirstlike craving ceases to be. When there is no sense contact, there is no more sensation or feeling; in the ces- sation of sense contact, sensation ceases to be. When there is no sixfold sense operation, there is no more sense contact; in the ces- sation of the sixfold sense operation, sense contact ceases to be. When there is no mental and physical process, there is no more six- fold sense operation; in the cessation of the mental and physical process, the sixfold sense operation ceases to be. When there is no consciousness, there is no more mental and physical process; in the cessation of consciousness, the mental and physical process ceases to be. When there are no forces of disposition, there is no more con- sciousness; in the cessation of the forces of disposition, consciousness ceases to be. When there is no ignorance, there are no more forces
of disposition; in the cessation of ignorance, the forces of disposition 7c
cease to be.
This means that in the cessation of ignoance, the forces of disposition cease to be. In the cessation of the forces of disposition,

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consciousness ceases to be. In the cessation of consciousness, the mental and physical process ceases to be. In the cessation of mental and physical process, the sixfold sense operation ceases to be. In the cessation of the sixfold sense operation, sense contact ceases to be. In the cessation of sense contact, sensation or feeling ceases to be. In the cessation of sensation, thirstlike craving ceases to be. In the cessation of thirstlike craving, the act of grasping ceases to be. In the cessation of grasping, the will-to-becoming ceases to be. In the cessation of the will-to-becoming, birth ceases to be. In the ces- sation of birth, the process of old age, death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and mental agony ceases to be.
When the Bodhisattva contemplated the cessation of the causal aggre- gate of suffering, there arose in him knowledge, vision, awareness, wisdom, insight, and testimony (or experience). At that time, the Bodhi- sattva contemplated the twelvefold chain of causation (pratītya- samutpāda) in accordance with the conformative course toward phe- nomenalization as well as in accordance with the opposite course toward dephenomenalization. In these dual processes, he thus accom- plished the ultimate way of knowing things as they really are and seeing things as they really are. On that single seat where he sat, the Bodhi- sattva realized highest, perfect enlightenment.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
The following is the theory taught before the bhikṣus— Listen to this very attentively.
When the Bodhisattva of olden times
Investigated the Dharma that had never before been learned, He questioned:
“Dependent on what condition and in what cause Does the process of old age and death arise?” Having examined the matter in the right way,
He realized that its origin is in the [fact] of birth. “Dependent on what condition or in what cause Is the origin of birth?”

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Having thought in such a manner, He realized that birth arises Depending on the will-to-becoming. Grasping this or grasping that,
The will-to-becoming is reinforced and Becomes stronger from one [stage] to another. Because of this reinforcement,
The Tathāgata explained that the will-to-becoming Arises depending on the act of grasping.
Just as a pile of ﬁlthy garbage on the surface of water (i.e., the aggregates)
Floats on the stream driven by a gust of wind (i.e., strong desire and attachment),
So too does the act of grasping Reach far and wide
Through the force of strong thirstlike craving. This thirstlike craving arises depending on feeling, The origin of all nets of suffering,
Pain and pleasure are respectively expanded in accordance with The force of attachment.
“Dependent on what and in what Is the origin of sensation?” Having thought in this way,
He realized that sensation arises depending on sense contact. “Dependent on what and in what
Is the origin of sense contact?” Having thought in this way, He realized that sense contact
Arises depending on the six sense operations. “Dependent on what and in what
Is the origin of the six sense operations?” Having thought in this way,
He realized that the six sense operations
Arise depending on the mental and physical process.

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“Dependent on what and in what
Is the origin of the mental and physical process?” Having thought in this way,
He realized that the mental and physical process Arises depending on consciousness. “Dependent on what and in what
8a Is the origin of consciousness?” Having thought in this way,
He realized that consciousness
Arises depending on the forces of disposition. “Dependent on what and in what
Is the origin of the forces of disposition?” Having thought in this way,
He realized that the forces of disposition Arise depending on ignorance.
The foregoing dependent origination is called “true cause.” When one examines causal relation
Through insight and expediency,
He is able to perceive the root of dependent origination. Suffering is neither a product of the wise and holy,
Nor is it existent without cause and condition. Because it has causes and conditions,
The phenomenon of suffering is subject to change, and Hence it is the object that can be terminated or Removed by the wise and holy.
When ignorance ceases,
Neither then are there the forces of disposition. When the forces of disposition are absent, Neither is there consciousness.
When consciousness ceases,
Neither is there mental and physical process.
When mental and physical process has already ceased, Neither is there the sixfold sense operation.
When the sixfold sense operation ceases, Neither is there sense contact.

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When sense contact ceases, Neither is there sensation. When feeling ceases,
Neither is there thirstlike craving. When thirstlike craving ceases, Neither is there grasping.
When grasping ceases,
Neither is there the will-to-becoming. When the will-to-becoming ceases, Neither is there birth.
When birth ceases,
Neither is there the aggregate of suffering, Such as old age and death.
The entire mass of suffering ceases to be forever.
The causality of twelve-limbed dependent origination, As taught by the wise, is very profound,
Difﬁcult to see, and difﬁcult to recognize. The Buddha alone thoroughly understands The way in which things
Arise through depending on another, and
In which things cease to be through the absence of another. If one thoroughly investigates this causal linkage,
There arises no sixfold sense operation.
Whoever sees the causality of dependent origination thoroughly Will not seek a teacher.
He will be thoroughly liberated
From desire and thirstlike craving in regard to the aggregates, The sphere of realities, and the sense faculties.
He is worthy of receiving all kinds of offerings and Repaying the donor’s charity.
If one acquires four kinds of rhetorical excellence (i.e., on rules, meanings, interpretations, and explanations)
He will reach unshakable certainty,
Will be able to be rid of all bondage, and While having extinguished it,

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Will yet have no slackening whatsoever. The ﬁve aggregates, namely,
Form, feeling, ideation,
Forces of disposition, and consciousness, Are like an old cart.
When one contemplates this matter attentively,
8b He will be able to realize perfect enlightenment Just as a bird ﬂies freely in midair
In accordance with the winds of east and west. The Bodhisattva is able to terminate
The bondage of various deﬁlements
Just as the wind ﬂowing through a light robe Sheds its dust.
Vipaśyin Buddha was staying at a secluded place and Contemplated the foregoing matters, namely, “Dependent on what condition
Does the process of old-age and death arise?” and “Dependent on what cause does that process cease?” Having successfully completed
His contemplation on these matters,
He realized the insight that is true and genuine. He realized that the process of old age and death Arises depending on birth.
But when birth ceases,
The process of old age and death also ceases.
When Vipaśyin Buddha initially accomplished the path, he frequently practiced two types of contemplation: ﬁrst, contemplation in the state of peace and comfort; and second, contemplation in the state of tran- scendence.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
With none as his equal,
The Tathāgata often practiced two types of contemplation: That of peace and comfort and that of transcendence.

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The Sage crossed over to the yonder shore and Liberated his mind by terminating all deﬁlement. Ascending the mountaintop,
He glanced in all directions. Hence he was called Vipaśyin.
The light of great insight removes darkness
Just as a light illumines itself through a reﬂective mirror. He removed sorrow and agony for all people
By extinguishing the suffering of birth, old age, and death.
Vipaśyin Buddha, in his secluded place, again thought to himself:
Though I have now accomplished this highest Dharma, as it is pro- found and subtle, it is difﬁcult for ordinary people to understand and difﬁcult for them to perceive. This Dharma is quiescent, pure and genuine; it can only be known by a person of insight, and hence it cannot be attained by any common person or fool. People have different capacities for patience, different views of things, different responses to perceptions, and different practices. Hence, they are oriented toward those things and goals that are in their own interest, each devoting himself to that with which he is accustomed. Because of this, they cannot fathom this profound truth of dependent origi- nation, nor can they understand why nirvana increases when thirstlike craving diminishes. Even if I try to teach this Dharma, they will necessarily not only fail to understand it but also, to the contrary, will be increasingly irritated through the attendant sense contact (i.e., hearing the Dharma).
Having thought in this manner, he once again returned to his silence and did not try to teach the Dharma to anyone.
Then the god Brahmā, knowing what Vipaśyin Tathāgata had been thinking, immediately thought:
It is a pity that the people of this world now falter toward destruction. Although Vipaśyin Buddha has been able to realize this profound Dharma, he is not inclined to teach it to the people.

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In an instant, as swiftly as a wrestler bends his arm and straightens it, Brahmā descended from his heavenly palace in and stood before [Vipaśyin] Buddha. With a reverential gesture, honoring [Vipaśyin by lowering] his forehead [to his feet], he withdrew to one side. Then the god Brahmā, kneeling with his right knee on the ground and with both palms together, spoke to [Vipaśyin] Buddha:
May I make a request of you, O World-honored One? Teach the Dharma to the world when the time comes. At this time, the people of this world, affected by various deﬁlements, have become insincere and frivolous, their senses drawn completely to their own proﬁt. Their nature must be reformed and made more respectful [in regard to religion]; [they should] fear committing grave transgressions for which there can be no expiation even in their life to come, to thereby
8c restrain them from [committing] evil deeds while encouraging them to promote good deeds.
The Buddha replied to the god Brahmā:
You are right. What you have said is indeed correct. But may I tell you what I have thought myself in my secluded place? The right Dharma I have realized is extremely profound and subtle, difﬁcult for ordinary people to understand and difﬁcult for them to perceive. Even if I try to teach this Dharma to the people, they will fail to understand it, and their irritation will increase on hearing my teach- ing. Because of this, I have decided to remain in silence and do not wish to teach. Since innumerable past eons I have continued, in exertion and without slackening, to practice the highest path, and I have now ﬁnally accomplished this Dharma that is most difﬁcult to realize. If I teach this Dharma to those who are consumed by desire, hatred, and ignorance, for all practical purposes my teaching would never be accepted by them and only leave me exhausted. This Dharma is subtle and contradictory to the [general] character- istics of the human world. People are stained with desires, blanketed by the darkness of ignorance, unable to believe and understand. O Brahmā, lord of gods, this is what I have been thinking. Because

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of this, I have remained in silence and have not tried to teach the Dharma.
Then the lord of Brahmā Heaven requested the Buddha to change his mind, repeating three times the following words:
O World-honored One, if you do not teach the Dharma to this human world now faltering toward destruction, it will be the greatest pity. May I request, O World-honored One, that you promulgate the teach- ing at some proper time, thus preventing humankind from falling to the lesser courses of the life cycle.
At that time, having listened to the god Brahmā’s courteous request three times, Vipaśyin Buddha observed the world, ﬁnding that some people were less deﬁled and others more, some were better endowed and others less, [and he then realized] that it would be easier to teach some of them while it would be more difﬁcult to teach others. Those to whom it is easier to teach the Dharma should instill a fear of com- mitting transgressions that cannot be atoned for in the life to come, and hence encourage the extinguishing of evil deeds while promoting good deeds. For instance, among those lotuses that bloom in different colors, such as blue, pink, red, and white, some are growing out of dirty mud, not yet reaching the surface of the water; some are just emerging onto the surface of the water; and some have emerged onto the water’s surface but are not yet blooming—yet all are equally unspoiled by the water and ready to bloom. The people of the world are similar to these lotus plants.
At that time, the World-honored One spoke to the lord Brahmā:
As I have been moved by pity for all of you, I shall open the gate of the Dharma, the nectar of life, and teach it to the world. But since it is very profound and subtle, difﬁcult to fathom and know, I shall teach only those who believe in it and listen to it with joy, [and will] not teach those who are irritated on hearing it and hence are not beneﬁted by it.

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At that time, the lord Brahmā knew that the Buddha had accepted his request and, delighted, joyful, and encouraged, he proceeded to walk around the Buddha to the right, circumambulating him three times. Having honored [the Buddha by lowering his forehead to his] feet, [Brahmā] suddenly disappeared. Not long after Brahmā’s disappearance, the Tathāgata quietly thought to himself, “To whom should I ﬁrst teach the Dharma?” He made up his mind, thinking, “I should go to the city of Bandhumatī and initially open the gate of nectar for the sake of Prince Tiṣya and the son of the minister Khaṇḍa.” The Buddha suddenly disappeared from his seat under the bodhi tree but in an instant, [the length of time] it takes for a wrestler to bend his arm and straighten it, he reached the Deer Park in the city of Bandhumatī, which belonged to King Bandhumant and, spreading his sitting cloth there, he took his seat on it.
Here the Buddha continued in verse:
Just as a lion wanders in the forest
9a As leisurely as it wishes,
So did that buddha wander in a similar manner With no obstruction whatsoever.
Vipaśyin Buddha said to the guardian of the grove,
Return to the city and speak to Prince Tiṣya and the son of the min- ister Khaṇḍa with the following words: “Would you like to know, sir, that Vipaśyin Buddha has arrived in the grove of the Deer Park and wishes to see you. It is a good opportunity, sir!”
As instructed, the grove guardian then went to see them and conveyed the [Buddha’s] words to them in detail. Having listened to the guard, [Prince Tiṣya and the son of the minister Khaṇḍa] immediately went the place where the Buddha was staying, and after bowing their fore- heads to his feet they withdrew and sat to one side.
Thereupon the Buddha began to teach them the Dharma, encour- aging, beneﬁting, and delighting them. He taught them the doctrine of charity, the doctrine of morality, the doctrine of birth in heaven, the

50
doctrine that bondage by thirstlike craving and impure deﬁlements is dangerous, and the doctrine that renunciation of these obstacles is pri- mary, subtle, pure, and praiseworthy.
At that time, the World-honored One observed that the minds of these youths were receptive, ﬁlled with joy and faith, and accepting of the right Dharma. Thereupon, he introduced (1) the doctrine of the noble truth of suffering (ārya-duḥkha-satya), explained it in detail, and helped them understand it. Moreover, he set forth the remaining three truths individually and gave due commentary on these respective doctrines, namely: (2) the noble truth of the cause of suffering, (3) the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and (4) the noble truth of the path of cessation.
At that time, Prince Tiṣya and the son of the minister Khaṇḍa attained realization in that single session [right in their seats], exhausted all the deﬁlements, and thus acquired genuine insight into the nature of the Dharma, just as a white cloth can be easily dyed any color.
At that moment, the god of the earth made an announcement with the following words:
Vipaśyin Tathāgata has turned the wheel of the supreme Dharma at the Deer Park near the city of Bandhumatī. No one whosoever, whether a śramaṇa, a brāhmaṇa, a heavenly god, the Evil One, or any other in the human world, has been able to turn that wheel.
In this manner, the news spread from one to another throughout the four quarters of heaven, as well as to the gods who were capable of assuming any shape desired, to the sixth heaven, the highest in the realm of desire, and before too long it reached the heaven of the god Brahmā.
Then the Buddha continued in verse:
With elation and joy, everyone praised the Tathāgata, Who became Vipaśyin Buddha and
Turned the supreme wheel of Dharma. Departing from under the bodhi tree,

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He reached the city of Bandhumatī and Turned the wheel of Dharma,
Teaching Khaṇḍa and Tiṣya the Four Noble Truths. Having thus received the teaching from the Buddha, At that ﬁrst session Khaṇḍa and Tiṣya were converted. There is no higher practice of austerity
Than turning the sacred wheel of Dharma.
The gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven and their lord Indra Spoke to each other in elation and delight,
Which all the gods surely heard:
“The Buddha appeared in the human world and Turned the highest wheel of Dharma.
This increases the well-being of the gods but Reduces the advantage of the asura demigods.” The name of the one
Who accomplished highest enlightenment Was heard everywhere, and
The insight thus reached by him is gone
9b Beyond the human realm.
Totally at home with all things,
His insight thus turns the wheel of Dharma. Contemplating all things as being of equal nature, His breath and mind were clean and spotless.
Liberated from the yoke of birth and death, His insight turns the wheel of Dharma.
Having terminated suffering, Freed from evil deeds, and Liberated beyond desires and
From the bondage of worldly love and indebtedness, His insight turns the wheel of the Dharma.
Most honorable among those enlightened, The Honored One of the human world,
Well restrained and unencumbered by bondage, His insight turns the wheel of Dharma.

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Whoever excels in teaching and guidance Overcomes the animosity of the Evil One; Freed from all evils,
His insight thus turns the wheel of Dharma. The power of insight annihilates deﬁlements, And defeats the Evil One;
Senses well controlled without slackening, terminating deﬁlements, He liberates himself from the bondage of the Evil One,
His insight turning the wheel of Dharma.
If one studies the truth that is completely certain,
He will know that all things (dharmas) are without reality (anātman); This is the highest among all truths.
Thus his insight turns the wheel of Dharma. He does not turn the wheel for the sake of gain, Nor for the sake of fame,
But out of compassion for all sentient beings; Thus his insight turns the wheel of Dharma.
Having observed the yoke of suffering of all beings, Oppressed by old age, sickness, and death,
It is for preventing the three evil courses of the life cycle That his insight turns the wheel of Dharma.
Having terminated desire, hatred, and ignorance, Removing the root of thirstlike craving, Unshakeable and liberated,
His insight thus turns the wheel of Dharma. Though I felt it difﬁcult to overcome,
Having won, I let the Evil One acknowledge his defeat; The difﬁcult enemy has been defeated.
Thus, his insight turns the wheel of Dharma. This wheel of Dharma, having nothing higher, The Buddha alone is able to turn it.
Neither gods nor the Evil One, nor Indra, nor Brahmā, Can turn that wheel.
Abiding closely with Dharma and turning it, Beneﬁting gods and humans;

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The master of gods and humans
Is able to cross to the yonder shore.
At that time, Prince Tiṣya and the son of the minister Khaṇḍa perceived the Dharma with insight, realized its fruit, and, betraying no truth, accomplished the state of certainty. At once they said to Vipaśyin Buddha, “We wish to practice austerity under the Dharma of the Tathā- gata.”
The Buddha said, “Welcome, bhikṣus. The Dharma I teach is pure and genuine and unbounded. By practicing it, you may exhaust the limit of the suffering.”
9c At that time, the two were granted higher ordination. Not too long after the occasion of ordination, the Tathāgata demonstrated to his dis- ciples three mysteries: (1) the supernormal power of freedom, (2) the supernormal power of knowing the minds of others, and (3) the super- normal power of teaching to achieve the destruction of deﬁlement, emancipation from the intoxication of mind, and insight freed from the obstacle of birth and death.
Then, having heard that the two men had renounced household life in order to practice the path, had donned saṃghāṭī robes and with alms- bowls in hand were carrying out the practice of austerity, many citizens of the city of Bandhumatī said to each other, “This path must surely be true, because it has caused them to forsake the glory of their worldly careers, the opportunity to obtain important roles in the world.” Then the eighty-four thousand citizens of the city visited the place where Vipaśyin Buddha was staying in the Deer Park, and after bowing their foreheads to his feet to honor him, they withdrew and sat to one side. Thereupon, the Buddha began to teach them the Dharma, encour- aging, beneﬁting, and delighting them. He taught them the doctrine of charity, the doctrine of morality, the doctrine of birth in heaven, the doctrine that bondage in thirstlike desires and impure deﬁlements are dangerous, and the doctrine that renunciation of these obstacles is pri-
mary, subtle and pure, and praiseworthy.
At that time, the World-honored One observed that the minds of these citizens were receptive, ﬁlled with joy and faith, and accepting

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the right Dharma. Thereupon he introduced (1) the noble truth of suf- fering, explained it in detail, and had them understand it. Moreover, he set forth separately the remaining three truths and gave due com- mentary on these respective doctrines, namely (2) the noble truth of the cause of suffering, (3) the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and (4) the noble truth of the path of cessation.
At that time, those eighty-four thousand citizens attained realization in that single session [at their seats], exhausted all the deﬁlements, and thus acquired genuine insight into the nature of the Dharma, just as a white cloth can be easily dyed any other color.
Having perceived the Dharma with insight, realized its fruit, and, betraying no truth, accomplished the state of certainty, the citizens of the city of Bandhumatī said to Vipaśyin Buddha, “We wish to practice austerity under the Dharma of your tathāgatahood.”
The Buddha said: “Welcome, bhikṣus. The Dharma I teach is pure and genuine and unbounded. By practicing it, you may exhaust the limit of suffering.”
At that time, the eighty-four thousand citizens were granted higher ordination. Not too long after the occasion of ordination, the Tathāgata demonstrated to his disciples three mysteries: (1) the supernormal power of freedom, (2) the supernormal power of knowing the minds of others, and (3) the supernormal power of teaching to achieve the destruction of deﬁlement, emancipation from the intoxication of mind, and insight freed from the obstacle of birth and death. Then those eighty-four thousand citizens who had heard the news that at the Deer Park, near the city of Bandhumatī, Vipaśyin Tathāgata had turned the wheel of the supreme Dharma, which no one, whether a śramaṇa, a brāhmaṇa, a heavenly god, the Evil One, or anyone in the human world is able to turn, at once visited the place where Vipaśyin Buddha was staying, and after bowing their foreheads to his feet to honor him, with- drew and sat to one side.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
Just as a man tries to be rescued From his burning mind, and

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Seeks a place to extinguish that ﬁre As quickly as possible,
These citizens have come
To see the Tathāgata in like manner.
Then the Buddha began to teach the Dharma again as before. At that time, there were one hundred and sixty-eight thousand bhikṣus in the city of Bandhumatī. The bhikṣus Tiṣya and Khaṇḍa both arose in midair before the assembly of bhikṣus, demonstrating their supernormal powers of spraying water, emitting ﬁre, and teaching the miraculous Dharma. At that time, the Tathāgata remained silent and thought to himself:
Now we have one hundred and sixty-eight thousand bhikṣus in this city. It may be good for them to travel through various regions in teams of two, sojourning here and there for a duration of six years. Then, returning to this city, they may report to the sangha their achievement of a new ordination.
Then the god Śuddhāvāsa, knowing the Tathāgata’s thoughts, appeared before the World-honored One in an instant, as swiftly as a wrestler bends his arm and straightens it, and, after honoring [the Buddha] by bowing his forehead to his feet, withdrew to one side. Soon he spoke to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, there are so many bhikṣus in this city. It would be better for them to travel to various regions. After six years, they may return to this city and report to the sangha how many ordi- nations each of them has accomplished. I shall protect each who will be traveling, and guard [them from] anyone who might make this an opportunity for personal advantage, sir.
Having listened to this god’s advice, the Tathāgata gave his assent by remaining silent. Then the god Śuddhāvāsa, understanding that the Buddha had granted permission by remaining silent, at once bowed his forehead to [the Buddha’s] feet and suddenly disappeared, returning to his heavenly abode. Not long after the god’s departure, the Buddha told the bhikṣus:

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Now there are many bhikṣus in this city. You are advised to travel to various regions in order to propagate the Dharma and, after six years’ time, return to this city and report to the sangha how many ordinations each of you has accomplished.
Then, following the Buddha’s instruction, the bhikṣus, each carrying his robe and bowl, left on their sojourn after venerating the Buddha.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
Neither disturbing the bhikṣus,
Nor desiring anything [for himself], Nor having any attachment,
The Buddha abides with his authority. Like the mythological garuḍa bird, Like a crane leaving an empty pond, He makes his departure.
The god Śuddhāvāsa spoke to each of the bhikṣus after one year:
Your sojourn has passed one year, and there remain ﬁve years. You should remember that after six years you must return to the city and report to the sangha how many ordinations each of you has accom- plished.
In this manner, time passed through the sixth year. The god again said to the bhikṣus, “A full six years have already passed. May all of you return to the city to report on your accomplishment.”
On hearing [Śuddhāvāsa’s] words, the bhikṣus picked up their robes and almsbowls, returned to the city of Bandhumatī, and came to the place where Vipaśyin Buddha was staying in the Deer Park. After hon- oring him by bowing their foreheads to his feet, they withdrew and sat to one side.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
Just as those well-trained elephants Follow their riders’ commands freely,

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In like manner the assembly of bhikṣus Returned here as instructed.
At that time, the Tathāgata ascended into midair before the assembly of bhikṣus and, while suspended in midair, cross-legged in the lotus posture, he lectured on the book of discipline, making the virtue of perseverance pri- mary.
The Buddha taught that nirvana is the highest goal of his Dharma, and that even if one has a shaven hair and beard (i.e., a monk), if he injures others he is no longer a śramaṇa.
Then the god Śuddhāvāsa, abiding not too far from the Buddha, praised him by reciting the following verse:
The great insight of the Tathāgata Is [extremely] subtle and
It alone is most honorable.
Endowed with both the practice of calming the mind (śamatha) and That of analytical insight (vipaśyanā),
He realized highest, perfect enlightenment. Because he had compassion for sentient beings,
He stayed in the human world and realized that goal.
He taught the four veritable truths to his disciples (śrāvakas): The [truths of] suffering, of the cause of suffering,
Of the cessation of suffering, and
The eightfold path of the wise and holy
That leads to the place of peace and comfort. Vipaśyin Buddha appeared in the human world, Surrounded by his disciples,
Like the brightly shining sun.
Having recited these verses, the god suddenly disappeared. At that time, the World-honored One spoke to the bhikṣus:
I recollect that at one time in the past, when I was at Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa) in the city of Rājagṛha, I happened to think to myself like this:

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There is no place in all the world where my birth has never taken place, except one place, Śuddhāvāsa Heaven. If I were born in that heaven I would not have returned to this world.
O bhikṣus, again I thought myself, “I wish to visit Avṛhā Heaven.” Then, in an instant, as swiftly as a wrestler bends his arm and straightens it, I left this world and appeared in that heaven. The residents of that heaven, having seen me approaching, honored me [by bowing] their foreheads, withdrew to one side, and said to me, “We are the disciples of Vipaśyin Tathāgata. Because we followed his teaching, we have been born into this heaven, sir.” Thus they told me the stories of that buddha from beginning to end.
Some of them also claimed, “The buddhas Śikhin, Viśvabhū, Kraku- cchanda, Kanakamuni, Kāśyapa, and Śākyamuni are equally our mas- ters, sir. Because we followed their teaching, we have been born here, sir.” Again they explained to me the stories of these buddhas from beginning to end. When I was born in Akaniṣṭha Heaven (the highest of the ﬁve Śuddhāvāsa heavens), the same event was repeated.
The Buddha then continued in verse:
In an instant, as swiftly as a wrestler Bends his arm and straightens it, Through my supernormal power,
I reached Śuddhāvāsa Heaven, Avṛhā Heaven, and Defeated two evil ones.
Then the god Atapā (“one who torments no one”) approached and Greeted me with his palms together like a pārichattaka tree.
The name of the Śākya master is renowned Even in distant regions.
Well endowed in his features and appearance, He has reached Sudṛśa Heaven.
Just as a lotus untouched by water, free from stains, The World-honored One has reached Sudṛśa Heaven, Like the sun that initially arises,
Pure, spotless, and without shade, 10c

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Like a clear autumnal moon, reaching the ultimate goal. These ﬁve residences are the place
Where all beings are sanctiﬁed. Because of purity of their minds, They arrive here and reach the state Of the total absence of deﬁlements. With minds pure and genuine,
They arrive here and become disciples of the Buddha,
Forsaking previous deﬁling grasping and [Now] enjoying nongrasping.
With insight into the Dharma and unshakable certainty, The son of Vipaśyin, with his mind pure,
Has been welcomed here and has visited the Great Sage. The son of Śikhin Buddha,
Immaculate (vimala) and unconditioned (asaṃskṛta), Came here with his mind pure and genuine and Visited the honorable Vibhava.
The son of Viśvabhū Buddha, Endowed with perfect senses, With his mind pure and genuine, Came here and visited me,
As if the sun shines in the sky. The son of Krakucchanda Buddha,
Free from desires, with his mind pure,
Visited me, as if his mysterious light ﬂared in abundance. The son of Kanakamuni,
Immaculate and unconditioned,
With his mind pure and genuine, visited me. His light was like that of the full moon.
The disciple of Kāśyapa, Endowed with perfect senses,
With his mind pure, visited me and Did not disturb the Great Sage.
His supernormal power was primary, With his mind ﬁrm,

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He became a disciple of the Buddha, and
With his mind pure and genuine, he came here. As a disciple of the Buddha,
He venerated the Tathāgata and
Informed the Most Honorable among Humans of his birthplace, Realization of the path,
Name and family, and clan background in detail. He had insight into the profound Dharma and Realized the highest path.
The residence of bhikṣus should be free from dust and dirt, Because they endeavor to terminate
All deﬁlements with exertion, without slackening. The foregoing are the stories of those seven buddhas From beginning to end
As related by Śākyamuni Buddha.
The Buddha completed this sutra of the “Stories of the Great Origin.” The bhikṣus listened to what the Buddha taught and, delighted, they followed the instructions that were imparted in it.
[End of Sutra 1: The Great Origin]

Sutra 2
Last Journey and Sojourns
(Dīgha Nikāya 16: Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta)

First Episode
Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was sojourning on the [moun- taintop called] Vulture Peak in the city of Rājagṛha, together with one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples. At that time, Ajātaśatru, the king of Magadha, desired to conquer the country of Vṛji. The king thought to himself, “Though the Vṛji countrymen are known to be brave and the people physically strong, it would not be too difﬁcult for me to conquer them.” Thereupon, King Ajā- taśatru summoned his prime minister, Varṣākāra, a brāhmaṇa, saying:
May you visit the World-honored One at Vulture Peak, [venerate him] in my proxy, and greet him with words of enquiry regarding his well-being: “Is his holiness at ease with his rising and sitting and does he feel strong in his walking?” Then speak to the World-honored One [with my words]: “The Vṛji countrymen are proud of their valor and of the physical strength of their people, and do not submit to my authority. I wish to conquer them, but since I have not thoroughly examined the matter, may I ask if the World-honored One could give some words of instruction on my behalf?” If the World-honored One does say something, bear in mind exactly what he has said without missing a word, and tell me his words exactly as you have heard them. Whatever the Tathāgata says cannot be false.
Having received the king’s order, Prime Minister Varṣākāra at once boarded a carriage leaving for Vulture Peak, reached the point where he had to alight from the vehicle, and then approached on foot. On reaching the World-honored One’s dwelling place and greeting him with a bow, Varṣākāra withdrew to one side to take his seat and said to the World-honored One:
The king of Magadha, Ajātaśatru, [venerates] the Buddha by bowing to your feet and respectfully greets the World-honored One with words

of enquiry: “Is his holiness at ease in his rising and sitting and does he feel strong in his walking?” Again his majesty says to the World- honored One: “The Vṛji countrymen are proud of their valor and of the physical strength of their people, and do not submit to his authority. His Majesty wishes to conquer them, but since [the king] has not thor- oughly examined the matter, he requests the World-honored One to give some words of instruction on his behalf.”
At that time, Ānanda was sitting behind the World-honored One, fanning him. The Buddha said to Ānanda, “Haven’t you heard that the Vṛji countrymen have frequently assembled to discuss the matter of their governance?” Ānanda replied, “Yes, I have heard so, sir.” The Buddha said to Ānanda:
If that is really the case, the young and old are harmonious, together they are all the more prosperous, their country should be secure for some time to come and cannot be invaded by any other country. O Ānanda, haven’t you heard that the leaders and the followers of the Vṛji country are harmonious and have respect for each other between the superior and the inferior?
Ānanda answered, “Yes, this also I have heard, sir.” The Buddha spoke to him again:
O Ānanda, if that is really the case, the young and old are harmonious, together they are all the more prosperous, their country should be secure for some time to come and cannot be invaded by any other country. O Ānanda, haven’t you heard that the Vṛji countrymen respect their law, know what should be avoided, and do not fail to perform their customary duties?
Ānanda answered, “Yes, this also have I heard, sir.” The Buddha spoke to him again:
O Ānanda, if that is really the case, the young and old are harmonious, together they are all the more prosperous, their country should be secure for some time to come and cannot be invaded by any other country. O Ānanda, haven’t you heard that the Vṛji countrymen are ﬁlial to their parents and obedient to their teachers and elders?

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Ānanda answered, “Yes, this also have I heard, sir.” The Buddha spoke to him again:
O Ānanda, if that is really the case, the young and old are harmonious, together they are all the more prosperous, their country should be secure for some time to come and cannot be invaded by any other country. O Ānanda, haven’t you heard that the Vṛji countrymen venerate the Buddhist shrines (abhyantara-caitya) and respect the heretic shrines?
Ānanda answered, “Yes, this I also have heard, sir.” The Buddha spoke to him again:
O Ānanda, if that is really the case, the young and old are harmonious, together they are all the more prosperous, their country should be secure for some time to come and cannot be invaded by any other country. O Ānanda, haven’t you heard that the wives and daughters of the Vṛji coun- trymen are genuine, faithful, spotless, and speak no evil even in jest?
Ānanda answered, “Yes, this also have I heard, sir.” The Buddha spoke to him again:
O Ānanda, if that is really the case, the young and old are harmonious, together they are all the more prosperous, their country should be secure for some time to come and cannot be invaded by any other country. O Ānanda, haven’t you heard that the Vṛji countrymen render services for the needs of religious practitioners, the śramaṇas, revere those who are steadfast in moral precepts, and ready themselves to guard the reli- gion and protect the practitioners, having never failed in doing so?
Ānanda answered, “Yes, this also I have heard, sir.” The Buddha spoke to him again:
O Ānanda, if that is really the case, the young and old are harmonious, together they are all the more prosperous, their country should be secure for some time to come and cannot be invaded by any other country.
Thereupon, Prime Minister Varṣākāra said to the Buddha:
When the people of that country uphold even a single principle of well- being, it is an unwise scheme [to wage war against them]. How much

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more so when they uphold all the seven principles of well-being. Since I am obliged to deal with many matters of the state, may I now ask Your Holiness for permission to depart, sir.
The Buddha said, “You may do as suits you best.”
Then Varṣākāra stood up from his seat, circumambulated the Buddha three times, and, with a bow, withdrew. Not long after his departure, the Buddha instructed Ānanda, “Go at once and instruct all the disciples, right and left, in their residences in Rājagṛha to assemble at the meeting hall.”
Ānanda replied, “Yes, sir, right away.” At once he went to the city of Rājagṛha and urged the bhikṣus to assemble at the meeting hall, and he reported back to the World-honored One: “All the bhikṣus have assembled, sir. May Your Holiness be ready.”
Thereupon, the World-honored One stood up from his seat, and, reaching the meeting hall, took his seat in the place prepared for him and said to the bhikṣus, “I shall speak to you on the subject of seven principles of well- being. Listen attentively, you should contemplate and remember [what I shall now say].”
The bhikṣus responded to the Buddha, “Yes, World-honored One. We are ready to listen, sir.”
The Buddha said to them:
The seven principles of well-being means the following: The ﬁrst is the principle of frequent assembly to discuss the matter of right mean- ings, so that the bhikṣus of the sangha, young and old, may be harmo- nious and the Dharma should not decline. The second is the principle of harmonious cooperation and obedience regarding the teaching of the Dharma between the superior and the inferior, so that the bhikṣus of the sangha, young and old, may be harmonious and the Dharma should not decline. The third is the principle of respecting rules (fa), knowing what should be avoided (ji), and following regulations, so that the bhikṣus of the sangha, young and old, may be harmonious and the Dharma should not decline. The fourth is the principle of the sangha leader’s protection and guidance for the members, so that the bhikṣus of the sangha, young and old, may be harmonious and the Dharma

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should not decline. The ﬁfth is the principle of guarding one’s mind and adhering to piety toward the elders, so that the bhikṣus of the sangha, young and old, may be harmonious and the Dharma should not decline. The sixth is the principle of practicing pure and genuine austerity and refraining from desire, so that the bhikṣus of the sangha, young and old, may be harmonious and the Dharma should not decline. The seventh is the principle of letting others be ﬁrst and yourself second in matters of the order and refraining from [seeking] fame or advantage, so that the bhikṣus of the sangha, young and old, may be harmonious and the Dharma should not decline.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There is also another set of seven principles of well-being that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander. The ﬁrst is the prin- ciple of concentrating on a few [matters] rather than being involved in many, which enables the Dharma to ﬂourish and not be subject to slander. The second is the principle of maintaining quietude and silence and refraining from the use of many words. The third is the principle of reducing sleep and refraining from indulging in sleep. The fourth is the principle of refraining from the habit of group mentality and the indulgence in useless conversation. The ﬁfth is the principle of refraining from praising oneself without [the presence of] real virtues in oneself. The sixth is the principle of refraining from joining any group of bad inﬂuence. The seventh is the principle of abiding in a secluded, quiet place in the forest. If each of you keep these principles, O bhikṣus, you shall enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Again there is another set of seven principles16 that enables the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander. The ﬁrst is the principle of faith in the arhatship of the Tathāgata and in the ten titles attributed to the Buddha who realized perfect enlightenment. The second is the principle of having a sense of shame regarding one’s own deﬁciencies. The third is the principle of knowing shame regarding one’s wrong actions toward

others. The fourth is the principle of maximizing learning, examining the deep meanings of what one has learned regarding good, better, and best, and carrying out the practice of pure and genuine austerity. The ﬁfth is the principle of exerting oneself in ascetic practice, refraining from evil, and promoting good action. The sixth is the principle of bear- ing in mind whatever one has learned and practiced in the past. The seventh is the principle of practicing insight, knowing the law of birth and cessation, and following the essentials of the wise and holy, thereby terminating the origin of suffering. These are the seven principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There is another set of seven principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander. What are the seven principles? First, the prin- ciple of reverence toward the Buddha; second, the principle of reverence toward the Dharma; third, the principle of reverence toward the sangha; fourth, the principle of reverence toward the precepts; ﬁfth, the principle of reverence toward the practice of concentration; sixth, the principle of reverence toward one’s parents; seventh, the principle of reverence toward the discipline of attentiveness. These are the seven principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There is another set of seven principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander. First, the principle of contemplating the impurity of the physical body; second, the principle of contemplating the impurity of food; third, the principle of not being pleased with the human world; fourth, the principle of reminding oneself always of the thought of death; ﬁfth, the principle of giving rise to the thought of impermanence; sixth, the principle of giving rise to the thought of suf- fering due to impermanence; seventh, the principle of giving rise to the thought of suffering and nonself. These are the seven principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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Again there is another set of seven principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander. What are these seven? First, the principle of mindfulness regarding discerning insight, the retention of previous experiences with good memory, and abiding in seclusion, quietude, nondesire, and non-action by transcending both suffering and happiness; second, the principle of differentiation of psychophysical elements (skandhas) retained in memory with regard to their truthfulness or falsity; third, the principle of exertion in the pursuit of critically dis- cerning right dharmas from false ones; fourth, the principle of abiding in the delight arising from the preceding practices; ﬁfth, the principle of freedom from bodily and mental disturbances through the state of delight previously accomplished; sixth, the principle of “mental con- centration to realize bodily and mental calmness”; seventh, the principle of maintaining a mind of equanimity and equilibrium. These are the seven principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander.
The Buddha spoke to the bhikṣus:
Again there are six principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander. What are these six? First, the principle of acting with a sense of friendly love (maitrī) and non-harm toward sentient beings; second, the principle of speaking words of friendly love and not speaking words of evil intent; third, the principle of keeping friendly love in one’s mind and not holding any grudge or criticism; fourth, the principle of obtaining pure and genuine material support and sharing it with others equally; ﬁfth, the principle of adhering to the precepts of the wise and holy without deﬁciency and without omission, unshak- able in purity and genuineness; sixth, the principle of seeing the path of the wise and holy and thus acquiring insight into the origin of suf- fering. These are the six principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Again there is another set of six principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander. First, the principle of mindfulness

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of the Buddha; second, the principle of mindfulness of the Dharma; third, the principle of mindfulness of the Sangha; fourth, the principle of mindfulness of the precepts; ﬁfth, the principle of mindfulness of the practice of charity; sixth: the principle of mindfulness of birth in heaven. These are the six principles that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish and protect it from slander.
At that time, the World-honored One sojourned in Rājagṛha as long as he wished, and then said to Ānanda, “You are doing well [in the life of daily practice]. I wish to visit the Bamboo Grove monastery.”
Ānanda replied, “Yes, sir.” At once, he packed the Buddha’s robe and almsbowl and, carrying them [on his shoulder], followed behind him together with the other bhikṣus. Proceeding on the highway of Magadha, the World- honored One then reached the Bamboo Grove, entered the monastic building, and took his seat in the meeting hall. There, he taught the bhikṣus the cur- riculum of three [major] trainings: (1) moral precepts (śīla), (2) mental con- centration (samādhi), and (3) [analytical] insight ( prajñā).
Being steadfast in the set of moral precepts and experiencing mental concentration, you may acquire great reward; being steadfast in the expe- rience of mental concentration and the application of analytical insight, you may acquire great reward. Being steadfast in the application of ana- lytical insight and realizing the purity of your mind, you may acquire perfect deliverance and extinguish three kinds of deﬁlements, namely, deﬁlement due to carnal desire, deﬁlement due to existential desire, and deﬁlement due to ignorance. When one has realized deliverance, he acquires the subsequent knowledge that he has realized emancipation, namely, “Whosoever has terminated [the cause of] birth and death, accomplished the goal of the practice of austerity, completed whatever should be done, for him there will be no more birth after this life.”
At that time, the World-honored One sojourned at the Bamboo Grove as long as he wished, and then said to Ānanda, “You are doing well [in the life of daily practice]. I should proceed to the city of Pāṭaliputra.”
Ānanda replied, “Yes, sir.” At once, he packed the Buddha’s robe and almsbowl and, carrying them [on his shoulder], followed behind him together

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with the other bhikṣus. Traveling on the highway of Magadha, the World- honored One then reached the city of Pāṭaliputra and took his seat under a paṭala tree.
Having heard that the Buddha had arrived from a long distance at the paṭala tree accompanied by a group of his disciples, a group of lay devotees came out from the city and from a distance saw the World-honored One seated under the paṭala tree. They realized that his handsome appearance and calm, restrained senses were most sublimely matched in his holiness, just as a great dragon can be clearly seen through transparent water. They noted that the thirty-two eminent marks and eighty additional marks embel- lished his physical features. With delight in their hearts, they ﬁnally reached the place of the Buddha and, having honored him [by bowing] their foreheads to his feet, they withdrew to one side and took their seats. At that moment, the World-honored One began to teach them the doctrine of Dharma, thus encouraging, beneﬁting, and delighting them.
Having listened to the teaching, the lay devotees said to the Buddha:
We humbly wish to take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May your holiness, with compassion, grant us lay devotees your per- mission. From now on, we are committed to upholding the ﬁve precepts: not to injure life, not to steal, not to indulge in sexual misconduct, not to speak falsehoods, and not to ingest intoxicants. We have also planned to set up a place to make our offerings, sir. We earnestly wish, O World- honored One, that your holiness as well as the host of venerables have sympathy with us in accepting our offerings.
At that time, the World-honored One remained silent, thus granting their wish. Having seen that the World-honored One remained silent, the lay devo- tees stood up from their seats, circumambulated the Buddha three times, and with veneration, they returned [to the city]. At once they built a grand hall for the Tathāgata, ﬁxing things here and there, cleaning up, burning incense, and respectfully placing a cushion at the main guest seat, they arranged the offerings in due order. They then returned to the World-honored One, saying, “The place has already been prepared. Whenever your holiness is ready, sir.” Thereupon, the World-honored One stood up from his seat, donned his saṃghāṭī robe, and with his almsbowl in hand he went into the hall. After

washing his hands and feet, he took his seat in the prepared position. Then the host of bhikṣus took their seats on the left side, whereas the lay devotees sat on the right side. At that time, the World-honored One said to the lay devotees:

In general, when someone commits a moral transgression against the ﬁve precepts, he is then visited with ﬁve kinds of disasters. What are the ﬁve? First, even though one wishes to acquire wealth, he cannot do so; second, even when one obtains some sort of gain, it is exhausted within a single day; third, wherever one is, no one respects his presence; fourth, his bad name and rumors [about him] spread through the world; ﬁfth, when his body dissolves and his life comes to an end he falls into the hells.
Again he said to the lay devotees:
In general, when a person keeps moral precepts, he is then visited with ﬁve kinds of blessings. What are the ﬁve? First, one is able to obtain what- ever he wishes to acquire; second, his own wealth increases, with never a loss; third, wherever he is, his presence is respected; fourth, his good name is widely known in the world; ﬁfth, after the dissolution of his body and his life’s end he is bound to be born among the heavenly gods.
The time quickly passed through one half of the night. The World-honored One told the lay devotees, “May each of you return home.” They then followed the word of the Buddha, circumambulated him three times, and after vener- ating him, went away.
At that time, during the latter half of the night as dawn approached, the World-honored One went to his secluded place and, through his supernormal vision, witnessed various high-ranking gods occupying the city, and also the middle- and lower-ranking gods as well, all occupying that city. Thereupon, the World-honored One at once returned to the meeting hall and took his seat on the cushion. As he thought it was the right time, he asked Ānanda, “Who built this city of Pāṭaliputra?”
Ānanda replied, “It was Prime Minister Varṣākāra, sir, and it is said that he built this to defend against a possible invasion of the Vṛji, sir.”

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The Buddha said to Ānanda:
Whoever built this city has received the gods’ approval. During the latter half of the night when the dawn was approaching, I went to a secluded place [for meditation] and, through my supernormal vision, saw high-ranking gods occupying the city and also middle- and lower- ranking gods as well. O Ānanda, you should know that when humans live at a site that high-ranking gods occupy, their lives will become secure and prosperous. Whoever lives at a site that middle-ranking gods occupy will be among the middle class of people. The site that lower-ranking gods occupy is the section where lower-class people live. Even these people have varied degrees of merit; their respective prosperity is somehow limited by these conditions.
O Ānanda, this is a place where the wise may reside, it will also be a center where people come for commercial and business transactions, and the laws of the state are true and cannot be false. This is the best of cities, to be commended by many and not to be destroyed. Should this city be destroyed at some future time, it would necessarily be due to one of these three causes: ﬁrst, by a great ﬂood; second, by a great ﬁre; or third, by the conspiracy of city residents who side with foreign invaders. The city would be destroyed for one of these causes.
Throughout that night the lay devotees were then engaged in preparation of the next day’s provisions. When the preparations were complete, they came to the Buddha, announcing, “The morning meal has already been pre- pared, sir. Whenever your holiness is ready.”
Then they set up a dining hall, served food to everyone with their own hands, and served water at the end of the meal. Thereupon, they each took their small sitting cloths with them and took their seats before the Buddha. At once, the World-honored One began to teach them:
Now, I shall tell you that this is the city where the wise and the learned will reside, many of them upholding moral precepts, engaging in the practice of austerity, because of which those gods of good nature will be delighted. At once they recited mysterious charms for the presence of gods’ blessings, if they are respected and served with respect, thus

widely conducting charity, love, and sympathy. This is the place the gods praise and hence it is destined to meet with good fortune and will not meet with bad things.
At that time, when the World-honored One had completed his teaching, he stood up from his seat and the assembly circumambulated around the Buddha and followed him in leaving the city. Prime Minister Varṣākāra, fol- loweing after the procession, thought to himself:
Now, the śramaṇa Gautama went out of this gate. This gate will be named “Gautama’s gate.” Again, the riverbank from which the Tathāgata crossed the Ganges will be called “Gautama’s fording place.”
At that time, leaving the city of Pāṭaliputra, the World-honored One reached the riverbank, where many people tried to ﬁnd a means of crossing the river. Some of them boarded boats in order to cross, while others got on bamboo rafts, and yet others crossed the river on wooden rafts. At that time the World- honored One was together with the host of disciples. Within an instant, as swiftly as a wrestler bends his arm and straightens it, he at once reached the yonder shore. The World-honored One contemplated the meaning of this and spoke in verse:
The Buddha is the captain of an oceangoing ship. The Dharma [that he teaches]
Bridges rivers and fords.
The vessel of the great path (mahāyāna-mārga) [that he steers] Transports both gods and humans across the water together.
One may untie his knots (i.e., the deﬁlements), Cross over to the [yonder] shore, and
Ascend to the state of the sages.
[But] the Buddha is the one who helps his disciples
To untie their knots together and thereby realize nirvana.
At that time, the World-honored One, traveling on the highway of Vṛji, reached the village of Koṭigāma. Resting under a forest tree, he said to the disciples:

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There are four profound branches of the Dharma17 (1) noble precepts,
(2) noble concentration, (3) noble insight, and (4) noble deliverance. These doctrines are subtle and difﬁcult to fathom. If I and you had not clearly understood these subjects, we would have been in the endless cycle of birth and death.
Thereupon, having contemplated these subjects, the World-honored One continued in verse:
It is the Buddha who alone can differentiate The four divisions of the Dharma:
Moral precepts, mental concentration, Analytical insight, and deliverance. Liberated from the state of suffering,
He helps others to come to their conversion and To terminate their cycle of birth and death.
At that time, the World-honored One sojourned in the Koṭigāma village as long as he wished. Then he said to Ānanda, “I wish to proceed to the village of Nādikā.” Thus instructed, packing the Buddha’s robe and almsbowl and carrying them [on his shoulder], Ānanda followed the World-honored One together with the other bhikṣus. Traveling on the highway of Vṛji, he reached Nādikā village and rested at a brick resthouse. At that time, Ānanda remained in a secluded place and thought to himself:18
In this village, twelve lay devotees once lived. Their names were: (1) Kakkaṭa (or Kakkudha), (2) Kaliṅga, (3) Nikaṭa, (4) Lishu, (5) Sāḷha,
(6) Poyalou, (7) Potoulou, (8) Subhadra, (9) Tuolishetu, (10) Soudal- ishetu, (11) Yaśas, and (12) Yeshuduolou. These people are all dead and must have been reborn somewhere. Again, ﬁfty of the people passed away. Again, ﬁve hundred of them have died. Where have these people been reborn?
Having thought thus, Ānanda arose from his secluded place. Coming to the World-honored One, after honoring him by bowing his forehead to his feet, he withdrew to one side and said to him:

O World-honored One, while I was silently contemplating in my secluded place, I came to think of those twelve lay devotees, such as Kakkaṭa, and so on, who have died. Then again, ﬁfty people also passed away in this village, and again ﬁve hundred of them have died since then. Where have these people been reborn, sir? I wish that your holiness would explain these matters.
The Buddha replied to Ānanda:
Those twelve, including Kakkaṭa, extinguished the ﬁve deﬁlements that bind sentient beings to the lower sphere of desire, and after their deaths they were born among heavenly beings. They will enter the ﬁnal nirvana (parinirvāṇa) from where they are, and will not return to this human world.
Those ﬁfty people who passed away extinguished the ﬁrst three of the ﬁve deﬁlements (i.e., heretical belief in self, doubt, and attachment to non-Buddhist practices and observances), and freed themselves from desire, hatred, and delusion, thus realizing the saintly state of stream- enterer (srotaāpanna), ﬁrst of the four [states of spiritual development]. They return to this world and will terminate the root cause of suffering. Those ﬁve hundred people who have died also extinguished the three deﬁlements and realized the state of stream-enterer. It is certain that they are not destined for an evil course of the life cycle, hence they will realize the path by returning to this world seven times in order
to terminate the cause of suffering.
O Ānanda, it is the universal rule that once born, everyone is bound to die. There is no question about this. If everyone, when their death approaches, asks me about their destiny, wouldn’t this be a great tragedy on their part?
Ānanda replied, “From the point of view of believers in the destinies, it will indeed be a tragedy, sir.”
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
Now, I am obliged to teach you the Dharma mirror. You should tell these noble disciples that if, in their present life, they can remove the cause of falling into the three evil courses of life and can realize the

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holy state of stream-enterer, they should be able to exhaust the cause of suffering before passing through the seventh return to this human world. Also you should share the following:
O Ānanda, the Dharma mirror refers to the state of unshakable faith that every noble disciple should acquire:
(1) Delighted at heart, every disciple should have faith in the Buddha Tathāgata as endowed with the ten titles, such as “one who has totally extinguished deﬁlements,” “one who is fully enlightened,” and so forth.
(2) Delighted at heart, every disciple should not hesitate, whenever possible, to inculcate the Dharma that is real and subtle and to show the path of nirvana, believing in the testimony of what the knower of the path has been practicing.
(3) Delighted at heart, every disciple should have faith in the Sangha whose members are in harmonious cooperation, sincere and direct, and without false ﬂattery; in which the fruits of the path are realized; in which harmonious obedience is held regarding the teaching between the superior and inferior; and in which each of the members respectively embodies the Dharma in himself. For, when the members are ready as candidates for the state of stream-enterer, they will realize it; when they are ready for the state of once-returner (sakṛdāgāmin), they will realize it; when they are ready for the state of nonreturner (anāgāmin), they will realize it; when they are ready for the state of arhat, they will realize it.
(4) Every disciple should have faith in these [holy] men who are called the “four pairs of men” or the “eight [distinguished] personal- ities,” the wise and holy disciples of the Tathāgata, worthy of honor and respect as the best ﬁeld of the world in which to harvest merit [by making offerings to them and serving them]. Every disciple should have faith in the body of precepts, pure, genuine, and spotless, neither deﬁcient nor missing, adhered to by these wise and holy people. Every disciple should have faith in the practice and realization of mental con- centration by the bright and sagacious.
O Ānanda, these are the contents of the Dharma mirror. You should tell the noble disciples that if, in their present life, they can annihilate the causes for falling into the three evil courses of life and realize the

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holy state of stream-enterer, then they should be able to exhaust the cause of suffering before passing through the seventh return to this world. Also you should tell these things to those [who seriously wish to know about them].
At that time, the World-honored One sojourned in Koṭigāma village as long as he wished, and then said to Ānanda, “Let us go to the country of Vaiśālī.” Thus, having packed the Buddha’s robe and almsbowl and carrying them [on his shoulder], Ānanda followed the World-honored One together with other bhikṣus. Traveling on the highway of Vṛji, the World-honored One reached Vaiśālī and took his seat under a tree.
A courtesan, Ambapālī by name, having heard that the Buddha, accom- panied by his disciples, had arrived in Vaiśālī and was resting under the tree, at once boarded a carriage to visit the place where the Buddha stayed, wishing to venerate him with offerings. Even before reaching the site, she saw the World-honored One from a distance, noting his handsome appearance, his extraordinary senses, and his eminent marks, as though seeing the moon among stars. Delighted at heart, Ambapālī alighted from the carriage and approached on foot. She ﬁnally reached the place of the Buddha and, having honored him by bowing her forehead to his feet, she withdrew to one side and took her seat.
At that time, the World-honored One began to teach the Dharma, encour- aging, beneﬁting, and delighting her. Having listened to the Buddha’s teaching, Ambapālī was delighted and said to the Buddha:
From today, for the ﬁrst time, I humbly take refuge in the Three Treasures. May your holiness grant this wish. I will become an upāsikā (laywoman) in order to devote myself to the right Dharma and, until the end of my life, will keep my vow not to injure life, not to steal, not to commit sexual misconduct, not to tell lies, and not to take intoxicants, sir.
She again said to the Buddha:
May I request, World-honored One, that your holiness and the venerable disciples accept tomorrow’s meal at my place. And may you take your rest for the night in the grove that I own.

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At that time, the World-honored One maintained his silence, thus granting her wish. Having realized the Buddha’s silent acceptance, Ambapālī arose from her seat, venerated him, and after circumambulating the Buddha, departed. Not long after Ambapālī left, the Buddha said to Ānanda: “I am ready to go to the grove together with all of you.” Ānanda replied, “Yes, sir.” The Buddha stood up from his seat, and carrying his robe and almsbowl him- self, he went to Ambapālī’s grove accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples.
The Licchavi clanspeople of Vaiśālī, having heard that the Buddha was sojourning at Ambapālī’s grove, at once hurriedly set up their carriages dec- orated in ﬁve colors. Some of them rode a blue carriage drawn by a horse colored in blue, wearing blue garments, under a blue canopy with the mark of a blue streamer and a blue ofﬁcial ensign. The ﬁve colored carriages, horses, and so forth were all arranged in a similar manner. The ﬁve hundred Licchavi clanspeople, whose garments were of variegated colors, then equally wished to visit the Buddha.
After leaving the place of the Buddha, Ambapālī returned alone to her home but on the way she encountered the Licchavi clanspeople on the same path. Her horse shied and her carriage rubbed against one of the Licchavi clansman’s decorated carriages and damaged its canopy and streamer. She did not, however, try to turn out of the way of their passage. The Licchavi clansman said accusingly:
Under what authority have you not turned out of the way of our passage? By bumping into my carriage, you have damaged my canopy and streamer.
Ambapālī replied:
Gentlemen, I have already requested the Buddha to come to my place for tomorrow’s meal. In order to prepare the meals, I am returning home. Because of this, I have to make this carriage run as fast as it can, not allowing it to turn off from this road, sirs.
Some Licchavi clanspeople then asked [her]: “Can you set your request aside for a while, and give us the opportunity [to make the ﬁrst offerings to the Buddha]? We shall give you one hundred thousand gold pieces for it.”

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Ambapālī at once replied, “I am the ﬁrst to have requested the Buddha and it has already been settled. I cannot transfer this opportunity to you, sirs.” Then the Licchavi clanspeople again said to [her]: “Then we shall give you sixteen times that amount of one hundred thousand gold pieces. Give
us the ﬁrst opportunity.”
Ambapālī still did not agree, asserting, “My request has been granted. I cannot transfer it to you, sirs.”
Then the Licchavi clanspeople said to her again, “We will give you one half of the state’s wealth. Let us have the ﬁrst opportunity.”
Ambapālī again replied:
Even if you promise me all the wealth of the state, I am not interested in it, sirs. The reason is that the Buddha is sojourning at my grove and has accepted my request. This matter has been settled, sirs.
Thus she refused. All of the Licchavi clanspeople wrung their hands and lamented, “Now, because of this woman, we have lost the opportunity to make the ﬁrst offering!” but they proceeded on their way toward the grove. At that time, the World-honored One saw from a distance the ﬁve hundred Licchavi clanspeople approaching the grove, accompanied by tens of thou- sands of carriages and horses, ﬁlling up the entire roadway. He said to the
bhikṣus:
If you wish to know how the gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven play games and enjoy their heavenly garden, it would not differ much from the oncoming host of visitors in pomp and stateliness. All of you, bhikṣus, should maintain your minds in good unity and present yourselves in a digniﬁed manner.
What, O bhikṣus, is called good unity of the mind? Here, O bhikṣus, exert yourselves in observing the inner body (i.e., inner senses) in con- centration, without slackening, being mindful and remembering your observations, thereby discarding worldly desires and worries. Exert yourselves also in observing the outer body (i.e., outer senses), without slackening, being mindful and remembering your observations, thereby discarding worldly desires and worries. [Further,] exert yourselves to observe both the inner and outer body, without slackening, being mindful

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and remembering your observations, thereby discarding worldly desires and worries. It is the same with observing one’s sensation (senses), mind (intellect), and psychophysical elements.
O bhikṣus, what then does it mean to not be digniﬁed in respect to manners? [It is the opposite of digniﬁed conduct and discipline.] In this matter, O bhikṣus, whatever one should do, he should know how to do it. Whatever one should stop, he should know how to stop. Look around right and left, bend forward, stretch back, look downward and look upward, holding the robe and almsbowl; you should not lose the [digniﬁed] manner of eating and drinking hot water and medicine; applying properly expedient means, you should remove obstacles, keeping your mind intact in silence without [letting it become] scattered, whether walking, stopping, sitting, lying down, sleeping, or speaking. Such a one is called a bhikṣu who is well endowed with digniﬁed man- ners and discipline.
The ﬁve hundred Licchavi clanspeople reached the grove owned by Ambapālī and, having alighted from their carriages, proceeded on foot toward the place of the Buddha. After honoring him by bowing their foreheads to his feet, they withdrew to one side to take their seats. The Tathāgata, abiding on his seat, cast his aura of authority and holiness over the entire assembly, just as the autumnal moon casts its light, and also as the sun alone shines brightly from midair through a clear sky, onto the clean ground with no speck of dust whatsoever.
At that time, while his seat was surrounded by the ﬁve hundred Licchavi clanspeople who sat on the ground, the Buddha alone amid the entire assembly revealed his holy illumination. At that time, there was a brāhmaṇa, Piṅgiyānī by name, among the assembly. He suddenly stood up from his seat, rearranged his garments to expose his right shoulder, and with his right knee touching the ground and both palms held together in respect, praised the Buddha in verse:
King Aṅga of Magadha (i.e., Bimbisāra) Seeking merit-worthy prosperity,
Clad himself in the heraldic paragon of armor.

The World-honored One appeared in this land and
Shook the triple world with his aura of authority and virtue. The fame of his name has arisen like that of the Himalayas, and [That of his virtue] like the blooming lotus ﬂowers
With their subtle and delicate fragrance. Now, the brightness of his presence
Is like the sun arising at the beginning of the day and Like the moon playfully passing through the sky With no shade of clouds whatsoever.
Even so is the World-honored One Whose light illumines the human world.
His supreme insight is just as clear and bright
As a garden torch perceived through the darkness of night. He has bestowed on everyone the eyes of insight and Dispelled all doubt from the minds of humans.
Then, the ﬁve hundred Licchavi clanspeople, having listened to Piṅgiyānī’s recitation of his verse of tribute, requested of him, “May you recite the verse of praise once again.” Thereupon, Piṅgiyānī repeated the recitation three times before the Buddha. Having listened to the verse of praise repeatedly sung by Piṅgiyānī, each of the Licchavi clanspeople took off their garments and gave them to the brāhmaṇa for his recital. Piṅgiyānī at once presented these garments to the Buddha as his offering, and the Buddha accepted his gift with compassion.
Thereupon, the World-honored One said to the Licchavi clanspeople of Vaiśālī:
In the world, there are ﬁve kinds of treasures that are difﬁcult to obtain. What are the ﬁve? First is the appearance of the Tathāgata in this world, who has realized the state of arhatship. Such an appearance is difﬁcult to meet. Second is a person who is capable of expounding the right Dharma of the Tathāgata. Such a person is difﬁcult to ﬁnd. Third is a person who is capable of believing and understanding the Dharma taught by the Tathāgata. Such a person is difﬁcult to ﬁnd. Fourth is a person who is capable of realizing the Dharma taught by the Tathāgata. Such a person is difﬁcult to ﬁnd. Fifth is a person who knows how occasions

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of crisis recur and how to rescue others from disasters. Such a person is difﬁcult to ﬁnd. These are the ﬁve treasures most difﬁcult to obtain.
Then, having listened to the teaching of the Buddha, the ﬁve hundred Lic- chavi clanspeople were delighted and said to the Buddha, “We humbly wish, O World-honored One, that your holiness and the venerable disciples accept our invitation.”
The Buddha replied to the Licchavi clanspeople:
Dear noblemen, you have invited me and I have now already accepted your offerings. Ambapālī made an invitation in advance, and this has already been accepted by the Buddha, hence it still stands.
When all the Licchavi clanspeople heard this, each of the ﬁve hundred clanspeople wrung his hands and expressed regret, saying, “While we wished to make our offerings to the Tathāgata and his party, this woman has already taken the ﬁrst auspicious opportunity.” At once they rose from their seats and, having honored the Buddha by bowing their foreheads to his feet, they circumambulated the Buddha and departed.
During the night, Ambapālī prepared various foods for the next day’s offering. The next morning, when the time came, the World-honored One, surrounded by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples, each neatly dressed in the saṃghāṭī robe and with almsbowl in hand, arrived at the place they had been invited to and took a seat in the prepared position.
Thereupon, Ambapālī set forth superb foods for the Buddha as well as the members of the sangha. When the meal was over, the bowls were set aside and the tables were removed. Ambapālī then carried a golden pitcher to serve water for washing. As she stepped forward toward the Buddha she said to him:
Among all the groves in the city of Vaiśālī, the one that I own is the best. I would like to present it as gift to the Tathāgata. With compassion for me, may your holiness accept this gift.
The Buddha said to Ambapālī:
Your ladyship, make this grove an offering to the universal sangha (i.e., of the bhikṣus of all regions) with the Buddha as its head. The

reason is that whatever belongs to the Tathāgata, namely, the six items, such as groves, forests, rooms, houses, robes, and bowls, cannot be transferred as gifts to anyone, even ones such as [the Evil One] Māra, Indra, Brahmā, and other powerful gods, who are not equally worthy to the Tathāgata.
Thus instructed, Ambapālī at once dedicated her grove to the universal sangha with the Buddha as its head. With compassion, the Buddha accepted her gift and praised her deed in verses:
Whosoever builds the commemorative tower (stupa), Whoever builds the monastic residence (vihāra), Whoever dedicates the grove and orchard with cool shade, Whoever helps people cross the water
By building bridges and steering boats, Whoever provides travelers in the wilderness With water and grass as well as a resthouse,
His merit increases by day and by night thereof, With his moral quality pure and genuine,
He is bound to reach the goal of highest good.
Then Ambapālī brought a small table before the Buddha and took her seat. The Buddha began to teach the Dharma, encouraging, beneﬁting, and delighting her, by expounding the doctrine of charity, the doctrine of morality, the doctrine of rebirth in heaven, instructing that desires are to be shunned as great danger, unclean and impure, determining ongoing deﬁlements of passion as an obstacle, but [on the other hand], commending the path of dis- tancing oneself from both suffering and pleasure as necessary and best (toward the goal of salvation).
At that time, the World-honored One observed that [Ambapālī’s] mind became receptive, peaceful, little obstructed, and ready to be educated. There- upon, following the rule of all buddhas, he expounded on her behalf the noble truths of suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the necessary path of cessation (i.e., the Four Noble Truths).
At that time, Ambapālī, with faith pure and genuine, like white cloth that can be easily dyed any color, at once in that single session [at her seat] removed herself from all deﬁlement and thus acquired genuine insight into

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the nature of the Dharma, realized the Dharma as she envisioned it, became determined to abide in the right path without falling into any evil course, and thus attained the state of fearlessness. Thereupon, Ambapālī said to the Buddha, “Now I humbly take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha.” After repeating the words of her vow, she said:
May your holiness grant me permission to become a lay devotee. From now until the end of my life, I will not injure life, nor steal, nor indulge in sexual misconduct, nor lie, nor drink intoxicating liquor.
Therewith, Ambapālī received the ﬁve precepts from the Buddha. Casting away her earlier trade, she annihilated all unclean stains, and arising from her seat, she venerated the Buddha and departed.
At that time, the World-honored One sojourned in Vaiśālī as long as he wished, and then said to Ānanda, “You are doing well [in the life of daily practice]. I wish to proceed to Beluva-gāma.” Having answered, “Yes, sir,” Ānanda packed the Buddha’s robe and almsbowl, and carrying them on his shoulder he followed the World-honored One with other the bhikṣus. Traveling on the highway of Vṛji, the World-honored One reached the bamboo forest of the village.
There was a brāhmaṇa, Pishatuoya by name. Having heard that the Buddha, accompanied by his disciples, had arrived at the bamboo forest, he thought to himself in contemplation:
This śramaṇa Gautama is renowned of name and virtue in all regions. He is [perfectly] endowed with the ten supreme titles and has excelled beyond all the heavenly beings, such as Indra, Brahmā, [Māra], the Lord of Evil, and the evil ones (deva-māras), the śramaṇas, and the brāhmaṇas, in his direct experience of deliverance, and has ever since continued to teach the Dharma. Whatever he says at the beginning, in the middle, as well as at the end, is true and right and is profoundly subtle in its meaning, and matches his practice of austerity. It will be good for me to see such a perfected person free from all attachment.
Then the brāhmaṇa came out of the bamboo forest and came to the place where the World-honored One stayed and, having greeted him with a bow, he took a seat at one side.

The World-honored One then began to teach the Dharma on his behalf, encouraging, beneﬁting, and delighting him. Having listened to the teaching, delighted in his heart, the brāhmaṇa requested the World-honored One and his disciples to accept his offering of the next day’s meal and an overnight resting place. The Buddha remained silent, thus accepting his invitation. The brāhmaṇa, having understood that his request was accepted, rose from his seat and, after circumambulating the Buddha, went home. At once, during the night, the brāhmaṇa prepared the food and drink, and the next morning he announced, “It is time, sir, if the World-honored One is ready.”
Thereupon, the World-honored One, donning the saṃghāṭī robe and with his almsbowl in hand, reached the house accompanied by his disciples, and took his seat in the prepared position. Then the brāhmaṇa served varieties of good food for the Buddha and the members of the sangha. When the meal was over and the bowls were set aside, he served water for rinsing the bowls and washing hands. Then he brought out a small chair and sat before the Buddha. Thereupon, the Buddha praised his deed in verse:
Providing those who are steadfast with moral precepts With food and drink, robe and garment, as well as bedding, One is bound to acquire great reward.
Such merit is a true companion, Following him always and everywhere, Just as the shadow following its form. In this way it is best to plant good seeds For securing food in the world to come. Making merit, he is secure on that basis.
Protected by heavenly gods wherever he goes, He will be free from disaster in all of his life and Will be born in heaven when he dies.
At that time, the World-honored One taught the subtle Dharma on behalf of the brāhmaṇa, beneﬁting and delighting [him], and having done so, rose from his seat and left the house.
The crops were very expensive in that land and because of the prevailing famine it was very difﬁcult to obtain almsfood. The Buddha said to Ānanda,

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“Call all the bhikṣus residing in this country and assemble them in the meeting hall.”
Ānanda answered, “Yes, sir,” and released the message far and near to call [all the bhikṣus] to assemble at the hall. Thereupon, all the bhikṣus residing in that country came to assemble, and Ānanda reported to the Buddha, “The bhikṣus have assembled, sir. May your holiness be ready.”
At that time, the World-honored One rose from his seat, reached the hall, and, having taken his seat in the prepared position, said to the bhikṣus:
It is a time of famine in this land, and it is difﬁcult to obtain almsfood. All of you form groups and go to Vaiśālī or the country of Vṛji to rely on your friends and relatives. If you settle there for the duration of the summer retreat, you may not have to face the difﬁculty of food shortage. I alone will remain here with Ānanda to arrange the summer retreat. The reason for sending you away is that I foresee food scarcity as well as other things here.
Thereupon, the bhikṣus at once departed as instructed for their respective destinations.
The Buddha alone remained in that country with Ānanda. Later on, during the summer retreat, the Buddha experienced physical ailment with pains throughout his body. He attentively spoke to himself:
Now I have got an illness and my whole body hurts very severely. But all the disciples are not here. It would not be good if I were to take the course of death here. For the time being, I must exert myself to prolong my life.
At that time, the World-honored One came out of his secluded room and took his seat in a cool spot. Having seen his appearance, Ānanda quickly approached him and said to the Buddha, “As I see your holiness now, you look to be suffering from an illness, sir.”
Ānanda again said:
I have known that the World-honored One has been ill. My mind has been upset and distracted because of the deﬁlement of sorrow and

lamentation, without clear consciousness. Since my breath has still survived, I tried to wake and gather my thoughts, then realized that the Tathāgata has not entered nirvana. The Eye of Wisdom of the human world has not entered nirvana. The great Dharma has not yet been dam- aged. But why has the World-honored One not yet left a testament for all the bhikṣus of the sangha, sir?

The Buddha said to Ānanda:
Is there anything that the sangha expects from me? If anyone claims “I am one who holds the sangha and who unites the sangha,” then such a person may leave some sort of instruction to the sangha. But I, the Tathā- gata, have never said “I am one who holds the sangha and unites the sangha.” Why should I leave some sort of instruction after my death? O Ānanda, the Dharma that I teach has been put into practice with no distinction of inside or outside. Without a claim of “I,” the Dharma that I [originally] realized has been practiced all through. I have become aged, just about eighty years. Just as an old cart can barely [continue to] travel by means of repairs, so it is the same with my body. I can prolong my span of life for awhile by means of expediency, and I am trying to forebear this ongoing pain. When I let go of all forms of thought, I enter the state of no-thought where I feel at peace and at
ease with my body, feeling none of its afﬂiction.
Therefore, O Ānanda, you must make yourself your own light, you must make the Dharma your light, but you should not make anything else your light. Take refuge in yourself, in the Dharma, but not in any- thing else. Why do I say to you, “Make yourself your own light, make the Dharma your light, but not make anything else your light. Rely on yourself, rely on the Dharma, but do not rely on anything else”? O Ānanda, when a bhikṣu observes his inner body (inner senses) in concentration, he should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations and keeping them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and worries. In observing his outer body (outer senses), and also observing both inner and outer body, he should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations and keeping them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and worries. It is

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the same with observing one’s sense perceptions, mind (intellect), and psychophysical elements.
This is what I mean by making oneself one’s own light, making the Dharma one’s light, but not making anything else one’s light; to rely on oneself as one’s refuge, to rely on the Dharma as one’s refuge, but not to rely on anything else as one’s refuge.
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
If there is anyone who would really be able to practice this discipline, he surely would be the primary practitioner of the path among all my disciples.
The Buddha said to Ānanda, “We shall go to the Cāpāla shrine.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda. The Buddha stood up, donned the saṃghāṭī robe, and with his almsbowl in hand, reached the shade of a tree. He said to Ānanda, “Spread my sitting cloth. My back hurts. I wish to rest here.” “Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda, and he at once spread the sitting cloth. The Tathāgata took his seat and Ānanda also set up a small seat and sat before
him. The Buddha said to Ānanda:
There are those who practice the four kinds of supernormal power. While practicing these powers, they are always mindful of these prac- tices so as to keep them in good memory. When one so desires, he can prolong his life on the basis of his power for as long as the remaining duration of the current eon.
O Ānanda, the Buddha has already practiced these four supernormal powers on many occasions and, being mindful of these experiences, he does not forget the use of them. If it is necessary, the Tathāgata can extend his life span for the remaining duration of the present eon, so that he may remove darkness, beneﬁt the world, and make heavenly gods happier.
At that time, Ānanda remained silent and did not respond. The Buddha repeated these words three times, but Ānanda still remained silent. At that time Ānanda was obstructed by the Evil One and did not understand the Buddha’s words. After three repetitions the Buddha suggested that he respond,

yet Ānanda was unaware that he should ask the Buddha to prolong his life. [Finally] the Buddha said to Ānanda, “You ahould know what to do.” At that moment, Ānanda understood [the Buddha’s] words, rose from his seat, and, after venerating the Buddha, left that place. He sat under a tree not
far from the Buddha and engaged in meditation and reﬂection.
A short while later the Evil One [Māra] appeared before the Buddha and said to him:
O Enlightened One, when you have no further wish, you should take the course of entering ﬁnal nirvana. Now is the right moment. You should quickly enter ﬁnal nirvana.
The Buddha replied to the Evil One:
Speak no more. I, myself, know the right time. I, the Tathāgata, will not take the course of nirvana just yet. I must wait for the time when all the bhikṣus come together. I shall, by control of my own destiny, approach courageously and without cowardice the goal of peace and ease. I shall continue to take my own merit and will be the teacher (ācaryaka) for others. I shall continue to be a propagator of the teaching of the sutras and will expound the meaning of each sentence.
If there is any heretical teaching, I will repudiate it on the basis of the right Dharma. I shall vindicate the testimony of my own experience on the mysteries of the Dharma. My disciples are not yet assembled for all this, nor have the bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas (laymen), or upā- sikās (laywomen) assembled yet. Now it is still necessary to propagate the practice of austerity and to expound the enlightened mind, allowing the heavenly beings to witness the mystery of the Dharma.
Then the Evil One again spoke to the Buddha:
O Enlightened One, in the olden days, when you realized supreme enlightenment under the ajapāla-nyagrodha tree by the bank of the Nairañjanā River in the village of Uruvilvā, I appeared before you, O World-honored One, and urged the Tathāgata to enter ﬁnal nirvana, saying “It is the right time now for you to enter nirvana swiftly and at once.”

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At that time, O Tathāgata, you replied to me, saying “Stop, Evil One, I, myself, know the right time. I, the Tathāgata, will not take the course of entering nirvana. When a good number of disciples has assem- bled, and so forth, even allowing the heavenly beings to witness the mystery of the Dharma, only then I will take the course of entering nirvana.”
O Enlightened One, now you have acquired many disciples and the heavenly beings have all witnessed the mystery of the Dharma. Now is the right time. Why are you not taking the course of entering nir- vana?
The Buddha said:
Stop, Evil One! The Buddha himself knows the right time. I will not abide for a long time. Three months from now, at the spot between two śāla trees near Kuśinagara, the original place of the Mallan clan, I shall take the course of entering ﬁnal nirvana.
Then the Evil One quickly thought to himself, “The Buddha does not lie. He will surely enter nirvana soon.” Dancing and jumping for joy, he suddenly disappeared.
Not too long after the Evil One had departed, the Buddha exerted himself to concentrate on volitional concentration at the Cāpāla shrine solely to extend his life span. Exactly at that time, the great earth trembled and all the people of that country were stricken with fear; there were none whose hair did not stand on end. The Buddha emitted a great ray of light that penetrated every- where without limitation, even illuminating the dark underworld, thus enabling the beings therein to see each other. At that time, the World-honored One uttered these words in verse:
Of the two divisions of the conditioned and the unconditioned, I have now forsaken the conditioned,
Abiding solely in the state of concentration; Like a chick coming out of the shell.
At that time, wise Ānanda, with a frightened mind, his hair standing on end, quickly approached the Buddha. Having honored the Buddha by bowing

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his forehead to his feet, he withdrew to one side and said to the Buddha, “It is very strange, O World-honored One, that the earth trembled, sir. Why did this happen?” The Buddha said to Ānanda:
In general there are eight causes for the occasion of the trembling of the earth. What are the eight? The ground is ﬂoating above water. Water stays on wind, and wind stays in space. When a storm arises in midair, a great churning of water automatically follows. When the great water is churned, every part of the ground shakes. This is called the trembling of the earth.
Next, O Ānanda, when a bhikṣu or a bhikṣuṇī, as well as the powerful among the gods, has realized the path, recognized an imbalance between the ground and the water, and has tested his or her capacity to balance them, the ground necessarily shakes. This is the second reason. Again next, O Ānanda, when a bodhisattva initially descends from Tuṣita Heaven to his mother’s womb and abides there in concentration with his mind undisturbed, the ground then trembles. This is the third
reason.
Again next, O Ānanda, when a bodhisattva comes out of his mother’s right side and abides there in concentration with his mind undisturbed, then the ground trembles greatly. This is the fourth reason.
Again next, O Ānanda, when a bodhisattva realizes supreme enlight- enment, at that moment the ground trembles greatly. This is the ﬁfth reason.
Again next, O Ānanda, when the Buddha, after his realization of the path, turns the supreme wheel of Dharma that neither the Evil One nor his evil gods, neither śramaṇa nor brāhmaṇa, neither gods nor people can do, then the ground everywhere shakes greatly. This is the sixth reason.
Again next, O Ānanda, when the Buddha’s teaching is close to its end, and if he abides in concentration with his mind undisturbed and decides to forsake his longevity, then the ground everywhere shakes greatly. This is called the seventh reason.
Again next, O Ānanda, when the Tathāgata, while abiding in the com- plete state of nirvana (anupadiśeṣa-nirvana), [freed from both mental

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and bodily continuation,] enters parinirvāṇa, the ground shakes greatly. This is called the eighth reason.
These eight causes make the ground tremble greatly.
At that time, the Buddha continued in verse:
Highest among all humans, great ascetic śramaṇa,
Is he who illuminates the human world.
To this teacher of heavenly gods asked Ānanda: “Why does the ground tremble, sir?”
With compassion, thus expounded the Tathāgata With his voice like that of a kalaviṅka bird.
“All of you listen to what I explain.
The ground lies on water, water lies upon wind.
If wind moves in space, the ground shakes greatly. This is the ﬁrst cause of the ground that trembles.
O bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, if you wish to test your supernormal power, Hills, oceans, the ground, and myriad grasses and trees all tremble. When the gods Indra, Brahmā, and
All powerful gods wish to shake the ground, The spirits of hills and oceans shake the ground.
The Bodhisattva, Most Honorable among Humans, Endowed with hundreds of meritorious virtues, When he initially enters his mother’s womb,
The ground trembles because of it.
Abiding for the duration of ten months in the mother’s body Is like a dragon lying in a cushion mattress.
When he appeared from the mother’s right side, The ground trembles greatly because of it.
When the Buddha was a youth,
His deﬁlement was already extinguished, and His enlightenment excelled inﬁnitely, Because of this the ground trembled.
When he turned the wheel of the Dharma in the Deer Park, The gathering place of all sages, and
When his power of insight overcame the Evil One,

The ground trembled greatly.
The Evil One frequently visited the Buddha, Urging him to enter nirvana.
When the Buddha himself decided to enter ﬁnal nirvana, The ground trembled greatly.
The Most Honorable among Humans, Great Teacher, Sage, One who exhausted the cause of subsequent existence, Remained unmoved, and yet
When he decided on the course of entering nirvana, The ground trembled greatly.
By one whose eyes were pure and genuine The eight kinds of events are explained As accompanying the ground’s trembling. As the eighth cause,
It was the time when the Buddha enters ﬁnal nirvana From the complete state of cessation,
That the ground everywhere trembles greatly.”
Second Episode
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
There are eight kinds of people in the world. What are the eight? First, the kṣatriyas (nobility); second, the brāhmaṇas (priesthood); third, the lay householders; fourth, the śramaṇas (ascetic mendicants); ﬁfth, the four guardians of the heavens; sixth, the gods of the thirty-three levels of heaven; seventh, the followers of the Evil One [Māra]; eighth, the gods of Brahmā Heaven. I recollect the following regarding myself:
Long ago I was once associated with the kṣatriya people. The number of times I sat with them, stood with them, and exchanged words with them are beyond counting. Wherever I was with them, because of my endeavors and powers of concentration I was a prominent ﬁgure. Some of the kṣatriya people had good complexions, but my com- plexion far exceeded theirs. Some of them had good voices, but my voice far exceeded theirs. They ceased to compete with me, but I did not stop competing with them. Whatever subject matter they

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could discuss well, I too could discuss equally as well as they. What- ever subject matter they could not discuss, I could discuss. O Ānanda, I taught them the Dharma extensively, beneﬁting and delighting them. I died while I was among them, but they believed that I was a heavenly god and did not realize that I was actually a human. In this way, I mingled with the followers of the god Brahmā and, through incalculable times back and forth [through transmigration], extensively taught the Dharma to the heavenly gods, and yet no one knew who I really was.
Ānanda said to the Buddha:
It is marvelous, sir. O World-honored One, no one ever, before your holiness, could accomplish such [great] tasks as those accomplished by the World-honored One, sir.
The Buddha continued:
This subtle, delicate, and rare Dharma, O Ānanda, is exceedingly unique and has never before been realized by anyone. Only the Tathāgata alone could realize this Dharma.
Again he spoke to Ānanda:
The Tathāgata alone knows the nature of the arising, abiding, and per- ishing of sensation; he alone knows the nature of the arising, abiding, and perishing of ideation; he alone knows the nature of the arising, abiding, and perishing of analytical introspection. This is the unique, never-before-realized Dharma, which the Tathāgata alone has accom- plished. You should take this Dharma to heart and make it work for yourself.
At that time, the World-honored One said to Ānanda, “Let us go to the Kūṭāgāra hall (near Vaiśālī).” He then sat on the sitting cloth spread under a tree. The Buddha said to Ānanda, “Go and tell the bhikṣus residing in the right and left quarters of the Kūṭāgāra [hall], without missing anyone, to assemble in the meeting hall.”
As instructed, Ānanda assembled all the bhikṣus in the hall and reported to the Buddha, “All the bhikṣus have assembled, sir. May your holiness be

ready.” Thereupon, the World-honored One at once went to the hall, took his seat in the prepared position, and said to the bhikṣus:
You should know the following disciplines, on the basis of which I myself accomplished the direct experience and realization of perfect enlightenment. They are: (1) four kinds of mindfulness, (2) four kinds of endeavor, (3) four kinds of supernormal power for acquiring con- centration, (4) four kinds of meditation, (5) ﬁve kinds of spiritual fac- ulties, (6) ﬁve kinds of spiritual power, (7) seven kinds of auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment, and (8) eight kinds of paths pertaining to the wise and saintly practitioner. You should be in harmonious coop- eration, respectful and obedient toward each other with regard to these disciplines, refraining from creating disputes. When you have one and the same teacher, all of you receive the same water and milk. Whoever receives the practice of these disciplines from me should make of them your light, equally, and share your delight in practicing them.
O bhikṣus, you should know the following sources in which I have expounded the Dharma since I accomplished the direct experience of it. They are: (1) the sūtra collection, the sacred discourses in prose; (2) the geya collection, the sacred discourses in prose and verse; (3) the vyākaraṇa collection, the doctrines and destinies of religious fulﬁllment;
(4) the gāthā collection, the literature in verse; (5) the udāna collection, the Buddha’s solemn and joyous utterances in prose and verse; (6) the nidāna collection, the doctrinal and Vinaya discourses on motives and occasions; (7) the jātaka collection, stories of past lives and experiences as a bodhisattva; (8) the itivṛttaka collection, stories of past events; (9) the vaipulya collection, extensive doctrinal studies; (10) the adbhuta or adbhuta-dharma collection, descriptions of supernormal events and mysteries; (11) the avadāna collection, moral instructions consisting of heroic stories and moral retributions; and (12) the upadeśa collection, detailed and extensive expositions and interpretations.
You should take these sources of the Dharma thoroughly to heart and carefully evaluate and analyze them so as to avail yourselves of them when needed, according to given circumstances. Why do I say this? Because I shall not live for a long time. Three months from now I shall enter ﬁnal nirvana.

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Having heard these words, all the bhikṣus were terror-stricken, shocked, and confused; some threw themselves to the ground. One cried out in a loud voice, “How is it that the Buddha will take the course of cessation so soon?” Another mourned, “How sad it is that Eye of Insight of the world goes to cessation! Without his holiness, we will wither away over time.” Some bhikṣus cried in sorrow and stamped [their feet] in grief, twisting their bodies and wailing, totally out of control, just as a snake that has had its head cut off twists and wriggles without knowing where it is going.
The Buddha said to them:
O bhikṣus, halt your wailing a moment. You should not be overwhelmed by sorrow. There is no one in the entire world, whether one is in heaven, on earth, or among human beings, who does not perish once born. No matter how hard one wishes to halt conditioned things from changing, one cannot do so. I have previously taught you that whomever you love, whomever you ﬁnd endearing, all such is impermanent; whoever meets with another will after all become separated. The physical body is not one’s possession. Life does not continue to exist forever.
Thereupon, the World-honored One continued in verse:
Now I am free to take my course
Reaching the place of peace and quiescence.
Hence, I have assembled the members of the sangha To tell them what I mean.
I am aged, having no more years to live.
I have accomplished that which should be done. Now I am ready to forsake my life.
Being mindful, without slackening,
I have been steadfast with the precepts of the bhikṣus. Keeping myself intact by concentrating on my volition, I protect my mind [from scattering].
Whoever is steady, without slackening, With the Dharma I have taught,
Can annihilate the root cause of suffering,
Thus overcoming the fate of birth, old age, and death.

Again the Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
I have given you these admonitions now, because the Evil One among gods came to urge me, saying, “O Enlightened One, when you have no further purpose, you should take the course of ﬁnal nirvana. Now is the right time. You should quickly enter that nirvana.”
I replied to the Evil One, “Stop, Evil One. The Enlightened One himself knows the right time. I will wait for the time when all the bhikṣus come together and all the gods are able to witness the mystery of the Dharma.”
The Evil One again said, “O Enlightened One, in the olden days, when you realized supreme enlightenment under the ajapāla-nyagrodha tree by the bank of the Nairañjanā River in the village of Uruvilvā, I appeared before you, O World-honored One, and urged the Tathāgata to enter ﬁnal nirvana, saying: ‘It is now the right time that you enter ﬁnal nirvana swiftly and at once.’At that time, O Tathāgata, you replied, ‘Stop, Evil One, I myself know the right time. I, Tathāgata, will not take the course of entering nirvana. When a good number of disciples have assembled, and so forth, even allowing the heavenly beings to witness the mystery of the Dharma, only then I will take the course of entering nirvana.’ O Enlightened One, now, you have acquired many disciples and the heavenly beings have all witnessed the mystery of the Dharma. Now is the right time. Why are you not taking the course of entering nirvana?”
I said: “Stop, Evil One, the Buddha himself knows the right time. I will not abide much longer. Three months from now, at the spot between two śāla trees near Kuśinagara, the original place of the Mallan clanspeople, I shall take the course of entering ﬁnal nirvana.”
Then the Evil One quickly thought to himself: “The Buddha does not lie. He will surely enter nirvana soon.” Thus, dancing and jumping for joy, he suddenly disappeared. Not long after the Evil One had departed, I exerted myself to concentrate on volitional concentration at the Cāpāla shrine solely to extend my life span. Exactly at that time the great earth trembled, while all the people of that country were fear- stricken and there were none among them whose hair did not stand on

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end. I emitted a great ray of light that penetrated everywhere without limitation, even illuminating the dark underworld, thus enabling the beings therein to see each other.
At that time, I uttered the following words in verse:
Of the two divisions of the conditioned and the unconditioned, I have now forsaken the conditioned,
Abiding solely in the state of concentration; Like a chick coming out of the shell.
At that time, Venerable Ānanda stood up from his seat, rearranged his robe to expose the right shoulder, knelt with his right knee touching the ground, and with his palms joined together, said to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, we request that your holiness remain in this world by extending your life span until the fulﬁllment of the present eon, not taking the course of ﬁnal nirvana. With compassion for all sentient beings, may your holiness beneﬁt gods and humans.
At that time, the World-honored One remained silent, without responding. Ānanda repeated his request in the same manner three times. Thereupon, the Buddha said to Ānanda, “Do you believe in the path through which the Tathā- gata realized supreme enlightenment?”
He replied, “Yes, sir. I believe in the word of the Buddha.” The Buddha continued:
If you believe in it, why have you approached to press me three times? You heard it closely from me and closely received instruction from me before, namely:
There are those who practice four kinds of supernormal power. While practicing these powers, they are always mindful of these practices so as to keep them in good memory. When one so desires, he can prolong his life on the basis of his power for as long as the remaining duration of the current eon. O Ānanda, the Buddha has already practiced these four supernormal powers on many occasions and, being mindful of these experiences, he does not forget the use of them. If it is necessary, the Tathāgata can extend his life span

for the remaining duration of the present eon, so that he may remove darkness, beneﬁt the world, and make heavenly gods happier.
At that time, why didn’t you repeat your request asking me not to take the course of ﬁnal nirvana? Your wish could have been fulﬁlled if you had inquired twice, or up to a third time. You could have requested me at that time to extend my life span for the remaining duration of the present eon, thereby removing darkness, beneﬁting the world, and making heavenly gods happier. You have now made this request, but isn’t it foolish? I expressed my intention three times, yet you remained silent throughout. Why didn’t you ask me at that time, “May the Tathā- gata extend his life for the remaining duration of the present eon, thereby removing darkness and beneﬁting the world”?
Nay, do not press me any more, Ānanda. I have already forsaken the span of my life. I have discarded it and vomited it out. Even if you urge the Tathāgata to contradict his own word, you know that it is of no avail. It is as if a wealthy man has vomited food upon the ground. How and why would he retrieve the food once vomited upon the ground?
Ānanda replied, “There is no reason, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
It is the same with the Tathāgata. He has forsaken it and already vomited it out. How and why should you ask him to retrieve what he has already forsaken?
The Buddha said to Ānanda, “Let us go to Ambala village.” Packing up the Buddha’s robe and almsbowl [and carrying them on his shoulder], Ānanda followed the World-honored One together with the other bhikṣus. Traveling on the highway of Vṛji, he reached Ambala village and sojourned in a forest on a hill.
At that time, the World-honored One taught the bhikṣus the three [main] branches of training: (1) moral precepts (śīla), (2) mental concentration (samādhi), and (3) [analytical] insight ( prajñā):
Being steadfast with the set of moral precepts and experiencing mental concentration, you may acquire great reward; being steadfast with the

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experience of mental concentration and applying analytical insight, you may acquire great reward. Being steadfast with the application of analytical insight and realizing the purity of your mind, you may acquire perfect deliverance and extinguish three kinds of deﬁlements, namely: deﬁlement due to carnal desire, deﬁlement due to existential desire, and deﬁlement due to ignorance. When one has realized deliverance, he acquires a subsequent insight of his realization (vimukti-jñāna): “Whoever has exhausted [the cause of] birth and death, accomplished the goal of the practice of austerity, and completed that which should be done [in life], to him there will be no more birth after this life.”
At that time, the World-honored One sojourned in Ambala village as long as he wished. [Then] the Buddha said to Ānanda, “You are doing well [in the life of daily practice]. I wish to visit the villages of Jambugrāma, Bhāṇḍa- grāma, Hastigrāma, and then the town of Bhoganagara.”
Ānanda replied, “Yes, sir,” and packing up the Buddha’s robe and almsbowl at once, he followed him together with the host of other bhikṣus. Traveling on the highway of Vṛji, gradually visiting those places, they ﬁnally reached the forest of śiṃśapā trees north of the town of Bhoganagara and sojourned there.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus, “I shall introduce you to four principles of great importance. Listen attentively, you should contemplate and remember [what I shall now say].” The bhikṣus responded, “Yes, sir. We are delighted and ready to listen to the teaching, sir.”
The Buddha began to teach:
What are the four [principles]? Suppose a bhikṣu (or a group of bhikṣus) asserts a certain matter by saying, “At such-and-such village or town or country, I listened directly to the word of the Buddha and received directly from him this doctrine, this discipline, or this teaching.” Even so, you should neither believe it nor reject it unless whatever is asserted is examined to be true in reference to the scriptures, the rules of dis- cipline, or in reference to its origin and adaptation with the system of authentic belief. If it is neither in accord with the scriptures, nor with the rules of discipline, nor with the system of authentic belief, you

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should respond to the assertion by saying, “Venerable, the Buddha did not teach this particular thing. You may have heard it from the group of bhikṣus erroneously. My understanding in reference to the scriptures, the rules of discipline, or the system of authentic belief is different from what you have asserted. The Buddha did not teach this particular thing that you have asserted, because we have examined it in reference to the scriptures, the discipline, and the system of authentic belief. What you previously asserted is not in accord with the system of authen- tic belief, nor is it in accord with the rules of discipline, nor is it in accord with its origin and adaptation. Venerable, you should not keep it, nor should you teach it to others. You should discard it.” If, however, what he has asserted accords with the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief, you should say to him, “What you have previously asserted is truly the Buddha’s teaching, because we have examined it in reference to the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief. Venerable, you should hold it and teach it widely for the sake of others. You should be careful not to dis- card it.” This is the ﬁrst principle of great importance.
Again next, O bhikṣus, when a bhikṣu (or a group of bhikṣus) asserts a certain matter by saying “At such-and-such village or town or country, I listened directly to the words of a learned elder of the harmonious sangha and received directly from him this doctrine, this discipline, and this teaching.” Even so, you should not believe what is said [to be the Buddha’s teaching], nor reject it either. But you should respond to this similar case by saying, “Venerable, we must examine whether what you assert is true or false in reference to the scriptures and clarify its origin and adaptation on the basis of the system of authentic belief.” If, however, what is asserted does not accord with either the scriptures, or the Vinaya, or the system of authentic belief, then you should say to him, “The Buddha did not teach this particular thing that you have asserted. You may have heard it from a group of bhikṣus erroneously. The reason is that our understanding in reference to the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief is different from what you have previously asserted. Venerable, you should not keep it, nor should you teach it to others.” If, however, what he has asserted

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accords with the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief, you should say to him, “What you have previously asserted is truly the Buddha’s teaching, because we have examined it in reference to the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authen- tic belief. Venerable, you should hold it and teach it widely for the sake of others. You should be careful not to discard it.” This is the second prin- ciple of great importance.
Again next, O bhikṣus, when a bhikṣu (or a group of bhikṣus) asserts a certain matter concerning the doctrinal teaching and the moral dis- cipline, saying, “At such-and-such village or town or country, I listened directly to the words of a group of learned elders who uphold the doc- trinal teaching, the rules of discipline, and the maintenance of model restraints and received directly from them this doctrine, this moral dis- cipline, and this teaching.” Even so, you should not respond to this similar case by saying, “Venerable, we should examine whether what you assert is true or false in reference to the scriptures and clarify its origin and adaptation on the basis of the doctrine and the discipline.” If what is asserted is neither in accordance with the scriptures, nor with the rules of discipline, nor with the system of authentic belief, then you should say to him, “The Buddha did not teach this particular thing that you have previously asserted. You may have heard it from the group of bhikṣus erroneously. The reason is that our understanding in reference to the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief is different from what you have previously asserted. Venerable, you should not keep it, nor should you teach it to others; you should discard it.” If, however, what he has asserted is in accordance with the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief, you should say to him, “What you have previously asserted is truly the Buddha’s teaching, as we examined it in reference to the scrip- tures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief. Ven- erable, you should hold it and teach it widely for the sake of others. You should be careful not to discard it.” This is the third principle of great importance.
Again next, when a bhikṣu (or a group of bhikṣus) asserts that “At
such-and-such village or town or country, I listened directly to the words

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of a bhikṣu about this doctrine, this rule of discipline, and the maintenance of model restraints, and received directly from him this doctrine, this moral discipline, and this teaching.” Even so, you should not respond to this similar case by saying, “Venerable, we should examine whether what you assert is true or false in reference to the scriptures, and clarify its origin and adaptation on the basis of the doctrine and the discipline.” If what he previously asserted does not accord with the scriptures, nor with the rules of discipline, nor with the system of authentic belief, you should say to him, “The Buddha did not teach this particular thing that you have previously asserted. You may have heard it from the group of bhikṣus erroneously. The reason is that our understanding in reference to the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief differs from what you have previously asserted. Venerable, you should not keep it, nor should you teach it to others; you should discard it.” If, however, what he has asserted is in accordance with the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief, you should say to him, “What you have previously asserted is truly the Buddha’s teaching, as we examined it in reference to the scriptures, the rules of discipline, and the system of authentic belief. Venerable, you should hold it and teach it widely for the sake of others. You should be careful not to discard it.” This is the fourth principle of great importance.
At that time, the World-honored One sojourned at the town of Bhoganagara as long as he wished, and then said to Venerable Ānanda, “Let us go to the city of Pāvā.” Having replied, “Yes, sir,” Ānanda packed the Buddha’s robe and almsbowl and followed the World-honored One together with the host of other bhikṣus. Traveling on the highway of the Mallan country, he reached Dutou Grove near the city of Pāvā.
There was then a son of a blacksmith, Cunda by name. Having heard that the Buddha had arrived in the city by way of the Mallan highway, he dressed up and visited the place where the Buddha sojourned and, after honoring him by touching his forehead to the Buddha’s feet, he withdrew and sat to one side. The Buddha then began to teach Cunda the Dharma, encouraging him, beneﬁting him, and delighting him. After the Buddha’s teaching, his heart ﬁlled with faith and delight, Cunda said to the World-honored One,

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“May your holiness accept my invitation to the next day’s meal.” Thereupon the Buddha accepted [Cunda’s offer by] remaining silent.
Having noted that the Buddha had accepted his request, Cunda rose from his seat, and after venerating the Buddha, he returned home. During the night he prepared various provisions consisting of rice and other food for the morn- ing meal. The following day, at the proper time [after the announcement:] “May the Buddha be ready,” the World-honored One donned his saṃghāṭī robe and, with his almsbowl in hand, surrounded by the host of bhikṣus, arrived at the house and took his seat in the prepared position.
Thereupon, Cunda set forth food and drink, offering them to the Buddha and the members of the sangha. He had separately cooked mushrooms grown on the roots of a sandal tree (sūkara-maddava),19 known as a rare delicacy, and offered this dish only to the World-honored One. The Buddha said to Cunda, “Refrain from serving this food to the bhikṣus.” As instructed, Cunda did not serve that food to the bhikṣus. Then an elderly bhikṣu, who had renounced family life at a late age, put the remainder of the food onto a sep- arate plate. At that time, having observed that all the bhikṣus had ﬁnished the meal, Cunda removed the food vessels and served water. Thereupon, he asked the Buddha in verse:
May I proffer my question, O Holiness, Possessor of great wisdom, perfectly enlightened, Most Honorable among Humans,
Unrivaled leader and charioteer of the truth?
How many kinds of śramaṇas are there in this world, sir?
At that time the World-honored One also replied in verse: As to your question, I would say,
In general there are four.
But their goals vary and are not identical; These you must distinguish for yourself.
First, those who excel in the practice of the path;
Second, those who excel in expounding the meaning of the path; Third, those who rely on the path for living;
Fourth, those who do bad things in the name of the path.

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[Now, what are these four?]
One who overcomes the thorns of love and Affection for familial relations and
Enters nirvana with no obstacle whatsoever, He is beyond the realm of heavenly beings—
This is the śramaṇa who excels in the practice of the path. One who excels in understanding
The primary meaning of transcendence and Is spotless in expounding the path,
[And] with friendly love and compassion Dissolves doubts from people’s minds—
This is the śramaṇa who excels in expounding the path.
One who excels in propagating the words of the Dharma and Living his life in reliance upon the path,
[And who] yearns from a distance
For the place of total freedom from deﬁlement—
This is the śramaṇa who lives his life in reliance upon the path. One who is crooked within but clean in [outward] appearance, Fraudulent, without sincerity,
This is the śramaṇa
Who does wrong things in the name of the path. Why, however, with good and bad together,
Purity and impurity intermixed, both looking alike, Should all appear agreeable externally,
Just as copper within and gold coating without? Looking at such a fake
Ordinary people wrongly regard him as a disciple Endowed with holy insight.
But, [I say,] the remaining disciples Are not necessarily like that false one.
[Therefore,] do not forsake [your] faith in them.
Even alone, a single bhikṣu (or a host of bhikṣus) can uphold The standard of the sangha.
While [one who is] muddy within yet clean externally May cover up fraudulence externally and

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Hide recklessness within.
[Therefore], by merely seeing the external appearance, One should not be drawn toward anyone
Trusting them without caution. Because even if some
Do not leave any trace of external wickedness, They may retain recklessness within.
At that time, taking a small seat with him, Cunda approached and sat before the Buddha. The Buddha began to teach the Dharma and, having thus beneﬁted and delighted [Cunda], he left the house, surrounded by the host of bhikṣus. On the roadway the Buddha stopped under a tree and said to Ānanda, “My shoulder pain is pressing me. Spread my sitting cloth on the ground.”
[Ānanda] answered, “Yes, sir,” at once spread the sitting cloth, and the World-honored One took his seat on it. Then Ānanda spread his small sitting cloth and sat before the Buddha. The Buddha said to him: “Have you noticed any appearance of regret in Cunda? If he has a sense of regret, what do you think caused it?” Ānanda said to the Buddha:
[It is probably] because Cunda, despite his charitable conduct, may not acquire merit, sir. The reason is that at his place the Tathāgata received his last food, which may be a further cause of ﬁnal nirvana, sir.
The Buddha warned Ānanda:
Do not speak like that. Cunda will soon acquire great beneﬁt and longevity, a good complexion and physical strength, enjoy great fame, and acquire wealth and treasures. When he dies he will be born in heaven and will be able to obtain whatever he wishes. Why? Because there is no difference in merit between one who offers food at the time of the initial enlightenment of the Buddha and one who offers food at the time of his ﬁnal nirvana. Go see Cunda and tell him:
O Cunda, I have closely heard from the Buddha, and closely received the teaching from the Buddha. O Cunda, because you have offered food to the Buddha you will acquire great beneﬁt and great reward.

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Thereupon, as instructed by the Buddha, Ānanda visited Cunda and said to him:
O Cunda, I have closely heard from the Buddha, and closely received the teaching from the Buddha. O Cunda, because you have offered food to the Buddha you will acquire great beneﬁt and great reward. The reason is that there is no difference in merit between one who offers food at the time of the [Buddha’s] initial enlightenment and one who offers food at the time of his ﬁnal nirvana.
(The narrative continues in verse:)
After offering food [to the Tathāgata] at his house, Cunda heard for the ﬁrst time
That the illness of the Tathāgata had become serious, and That his life was about to end.
Although his illness worsened
After eating the sandal tree mushrooms, The Buddha, bearing his illness, Continued, step by step,
On the road toward the town of Kuśinagara.
At that time, the World-honored One rose from his seat and walked around by himself for a while. When he arrived under a tree, he again said to Ānanda, “My shoulder pain is pressing me. Spread my sitting cloth.”
Ānanda at once spread [the sitting cloth] and the Tathāgata took his seat on it to catch his breath. Ānanda venerated [the Buddha] and then sat to one side.
Passing by was a [former] lay disciple, Ālāra Kālāma20 Pukkusa by name, who was on the way from the town of Kuśinagara to Pāvā. He saw the Buddha resting under a tree, with his handsome appearance and calm senses and mind, restrained in sublime quiescence, like a great dragon in transparent water, pure and spotless. Pukkusa was delighted, and with good intent arising in his heart he approached the Buddha. After venerating him [by touching his forehead to the Buddha’s feet], Pukkusa withdrew to sit at one side and said to the Buddha:

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O World-honored One, whoever has renounced family life is remarkable because he stays in a place pure and clean, and seeks the abode of hap- piness and transcendence. Even if ﬁve hundred oxcarts were to pass by before him, such an ascetic would neither see nor hear them. My teacher was once silently sitting under a tree by the roadside between the two towns of Kuśinagara and Pāvā. Then ﬁve hundred carts passed before him. Despite the loud noise of the carts, though awake, he did not hear any of the noise created by the carts, sir. At that time, a man came and asked him, “Did you see the carts that passed by here a short time ago, sir?” My teacher replied, “No, I did not see them.” Again he asked, “Did you hear the noise, sir?” [The teacher replied,] “No, I did not hear it.” So the man asked once again, “At that time were you here or somewhere else, sir?” My teacher replied, “I was here.” [The man] then asked, “Were you awake at the time, sir?” He replied, “Yes, I was awake.” Again, the man questioned him, “Were you awake or were you asleep, sir?” He replied, “I was not asleep.” The questioner silently thought to himself, “This is marvelous; when this ascetic was in his concentration, even though fully awake he did not hear any of the loud noise of the carts.” He then said to my teacher, “A short while ago, ﬁve hundred carts passed by on this road, sir. But you did not hear anything, even when the carts shook [the ground] loudly. How much less would you be able to hear anything other than that noise.” Then, giving greetings to my teacher and with a delighted heart, the man departed, sir.
The Buddha said to Pukkusa:
I shall now question you; answer me as you like. Which of the two do you think is more difﬁcult: While awake, not hearing anything of the multiple carts passing by, or not hearing anything when lightning and thunder shake the ground?
Pukkusa replied:
Even tens of thousands of carts cannot match the loud noise made by thunder and lightning. It is not so difﬁcult for an ascetic to not hear the noise of carts as [compared to] not hearing thunder and lightning,

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sir. When thunder and lightning shake the ground, not hearing that sound is deﬁnitely far more difﬁcult, sir.
The Buddha said to Pukkusa:
Once, while visiting the village of Ātumā, I stayed in a grass-thatched abode. Ominous clouds arose, accompanying a storm of some magnitude. Thunder and lightning shook [the entire area] and mortally struck two brother farmers and their four oxen. Many people gathered because of this [unfortunate] event. At that time, I was outside the abode, engaged in a meditative walk, roaming [the ﬁeld]. A man left the gathering and, after venerating [me] by bowing his forehead toward my feet, began to walk along with me. I was aware of a person at my side and asked him, “What are those people that are gathered there doing?” The man asked me, “Where were you a little while ago, sir? Were you awake or asleep?” I answered, “When I am walking like this, I am certainly not asleep.” The man was again impressed and exclaimed to himself, “This is mar- velous! When one acquires concentration he becomes like the Buddha, who, even though awake, hears nothing when in total quiescence, even as thunder and lightning shake the entire sky and earth with a resounding noise.” Then he said to [me], “A short while ago ominous clouds arose, accompanying a storm of some magnitude. Thunder and lightning shook with tremendous noise and struck two brother farmers and their four oxen, killing them. Many people have gathered here because of that event, sir. [But I now realize that] this [concentration] is the right place, sir.” This man, with joy in his heart, was delighted with the Dharma and, after venerating [me], went on his way.
At that time Pukkusa took up two golden garments of extraordinary value, worth a hundred thousand [cash], and rose [from his seat]. Kneeling respect- fully with palms joined together, he said to the Buddha, “May I present these two garments to the World-honored One as a gift, sir. May your holiness accept this gift.”
The Buddha said to Pukkusa, “You should dedicate one garment to me and the other to Ānanda.” Then, following that advice, Pukkusa presented one [garment] to the Tathāgata and the other to Ānanda as gifts. The Buddha

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accepted it out of compassion. Then Pukkusa, having venerated the Buddha, stayed to one side. The Buddha began to teach the Dharma, encouraging, ben- eﬁting, and delighting him by expounding upon the doctrines of (1) charity,
(2) morality, (3) rebirth in heaven, (4) abandoning unclean and impure desires as a great danger, (5) determining that any ongoing deﬁlement from passion is an obstacle, and (6) the commendability and necessity of the path of dis- tancing oneself from both suffering and pleasure as the best [step toward the spiritual goal].
The Buddha then observed that Pukkusa’s mind was ﬁlled with joy, had become receptive without hindrance, and was ready to be educated. In accor- dance with the rule of all buddhas, he taught Pukkusa (1) the doctrine of the noble truth of suffering and the remaining three truths: (2) the truth of the cause of suffering, (3) the truth of the cessation of suffering, and (4) the truth of the path of cessation. At that time, Pukkusa, with pure and genuine faith, like a white cloth that can easily be dyed any color, immediately in that single session [at his seat] removed himself from all deﬁlement and acquired genuine insight into the nature of the Dharma; realized the Dharma as he envisioned it; became determined to abide in the right path, without falling into any evil course; and thus attained the state of fearlessness. He then said to the Buddha:
Now, I humbly take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May your holiness grant me permission to become a lay devotee. From now on until my life ends, I will not harm life, steal, indulge in sexual mis- conduct, lie, or ingest intoxicants. May your holiness grant me per- mission to become a lay devotee.
Again he said to the Buddha:
If your holiness should visit or sojourn in Pāvā, may you pass by the poverty-stricken houses and proceed directly to my residence. Whatever I have in my house, food and drink, couch and bed, garment and cloth, hot water and medicine, will be ready for use in the service of the World-honored One. If your holiness accepts my humble charity, my household will be blessed, becoming safe and peaceful, sir.
The Buddha said, “What you have said is good.” At that time, the World- honored One [further] taught the Dharma to Pukkusa, encouraging, beneﬁting,

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and delighting him. Pukkusa stood, venerated the Buddha by bowing his forehead to his feet, and departed with delight in his heart.
Not long after Pukkusa left, Ānanda presented the golden garment to the Tathāgata, and the Tathāgata accepted it for Ānanda’s sake, and put it on. At that moment, in his whole expression the World-honored One looked most composed, his aura of authority as expansive as ever, his senses pure and immaculate, and his complexion harmoniously delightful. Observing this, Ānanda remained silent and thought to himself:
It has been twenty-ﬁve years since I began to serve the Buddha as his personal attendant, but I have never before seen him with such a won- derful appearance, emitting a shining ray of light like that of gold.
At once Ānanda stood up and, kneeling with his right knee on the ground and both palms joined together, said to the Buddha:
During the twenty-ﬁve years in which I have attended your holiness, I have never seen the Buddha’s complexion so bright and golden as it is now, sir. I do not know why this is so. May your holiness explain to me why this is so?
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
There are two reasons why the complexion of the Tathāgata becomes especially different from its usual [aspect]. First, it happens when the Buddha realizes perfect enlightenment for the ﬁrst time; second, it hap- pens when the Buddha decides to take the course of ﬁnal nirvana, for- saking his span of life. O Ānanda, in these two situations, such a bright complexion becomes prominent and distinct from the ordinary.
At that time, the World-honored One continued in verse:
The golden robe, delightful its reﬂection, Fine and soft to the touch, clean and fresh, Pukkusa offered it to the World-honored One, He, emitting from the forehead
A ray as white as snow.

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The Buddha said to Ānanda, “I feel thirsty. I need water. Please go and fetch some.” Ānanda replied:
A while ago, ﬁve hundred carriages crossed the river upstream, causing the water to become muddy, and it has not returned to its normal trans- parency, sir. It can be used for washing the feet but not for drinking, sir.
In this manner, the Buddha asked him three times, “O Ānanda, please go and fetch water.” Ānanda replied: “Not too far from here there is a river called Kakuṭṭhā, the water of which is clean and cool and can be used for drinking as well as for bathing, sir.” Then a spirit that resided in the Himalaya mountains, a believer in the Buddhist path, immediately scooped up clean water of eight qualities with a bowl and offered it to the World-honored One. With compas- sion, the Buddha received [the water] and uttered the following verses:
In eight kinds of voice,
The Buddha asked Ānanda to fetch water, saying: “I am thirsty. Now I wish to drink water.”
Having ﬁnished drinking the water, He reached Kuśinagara.
His soft, pleasant voice and The meaning of what he spoke
Equally pleased the minds of the people. Attending the Buddha closely,
Ānanda said to the World-honored One:
“In the distance, ﬁve hundred carts entered the stream and Crossed the river to the yonder shore,
Making its water muddy and unsanitary for drinking. The Kakuṭṭhā River is not far from here.
Its water is beautiful, clean, and cool. It is better to drink water there and Also to bathe your body in that river.” A spirit residing in the Himalaya Fetched water for the Tathāgata.
Having ﬁnished it, the World-honored One Regained his strength and

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Walked with gait of a lion.
In the waters [of that river] a dragon abides, [The water is] clear and transparent, Spotless, with no speck of dust.
With his holy appearance resembling [in grandeur] the Himalayas, The World-honored One crossed the Kakuṭṭhā River
In peace and tranquility.
At that time, the World-honored One crossed the Kakuṭṭhā River and, after drinking water and bathing himself, he went on with the host of bhikṣus. On the way, the World-honored One wished to rest and stopped under a tree. He asked [Venerable] Cundaka, “Take out the saṃghāṭī robe, fold it into four layers, and spread it on the ground. I must rest as my back pain presses me.” As instructed, Cundaka spread out the robe and the Buddha took his seat upon it. Having venerated the Buddha, Cundaka remained at one side and then said to the Buddha, “I wish to take the course of entering nirvana, sir.” The Buddha said to him, “You know it is the right time.” Thereupon Cundaka entered ﬁnal nirvana in the presence of the Buddha. At that time the Buddha uttered these verses:
The Kakuṭṭhā River where the Buddha arrived Was clean, with no mud whatsoever.
After bathing his body in the water, The Most Honorable among Humans
Crossed the river to the yonder shore and
Said to Cundaka, who was leading the group of bhikṣus: “I say that I now feel my body is exceedingly exhausted. Spread the cloth on the ground.”
Folding up the robe into four layers, Cundaka spread it on the ground.
When the Tathāgata had rested [and caught] his breath, Cundaka, seated before him, said to the Buddha:
“May I take the course of entering nirvana, sir. Now I am ready to reach the place
Where there is neither love nor hate,
The yonder ocean, immeasurably meritorious.”

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The [Tathāgata,] highest among humans, Replied to him:
“You have done what should be done. Now is the right time.”
[Having] obtained his permission,
Cundaka doubled his exertion in concentration and Thus accomplished total cessation.
He was gone, like a ﬂame that has been extinguished.
Thereupon, Ānanda stood up from his seat, stepped forward, and enquired of the Buddha, “How should the funeral rite be conducted after the nirvana of the Buddha, sir?” The Buddha replied, “You should instead be quietly concerned with what you should accomplish [in your religious life]. Leave the matter to the lay devotees who themselves wish to conduct it.” Ānanda, however, asked him again three times, “How should the funeral rite be con- ducted after the nirvana of the Buddha, sir?” The Buddha replied,
If you wish to know the funeral rite for the Buddha, you should conduct it exactly as you would conduct the rite for a universal ruler.
Ānanda again asked, “How should the funeral rite for the universal ruler be conducted, sir?” The Buddha said to Ānanda:
First, you should bathe the body in warm scented water, cover the entire body with new cotton cloth, wrap it in a cloth equally as long as ﬁve hundred pairs of garments, place the body within a golden cofﬁn, pour sesame oil over it, place the golden cofﬁn inside a second, larger iron vault, cover it with a sandalwood vault, cover that vault with a thick pile of a various incense, and then cremate the entire thing. After retrieving the ashes, build a commemorative tower (stupa) or shrine at each major crossroads and hang a picture on a rock pillar set before it, so as to enable the citizens of the country who are passing on the roads to view the towers of the universal ruler of the law, [thereby] causing a sense of affection to arise in their hearts toward his benevolent rule, thus bringing about a beneﬁcial inﬂuence upon the populace. O Ānanda, if you wish to conduct the funeral rite for me, you should bathe my body with warm scented water, cover the entire body with

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new cotton cloth, wrap it in a cloth equally as long as ﬁve hundred pairs of garments, place the body within a golden cofﬁn, pour sesame oil over it, place the golden cofﬁn inside a second, larger iron vault, cover it with a sandalwood vault, cover that vault with a thick pile of various incense, and then cremate the entire thing. After retrieving my ashes, build a commemorative tower or shrine at each major crossroads and hang my picture on a rock pillar set before it, so as to enable who- ever passes on the road to view the Buddha’s tower, refreshing his sense of affectionate regard for the religious deed accomplished by the Tathāgata, and encouraging him to strive for his own goal of happiness in life when born into this world, and to obtain the opportunity to be reborn in heaven when he dies.
Then the World-honored One contemplated the matter once more and uttered the following verses:
Ānanda stood up from his seat, and Kneeling down respectfully,
Said to the World-honored One:
“After the nirvana of the Tathāgata,
How should his funeral rite be conducted?” [The Buddha replied:]
“O Ānanda, you should instead be quietly concerned With what you should accomplish in life.
Leave the matter to the lay devotees Who themselves wish to conduct it.” Then, because Ānanda again Repeated his enquiry three times, The Buddha thus replied,
Explaining the funeral rite of the universal ruler. “In conducting the funeral rite for the Tathāgata,
One should wrap his body with a long garment cloth, Place it in the cofﬁn, and then in a second vault.
[After cremation,] erect a commemorative tower or shrine At every major crossroads
So as to beneﬁt sentient beings.

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Whoever comes to venerate and Pay respect to the tower
Will acquire immeasurable merit.
The Buddha said to Ānanda,
There are four kinds of [supreme] personalities in the world, for whom a commemorative tower (stupa) should be erected, and for whom offer- ings of incense, ﬂowers, images, canopies, song and dance, and food should be made. What are these four? They are, ﬁrst, the Tathāgata, for whom the commemorative tower should be erected; second, the solitary buddha (pratyekabuddha); third, the saintly disciple (śrāvaka); and fourth, the universal ruler (cakravartin). These are the four kinds of personalities for whom the commemorative tower should be erected, and the rite of offering incense, ﬂowers, images, canopies, song and dance, and food should be conducted.
At that time, the World-honored One continued in verse:
The Buddha should be commemorated In the primary tower, and
Then follow the pratyekabuddha,
The śrāvaka buddha, and
The universal ruler (cakravartin). For these four towers,
Administered under the authority of the primary one, There should be conducted offering rites.
The Tathāgata referred thus to the stupas of the Buddha, The pratyekabuddha, the śrāvaka buddha, and
The universal ruler (cakravartin).
At that time, the World-honored One said to Ānanda, “Let us go to the town of Kuśinagara, to the spot between two śāla trees.” Replying, “Yes, sir,” Ānanda together with the host of bhikṣus surrounded him and proceeded on the road. Then a brāhmaṇa who happened to be on the road between the towns of Pāvā and Kuśinagara saw the World-honored One from a distance and observed his handsome appearance, senses well restrained in sublime

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quiescence. Delighted in heart and with good intent, he approached the Buddha and, after greeting him, withdrew to one side and said to him:

O World-honored One, the village of my residence is not too far from this place. May I request, O Gautama, that you sojourn overnight there, and after partaking of the morning meal proceed to the town of Kuśinagara.
The Buddha replied to the brāhmaṇa, “May you ask me no more. Your offering has already been made.” The brāhmaṇa, however, respectfully repeated his request three times. The Buddha replied as before, but advised the brāh- maṇa, “Ānanda is coming along behind me. Speak to him about your wish.” Thereupon, as instructed, the brāhmaṇa immediately went to Ānanda. After greeting him with a bow, he withdrew to one side and said to him:
The village of my residence is not far from here. I humbly wish that Gautama accept my invitation to visit there for my offering. After the morning meal, his holiness may proceed to the town of Kuśinagara.
Ānanda replied, “Ask no more. O brāhmaṇa, your offering has already been fully appreciated.” The brāhmaṇa, however, again respectfully repeated his invitation [for a second and] third time. Ānanda replied:
The weather is already hot, and the village is too far from the road. Since the World-honored One is exhausted, it is no longer feasible to [continue to ask] him about it.
At that time, the World-honored One envisioned what was going on and uttered the following verse:
One who is endowed
With eyes pure and genuine Proceeded on the road, With exceeding fatigue,
Toward the pair of śāla trees.
A brāhmaṇa saw the Buddha from a distance; Quickly he approached him.
Having greeted him with a bow, the brāhmaṇa said:

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“The village of my residence is in this neighborhood.
With compassion, may your holiness come to stay overnight. I shall set forth the next day’s meal in the morning.
Thereafter, may your holiness take the course toward town.” [The Buddha said:]
“O brāhmaṇa, my body is exhausted. It is too far for me to go that way.
My close attendant is coming behind. May you go and speak to him.”
As instructed, the brāhmaṇa Came to Ānanda at once and Said to him:
“I just invited the Buddha to come to my village, and After the next day’s meal
Leave upon his journey, sir.” Ānanda said:
“Please, ask no more.
The weather is already hot, and
It is not feasible for the World-honored One To visit your residence.”
The brāhmaṇa repeated his wish three times, but in vain. [The Buddha said:]
“No one is free from worry and afﬂiction, Nor can he be satisﬁed or at ease,
Ah! With these conditioned elements (saṃskṛta-dharmas) so evanescent,
Never remaining unchanged.
Now, at the spot between the pair of śāla trees, I shall extinguish this body
Though already free from deﬁlement (anāsrava-kāya). The Buddha, pratyekabuddha, śrāvaka,
All equally return to this nirvana, Because there is no other choice
With the way in which the world is impermanent Like a forest ablaze with ﬁre.

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At that time, having reached the town of Kuśinagara, the World-honored One proceeded through the original land of the Mallan clanspeople toward the pair of śāla trees, and he instructed Ānanda:
Set up my bedding between the pair of śāla trees, with my head to the north and facing toward the west. For my teaching will spread toward the north and ﬂourish there for some time.
With his answer, Ānanda spread the sitting cloth on the ground with the head toward the north. At that time, the World-honored One folded his saṃghāṭī robe into four layers by himself, lay down on his right side, and placed his left foot on top of the right, like a lion. Then the tree spirits abiding between the twin śāla trees, with their ﬁrm faith in the Buddha, scattered ﬂowers that were blooming out of season. At that moment the World-honored One said to Ānanda: “These spirits of the twin śāla trees made an offering of ﬂowers blooming out of season. This is not a true offering for the Tathāgata, however.” Ānanda enquired, “What kind of things are regarded as true offer- ings for the Tathāgata, sir?” [The Buddha] answered, “When a person receives the Dharma well and practices it well, this is regarded as a true offering for the Tathāgata.” Having contemplated on the meaning of this, the Buddha uttered the following verses:
The Buddha laid himself down Between the twin śāla trees With his mind undisturbed.
The tree spirits, with their minds pure and genuine, Scattered ﬂowers upon the Buddha.
Ānanda enquired of the Buddha:
“What is a true offering?’ [The Buddha replied:]
“Having received the Dharma well, and Practiced it well,
One offers the ﬂower of enlightenment.
Even scattering the purplish-golden ﬂower garlands Over the Buddha does not make a true offering.
Only when one realizes the insight of nonself

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With the ﬁve aggregates,
This is the best, primary offering.”
At that time, Venerable Upavāna was sitting before the Buddha, fanning him. The Buddha said to him, “Upavāna, leave the place where you are and make that space open.” Then Ānanda quietly thought to himself:
Upavāna has always been by the Buddha’s side, serving him with what- ever he needed. He is so devoted to the Tathāgata that he never tires of looking at him. Now this is the Buddha’s last moment; he should be permitted to see his last moment. The Buddha, however, asks him to leave his position. What is his reason for doing that?
Thinking thus, Ānanda rearranged his robe, proceeded forward, and said to the Buddha:
Upavāna has always been by the Buddha’s side and has served your holiness with whatever was needed. He is so devoted to the Tathāgata that he never tires of looking at [you]. Now it is your holiness’ last moment; he should be allowed to attend this moment. Yet your holiness asks him to withdraw from his position. What is your holiness’ reason for doing so, sir?
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
Beyond this town of Kuśinagara, there are regions within the range of a distance of twelve yojanas where great distinguished spirits reside in concentration, leaving no empty space. These spirits equally wish that [Upavāna] should not stand before the Buddha because they wish to witness my last moment, but this monk’s eminence in authority and virtue and his luminous body obstruct their vision and direct access for their veneration and offerings. O Ānanda, for this reason I have asked him to withdraw from in front of me.
Ānanda said to the Buddha:
What kind of merit has this honorable bhikṣu accumulated, and also what kind of discipline has he practiced, for which he has realized an aura of authority and virtue such as that, sir?

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The Buddha replied to Ānanda:
During the period ninety-one eons ago, there appeared a buddha in this world, Vipaśyin by name. This bhikṣu then, with delight in his heart, held a grass torch to illuminate the commemorative tower of that buddha. Because of this deed, now his aura of authority and virtue reaches the twenty-eighth level of the heavens, making the gods of the lower heavens unable to compete with him in splendor.
At that time, Ānanda rose from his seat, rearranged his robe to expose his right shoulder, respectfully knelt with his right knee on the ground, and, with his palms joined together, said to the Buddha:
May the World-honored One refrain from taking the course of entering nirvana in this region near a small, rustic town. Why, sir? There are many large capitals elsewhere—Campā, Vaiśālī, Rājagṛha, Vṛji, Śrāvastī, Kapilavastu, and Vārāṇasī, sir. In those centers there are many people and clanspeople who cherish their faith in the Buddha’s teaching (Dharma). After the nirvana of the Buddha, they surely will enshrine the ashes most respectfully and with veneration, sir.
The Buddha replied:
Speak no more. You should not produce prejudice. Nor should you regard this region as [merely] rustic countryside. Why is this so? Once upon a time, this country had a king, Mahāsudarśana by name.
At that time this town was called Kuśavatī and it was that great king’s capital, one hundred twenty miles in length and seventy miles wide. At that time, the crops and rice harvests were abundant, the citizens were prosperous, and the city was protected by seven rings of moats and seven levels of railings as well. Records were inscribed on iron plates [hung on the railings], and metallic bells were hung between them. The depth of the city wall was twenty-four feet (below the ground) and the height was ninety-six feet from the ground. The height of the tower cloister was a further ninety-six feet above that building, and the cir- cumference of its main pillars was twenty-four feet. The four sides of the city were embellished with four precious materials, such as a golden

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wall endowed with a silver gate [on the ﬁrst side]; a silver wall endowed with a golden gate [on the second]; a lapis lazuli wall endowed with a quartz gate [on the third]; and a quartz wall endowed with a lapis lazuli gate [on the fourth side]. The railings inlaid in these four sides were also embellished with the same four precious materials. To the golden tower were attached silver bells, to the silver tower were attached golden bells, while the seven moats were ﬁlled with all kinds of lotus ﬂowers: blue, pink, red, and white. Golden sands spread in the depths of the water revealed the bottom of the moats, while palm trees were planted on those narrow banks. These golden palm trees bore leaves, ﬂowers and fruits made of silver; the silver palm trees bore leaves, ﬂowers, and fruits made of gold; likewise, the palm trees made of quartz bore ﬂowers and fruits made of lapis lazuli, while the lapis lazuli palm trees bore ﬂowers, and fruits made of quartz. Between these palm trees there were a number of bathing ponds with clean streams, deep pools, all pure and spotless, demarcated by tiles studded with the four precious materials. There were golden stairways with silver steps, silver stairways with golden steps, and lapis lazuli stairways with golden steps. The steps of some lapis lazuli stairways were inlaid with quartz, while the steps of some quartz stairways were inlaid with lapis lazuli. The railings that sur- rounded the city were continuous, and within the city there grew palm trees here and there. The golden palms bore leaves, ﬂowers, and fruits made of silver; the silver palms bore leaves, ﬂowers, and fruits made of gold; the quartz trees bore ﬂowers and fruits made of lapis lazuli; the lapis lazuli trees bore ﬂowers and fruits made of quartz. Between these trees there were placed four kinds of ponds [each respectively] ﬁlled
with four kinds of lotus ﬂowers.
The streets and houses were neatly aligned, and the town blocks were well organized with parallel streets running horizontally as well as vertically. Quantities of ﬂowers scattered by the wind fell upon the streets. A mild breeze arose four times [daily], passing through these trees, creating soft sounds like those of heavenly music. The people of this country, male or female, adult or child, played among these trees and enjoyed their games.

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In that country ten kinds of sounds were always heard, [those pro- duced by:] (1) a conch shell, (2) a drum, (3) a hand drum, (4) singing,
(5) dancing, (6) musical instruments such as ﬂutes, (7) elephants, (8) horses, (9) carriages, and (10) gatherings in which people were drinking, eating, joking, and laughing.
At that time, King Mahāsudarśana was endowed with seven precious treasures and enjoyed four blessings. He was the universal ruler of all four quarters of the earth under the sky. What are these seven treasures? They are: (1) the golden wheel, (2) the white elephant, (3) the dark- blue horse, (4) the divine gem, (5) the jadelike queen, (6) the house- holder, (7) the military commander. The following was the way in which the universal ruler managed to use his ﬁrst treasure, the golden wheel. The king bathed in scented water on the full moon day, the ﬁf- teenth of the month, and ascended to the top of a pavilion surrounded by the palace ladies. The sacred wheel then appeared of its own accord before the king, with a thousand spokes of rich color and splendor. It was built by a heavenly master and did not belong to the human world. Made of genuine gold, it had a diameter of thirty-two feet.
King Mahāsudarśana quietly thought to himself:
I once heard from my virtuous elders the following words: “When a king of the kṣatriya race, anointed on his head for the throne, takes a scented bath on the full moon day, the ﬁfteenth of the month, and ascends to the top of the pavilion surrounded by the palace ladies, then at that moment the golden wheel is supposed to appear before him of its own accord. The wheel has a thousand spokes of rich color and splendor. It is built by a heavenly master and does not belong to this world. It is made of genuine gold and has a diameter of thirty-two feet. Thereupon, the king is called the cakravartin, ‘one who turns the sacred wheel.’”
Now I see this wheel before me, but who knows if this shall really work. I should now test this treasured wheel.
Then King Mahāsudarśana called the four divisions of the army to assemble. He faced the golden wheel directly and, rearranging his gar- ment to expose his right shoulder and kneeling with his right knee on

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the ground, he rubbed the wheel with his right hand and spoke to the wheel: “Let the wheel turn itself toward the east, turning as it should, without losing regularity.” The wheel at once began to roll toward the east. Then King Mahāsudarśana followed after the wheel leading the four divisions of his army. When the golden wheel was turning forward, the four guardian gods were in charge of guiding it. Wherever the wheel stopped, the king stopped his chariot.
At that time, having seen the great king approaching, the rulers of the small countries in the eastern regions prepared a golden bowl ﬁlled with silver grains and a silver bowl ﬁlled with golden grains, stepped forward toward the king, and, with heads bowed, said to him:
Welcome, great king. The eastern countries are now blessed with an abundance of harvests and produce, the people are prosperous, the nature of the populace is friendly and harmonious, and all are ﬁlial to their parents and loyal to their rulers. O holy ruler, your majesty is recommended to govern these lands through ofﬁces estab- lished here. We shall closely attend your majesty and will execute your commands as you wish, sir.
At that time, King Mahāsudarśana replied to the rulers of the small countries:
Enough, dear wise kings, your offerings have already been appre- ciated by me. Your kingships rule these countries on the basis of the right Dharma, so that neither injustice nor wrong action can take place in your countries. I say that these two principles embody my governance.
After listening to his exhortation, the kings of the small countries then accompanied him on his inspection tour until they reached the eastern ocean.
Next, the great king proceeded toward the south, then to the west, and then to the north; in whichever direction the wheel rolled, the [king and his army] followed. The kings of the small countries in these regions all abnegated their dominions for the sake of the great ruler, just as the eastern rulers had done.

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At that time, King Mahāsudarśana, having already made a complete round of the four oceans by following the golden wheel, educated the populace in the path of morality, provided security in their lives, and then returned to his own country. The golden wheel continued to hover in midair above the palace gate. Rejoicing by dancing and leaping, King Mahāsudarśana said, “This treasure, the golden wheel, is truly my bless- ing. Now I am truly the universal ruler who turns this sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the ﬁrst treasure, the golden wheel. Next, the following describes how the king was able to use his sec- ond treasure, the white elephant. When King Mahāsudarśana was seated in the main hall of the palace early in the morning, the white elephant of its own accord suddenly appeared before him. The color of its hair was pure white, the seven parts of its body (four feet, two shoulders, and neck) were equally developed, and it could ﬂy in midair. The neck had mixed colors, the six tusks were delicate and studded with real gold pieces. Then, having seen the elephant, the king thought to himself, “This elephant is supposed to be wise and good- natured. If it is well trained, it can serve me in riding.” He immediately tried to see if it could be trained, and it revealed a capacity ﬁt for all training. Then, wishing to take his ﬁrst ride, King Sudarśana mounted the elephant, went out of the capital in the morning, made a round of all four oceans, and by breakfast time he had already returned to his palace. Then, rejoicing by dancing and leaping, the King Sudarśana said, “This white elephant is truly my blessing. Now I am truly the universal ruler who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the second
treasure, the white elephant.
Next, the following describes how the king was able to use his third treasure, the horse. King Sudarśana was seated at the main hall early in the morning when of its own accord the horse suddenly appeared before him. Its color was dark blue, but it had a long mane and tail, red in color. Its head and neck were like those of an elephant, and it could ﬂy in midair. Having seen the treasured horse, the king thought to himself, “This horse is supposed to be wise and good-natured. If it is well trained, it can serve as my steed.” He immediately tried to see if it could be trained, ﬁnding that it revealed a capacity ﬁt for all training.

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Then, wishing to take his ﬁrst ride, King Sudarśana mounted the horse, went out of the capital in the morning, made a round of all four oceans, and by breakfast time he had already returned to his palace. Then, rejoicing by dancing and leaping, King Sudarśana said, “This dark- blue horse is indeed my blessing. I am now truly the universal ruler who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the third treasure, the dark-blue horse.
Next, the following describes how the king was able to use his fourth treasure, the divine gem. King Sudarśana was seated at the main hall early in the morning when of its own accord the divine gem suddenly appeared before him. The quality and color of this gem were evident in its clear transparency and purity. Having seen the divine gem, King Sudarśana thought to himself, “This gem is mysterious and very nice; it is supposed to be able to illuminate a region as wide as this entire palace compound when light shines upon it.” Wishing to test the gem himself, King Sudarśana immediately called the four divisions of his army and placed the gem on top of the ﬂagpole. In the darkness of the night, he carried the ﬂag pole and went out of the city. The gem emitted a ray of light that illuminated the entire army, just as if it were daytime. Then, rejoicing by dancing and leaping, King Sudarśana said, “Now this treasured gem is truly my blessing. I am truly the universal ruler who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the fourth treasure, the divine gem.
Next, the following describes how the king was served by his ﬁfth treasure, the jadelike queen. The treasured queen suddenly appeared before the king, her complexion well composed, beautiful in appearance, neither too tall nor too short, neither ﬂeshy nor bony, neither too light nor too dark, neither too hard nor too soft, her body warm in winter and cool in summer. The scent of the sandal tree radiated from the roots of her hair throughout her body and the scent of a blue lotus emananted from her mouth. Her words and speech were invariably gentle and her manner was stable; she never failed to awake before the king or to stay awake until the king fell asleep. As King Sudarśana had realized purity [by extinguishing deﬁlement] and was totally freed from attachment, he did not keep her in his mind even for a moment [as an

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obstacle]; how much less could he have approached her physically [as an object of desire]? Rejoicing by dancing and leaping, King Sudarśana said, “This treasured jadelike queen is indeed my blessing. I am now truly the universal ruler who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the ﬁfth treasure, the jadelike queen.
Next, the following describes how the king was assisted by his sixth treasure, the householder. The householder gentleman suddenly appeared of his own accord before the king, and the storehouses were automatically ﬁlled with immeasurable riches and treasures. This person was endowed with special vision due to his past merit; namely, he was able to see any treasure buried underground, whether or not it belonged to others. He protected the treasures that belonged to some owners, while yielding those with no ownership to the king’s treasury. The householder came to the king and said to him, “O great king, may you have no worry about the stipend payments. I am able to manage the funds by myself, sir.”
The king wished to test the gentleman treasurer. He arranged an excursion on a pleasure boat, and while aboard, the king said to the treasurer householder, “I need some gold pieces. Provide them to me at once.” The treasurer replied, “O great king, give me a bit of time, and I shall go to the shore, sir.” Pressing him further, the king said, “I cannot stop this boat now. Bring the golden treasure right away.” Having received the king’s urgent order, the householder kneeled down on the boat and dipped his right hand into the water. A series of urns ﬁlled with treasures arose from the water, following his hand upward, just as insects cling to tree branches. The other treasurers too joined him, all equally dipping their hands into the water to draw up immeasurable treasures, and the boat was soon ﬁlled with treasure. The householder gentleman then asked the king, “Your majesty needed some gold treas- ure before; how much more do you need, sir?’ Then King Sudarśana said, “Bring no more treasure. I do not need any more. I only wished to test your ability. Your service has already been appreciated.” On hearing the king’s words, the householder returned all the treasures to the water. Then, rejoicing by dancing and leaping, King Sudarśana said, “This treasure householder is indeed my blessing. I am now truly

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the universal ruler who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the real- ization of the sixth treasure, the householder.
Next, the following describes how the king was assisted by his sev- enth treasure, the military commander. The military commander, having excellent knowledge, strategy, valor, and toughness, bright and decisive, suddenly appeared. He went to King Mahāsudarśana and said to him, “Great king, may you have no worry, sir, if you should wish to punish any country. I shall be able to handle the task, sir.” King Sudarśana then, to test him, immediately called the four divisions of the army and told the general, “Make the entire army ready for battle. Assemble those who have not come forth, release those who have already come; let those who are not well prepared get ready for battle, and release those who are already well prepared. Let those who still remain in the assembly to return home, and let those who have already returned stay in their places.” Then, having heard the king’s words, this military commander at once assembled those who did not come forth to the assembly, released those who had already assembled, let those who were not well prepared get ready, released those who were already pre- pared, let those who still remained in the assembly to return home, and let those who had already returned home stay in their places. At that time, rejoicing by dancing and leaping, King Sudarśana said, “This treasured military commander is truly my blessing. I am now truly the universal ruler who turns the sacred wheel.” O Ānanda, this is called the realization of the seventh treasure by the universal king who turns the golden wheel.
What are the four kinds of blessings that pertain to the universal
ruler? First, as the universal king, he has longevity and can never meet with an early death; in this no one can match the king. Second, he has a strong physical body and never contracts illness; in this no one can match the king. Third, he has the most handsome appearance; in this no one can match the king. Fourth, his storehouses are ﬁlled with treas- ures; in this no one can match the king. The foregoing are the seven treasures and four blessings that pertain to the universal ruler.
O Ānanda, after a rather long time had passed, King Sudarśana had his carriage prepared, visited the royal park grove, and said to his

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charioteer, “You should safely return [alone] with this carriage. The reason is that I must contemplate whether or not the state and the citizens are safe and will be free from oncoming danger.” The citizens who happened to see the king on the streets said to his attendant, “Pro- ceed slowly, we wish to see the countenance of the holy ruler.” O Ānanda, King Sudarśana was concerned about the people as well as with their material needs, just as a father is concerned about his children. The people felt affection toward the king as if he was their father. They made gifts of all kinds of rarities to the king, saying, “May his majesty accept this” and “May this be of his majesty’s use.” The king replied, “Bring no more, dear subjects, I have my own treasures. You should keep these things for yourselves.”
On another occasion, the king thought to himself, “Now I should build a palace building.” About the same time that this idea came to his mind, the citizens of the country all said to King Sudarśana, “We wish now to build a palace building for your majesty, sir.” The king replied, “Even if I wish to accept your gifts I have enough treasures of my own, sufﬁcient for building the palace pavilion.” The people, however, further repeated their wish to the king, “We wish to join in your majesty’s task of building the palace pavilion, sir.” The king was ﬁnally obliged to reply, “I shall follow your wish.” As soon as their wish was granted, the citizens ﬁlled eighty-four thousand carts with gold and brought them to the capital city, Kuśavatī, to build the Sudharma pavilion.
At that time, the heavenly being (deva) Viśvakarman, master of architectural building and resident of the second Trāyastriṃśa heaven, quietly thought to himself, “Only I myself, together with King Su- darśana, could build the Sudharma pavilion on such a grand scale.” O Ānanda, the god Viśvakarman subsequently constructed the Sudharma pavilion, ﬁfteen miles in length and seven and a half miles wide, embel- lished with the four precious materials, with a straight and even foun- dation, and with seven layers of tiles piled upon each other to make the stairways. The pillars of this Sudharma pavilion were as many as eighty-four thousand, consisting of golden pillars with silver beam supports, silver pillars with golden beam supports, and likewise, lapis lazuli pillars with quartz beam supports and quartz pillars with lapis

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lazuli beam supports. There were four railings around the pavilion, made of the four precious materials mentioned before. The four stairways were also made of the four precious materials. Above the Sudharma pavilion were built eighty-four thousand towers; each of the golden towers had a silver door, while each of the silver towers had a golden door; in similar manner, each of the quartz towers had a lapis lazuli door, while each of the lapis lazuli towers had a quartz door. Each of the golden towers was equipped with silver couches, while each of the silver towers was equipped with golden couches. Each couch was cov- ered with a soft and ﬁne cushion woven of golden thread; the lapis lazuli and quartz couches were also covered with similar cushions. The bright- ness of the pavilion was so blinding to viewers’ eyes that it was like the intense light of the sun, such that no one could look directly at it. Then King Sudarśana thought to himself, “I should build pools with palm trees around them on both sides of the pavilion.” The four sides of the pools were each one yojana long. The king again thought to himself, “In front of the Sudharma pavilion there should be set the Dharma pond.” When it was built, each of its four sides were one yojana long. The water was clean and clear, pure and spotless. The bottom of the pond was constructed with tiles made of the four kinds of precious materials as before. A railing was attached around the four sides of the pond, studded with four kinds of precious materials, such as gold, silver, quartz, and lapis lazuli. Inside the pond grew varieties of water grass and all kinds of lotus plants with blue, pink, red, and white ﬂowers that released exquisitely delicate fragrance in all directions. The gardens that surrounded the four sides of the pool were also ﬁlled with varieties of blooming ﬂowers, such as atimuktaka, campaka, pāṭalī, sumanā, vārṣika, and dhanuṣkari. The pond was looked after by some caretakers, but if any citizens who passed by the pond wished to bathe in it they could do so, because it was cool and refreshing. Fruit juice as well as food were amply provided to anyone who wished to drink or partake of it, as much as they might desire. Clothing, carriages, horses, fragrant ﬂowers, riches, and treasures were all available to anyone. O Ānanda, King Sudarśana had eighty-four thousand elephants, among which the treasured elephant, decorated with gold and silver

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ornaments on which precious gems were strung, was foremost. He had eighty-four thousand carriages mounted with bridles made of lion’s hide, decorated with four precious gems, among which the divine gem was foremost. He had eighty-four thousand horses, among which the treasured horse, also decorated with ornaments of gold and silver on which precious gems were strung, was foremost. He had eighty-four thousand gems, among which the treasure, the divine gem, was fore- most. He had eighty-four thousand women, among whom the treasure of the jadelike queen was foremost. He had eighty-four thousand house- holders, among whom the treasure of the householder gentleman was foremost. He had eighty-four thousand soldiers, among whom the treas- ure of the military commander was foremost. He had eighty-four thou- sand cities, among which Kuśavatī was foremost. He had eighty-four thousand pavilions, among which the Sudharma pavilion was foremost. He had eighty-four thousand towers, among which the central tower was foremost. He had eighty-four thousand couches all made of gold and silver and various precious stones, which were covered with exqui- site cushions and ﬁne and soft spreads. He had eighty-four thousand million garments, of which those made of hemp, muslin, and cotton were foremost. He had eighty-four thousand kinds of food, of which a meal was provided each day, all with different ﬂavors.
O Ānanda, King Sudarśana, riding on the second treasure, the white elephant, foremost among all his eighty-four thousand elephants, left his capital in the morning, traveling the entire land under the sky, making the round of the four oceans, and returning within a short time to his castle for the morning meal. The king, riding on the third treasure, the dark-blue horse, foremost among all his eighty-four thousand horses, left his capital in the morning, traveled the entire land under the sky, made the round of the four oceans, and returned within a short time to his castle for the morning meal. The king, riding on the ﬁrst treasure, the golden wheel vehicle, [drawn by] the treasured horse, foremost among all his eighty-four thousand vehicles, left his capital in the morning, traveled the entire land under the sky, made the round of the four oceans, and within a short time returned to his castle for the morning meal.

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The king used the fourth treasure, the divine gem, foremost among all his eighty-four thousand gemstones, to illuminate the entire palace compound, making night as bright as day. He had the sixth treasure, the jadelike queen, foremost among all of his eighty-four thousand ladies, serve him at his side. The king entrusted the sixth treasure, the householder gentleman, foremost among all his eighty-four thousand householders, with managing ﬁnancial matters. The king entrusted the seventh treasure, the military commander, foremost among all of his eighty-four thousand soldiers, with [the duty of] disciplining any [mis- creants] among the troops.
King Sudarśana’s central capital city, foremost among the eighty- four thousand cities he ruled, was Kuśinagara. The king always stayed at the Sudharma pavilion, foremost among all of his eighty-four thou- sand pavilions. The king always stayed at the central tower, foremost among all of his eighty-four thousand towers. The king always sat on the quartz seat, foremost among all of his eighty-four thousand seats, because it was best for meditation. He ordered all of his eighty-four thousand million garments to be inlaid with precious stones. Donning a garment at one’s will is done out of modesty externally as well as internally. The king always ate naturally grown rice, preferring it from among all the eighty-four thousand different kinds of meals, because he knew the proper amount of food for his best health.
The eighty-four thousand elephants came to the capital city and injured and killed sentient beings on innumerable occasions. The king then thought to himself, “These elephants come around frequently, causing innumerable injuries and damage; from now on, each elephant shall be permitted to come only once during a hundred-year period.” In this way, a rotation system was put in order. When a hundred years had passed, it started over again from the beginning.

Third Episode

At that time, the Buddha said to Ānanda:
Then King Sudarśana contemplated to himself, “What kind of merits did I originally accumulate, what kind of good discipline did I practice,

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such that I have now acquired such an august and splendid reward as universal rulership?”
Again he contemplated to himself, “I have acquired this fortunate reward due to three causes. What are the three? First, charity (dāna); second, morality (śīla); and third, meditation (dhyāna). Because of these causes, I have now acquired such a great reward.”
The king again contemplated to himself, “I have now already acquired this fortunate reward as a human; I must further upgrade my practice of good karma so as to be rewarded a heavenly destiny. I should sacriﬁce myself, withdraw from daily noise and trouble, reside in a secluded place, and practice the path.”
The king then said to his treasured queen, Sumatī, “I have now already obtained this splendid reward as a human, I must further improve my practice of good karma so as to be rewarded a heavenly destiny. I should sacriﬁce myself, withdraw from daily noise and trouble, reside in a secluded place and practice the path.”
The queen replied, “I understand, sir.” She thus notiﬁed [everyone] both within and without [the palace] to cancel appointments to attend as well as receive an audience [with the king].
Thereupon, King Sudarśana ascended to the Sudharma pavilion, entered the golden cloister tower, and sat on the silver couch. He con- templated the eradication of deﬁlements, such as avarice, carnal desire, craving, evil, and wrongdoing; he realized the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption (dhyāna-samādhi), in which there is an awareness of an object and an act of examining while the sense of joy and bliss increase through removal of the cause of birth, thus reaching the supramundane sphere. Next, eliminating the awareness of an object and the subjective act of examination, with tranquility or self-conﬁdence (Pāli saṃpasā- dana) increasing, continually applying concentration of the mind, he proceeded to the second meditative state of absorption, in which there is neither the awareness of an object nor a subjective act, the sense of joy and bliss predominating in the arising state of concentration. Next, the sense of joy fading away, dwelling in the sense of equanimity, fully aware of subtler bliss, he reached the third meditative state of absorption in which one experiences the mindfulness and bliss sought by the wise

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and holy practitioner. Next, transcending both pain and pleasure, removing sorrow and joy, he realized the fourth meditative state of absorption in which there is neither pain nor pleasure, but an increase of the state of equanimity (upekṣā) that consolidates pure and genuine mindfulness.
Thereupon, King Sudarśana arose from the silver chair, came out of the golden cloister tower, went to the central tower, sat on the lapis lazuli chair, and practiced the four kinds of immeasurable minds (brah- mavihāras), ﬁrst by permeating friendly love (maitrī) inﬁnitely in one direction, and then likewise in the remaining three directions. Thus he extended his immeasurable mind of benevolence universally in all directions, neither [divided] nor bound to limitation. Casting away var- ious feelings of hatred, leaving no ill will in his mind, the king enjoyed the state of tranquility and silence, compassion and tenderness. He also completed the remaining three practices, namely, the immeasurable mind of compassion (karuṇā), the immeasurable mind of sympathetic joy (muditā), and the immeasurable mind of equanimity (upekṣā). At that time, the treasured queen quietly thought herself, “I have not seen his majesty for some time and wish to set up an occasion for audience. I shall now notify the king of this.” Then the treasured queen Sumatī said to the eighty-four thousand palace ladies, “May all of you bathe in warm scented water and attire yourselves in formal dress. Since we have not seen his majesty for some time, we are going to see the countenance of his majesty.” As instructed, the palace ladies bathed and properly attired themselves. Then Queen Sumatī also said to the treasured military commander, “May your leadership assemble the four divisions of the army. Since we have not seen his majesty for some time, we are going to have an audience.” Thereupon, the treasured mil- itary commander, having assembled the four divisions of the army, reported, “The four divisions of the army have already been assembled. Whenever your ladyship is ready.” Thereupon, leading the eighty-four thousand palace ladies, accompanied by the four divisions of the army, the queen reached the golden palm tree grove. The sound of the mul- titude reached the king’s cognizance. Having heard the sound, the king looked through a window and saw the treasured queen standing by the

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doorside. Seeing the queen, the king said to her, “Please halt there and do not proceed. I am coming out of this cloister.”

Thereupon, King Sudarśana stood up from the quartz seat, came out of the central tower, came down to the Sudharma pavilion, and together with the treasured queen, walked toward the palm tree grove, [where he] took his seat in the prepared position. At that time, the great king Sudarśana’s complexion was more luminous than on ordinary days. The queen thought to herself, “Now, his majesty’s complexion exceeds that seen on other ordinary days. What kind of auspicious sign is this?” Then Queen Sumatī said to the king, “Your majesty’s complexion exceeds that of ordinary days. This may not be an auspicious sign, but is it because your majesty has decided to forsake the span of life, sir? Among the eighty-four thousand elephants, foremost is the treasured white elephant decorated with gold and silver ornaments from which precious gems are strung. The elephant, the precious gem, and so on are themselves your majesty’s possessions. I entreat your majesty: be reminded of these treasures and enjoy a further span of this life with us. May your majesty not forsake your life span and leave tens of thou-
sands of your subjects without their ruler.
“Again, among the host of eighty-four thousand horses, the treasured horse is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand chariots, the treas- ured golden wheel is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand gems, the divine gem is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand women, the treasured jadelike lady is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand householders, the treasured householder gentleman is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand warriors, the treasured military commander is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand cities, Kuśinagara is fore- most. Among the eighty-four thousand pavilions, the Sudharma pavilion is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand towers, the central tower is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand thrones, the bejeweled throne is foremost. Among the eighty-four thousand million garments, the soft and smooth garment is foremost. The eighty-four thousand kinds of meals are each different and exquisite in taste. All of these varieties of treasures, without exception, belong to your majesty. I entreat your majesty: be reminded of these treasures and enjoy a further

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span of life with us. May your majesty not forsake your life span and leave tens of thousands of subjects without their ruler.”
At that time, King Sudarśana replied to the queen, “Your ladyship, since olden days you have assisted me in the virtues of mercy, gentle- ness, respectfulness, and obedience, and you have never uttered a care- less word. Why do you say this to me now?”
The queen said to the king, “I do not understand, sir. How could my statement be contrary to your majesty, sir?” The king replied to the queen, “The things to which you have referred, namely, the elephants, horses, chariots, the golden wheel, the palace pavilion and cloister, the good garments, the exquisite meals—all these are impermanent and cannot be held for a long time. Though you have urged me to remain in this life, how can I follow this request?”
Queen Sumatī said again to the king, “I do not understand, sir. Your majesty is my merciful teacher. What else could I say, sir?” The king replied, “If you understand that the elephants, horses, chariots, golden wheel, pavilions and cloisters, garments, and exquisite meals are all impermanent, and hence cannot be held beyond a temporary period of time, you would not exhaust your mind and thoughts out of attachment to these things. The reason is that I have no more life left and must soon leave for the next life. It is the universal rule that whenever there is birth, there is death; whenever there is a meeting, there is a separation. Who could, once born into this life, live forever? One should sever oneself from affection and love and give weight to the path of seeking the ultimate goal. Such are [what I consider to be] words of respect and obedience.”
O Ānanda, at that time, having heard the king’s exhortation, the treasured lady wept and cried in sorrow. Wiping away her tears, she said to the king, “Your majesty, those elephants, horses, chariots, golden wheel, pavilions and cloisters, renowned garments, exquisite meals, are all impermanent and hence cannot be held beyond a temporary period of time, sir. May your majesty not exhaust your mind and thoughts out of attachment to these things. Your majesty has no more time left in the span of life and must soon leave for the life to come. It is the uni- versal rule that whenever there is birth, there is death; whenever there

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is a meeting, there is a separation. Who could, once born into this life, live forever? One should sever oneself from affection and love and give weight to the path of seeking the ultimate goal, sir.”
O Ānanda, as the treasured lady was uttering this statement, King Sudarśana suddenly passed away. Just as when a valiant soldier bites into a delicious morsel, there was no suffering or agony. The king’s spirit ascended to the seventh Brahmā Heaven (i.e., the twentieth of thirty-three heavens). Seven days after the death of the great king Sudarśana, the treasures of the golden wheel, the divine gem, and so on all disappeared of their own accord. The treasures of the elephant, the horse, the ladyship, the master householder, and the military com- mander all passed away on the same day the king died. The castle, the ponds, the Sudharma pavilion, the cloister tower, the ornamented items, the golden palm tree grove—all turned into earth and forest.
The Buddha continued, saying to Ānanda:
Whatever is conditioned is impermanent, is subject to change, and nec- essarily ends in cessation. When one does not mind avarice and pursues it, he will exhaust his life. When one is attached to someone with affec- tion and love, he will not ﬁnd the limit of satisfaction. Only those who have realized the right insight and thus see the path as it really is can know the limit of satisfaction.
O Ānanda, I recall that in my past lives I returned to this land six times to become the universal ruler and laid my ashes in this land. In this [seventh] life, I have accomplished supreme, perfect enlightenment and once again forsake my life span and lay my ashes at this place. There will be no more birth and death after this, and hence, no land where my body may be placed after this. This is the last and the limit of my life cycle, with no more birth hereafter.
At that time, the World-honored One was about to reach ﬁnal cessation in the spot between the paired śāla trees in the śāla grove, the original place of the Mallan clan, in the city of Kuśinagara. He instructed Ānanda,
Go to the city of Kuśinagara and tell the Mallan clanspeople, “Wise friends, you should know that the Tathāgata is going to enter ﬁnal nirvana

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in the middle of this night under the twin śāla trees. You should be there to ask him about whatever doubts you have [regarding religious salvation] and directly receive his answer and instruction. Do not make cause for regret by missing this opportunity.”
Thus instructed, Ānanda rose from his seat and, after venerating the Buddha, left for Kuśinagara. With tears in his eyes he went into the city, accompanied by a bhikṣu. At that time he happened to see that ﬁve hundred Mallan clans- people were gathering in a place for some purpose. Seeing Ānanda approaching them, the Mallans stood up to greet him but, remaining at one side, they enquired, “It is strange to see the venerable coming into town now, at this time. It is already almost evening. What is your purpose, sir?”
With tears in his eyes, Ānanda said to them:
I came here in order to beneﬁt you. I announce to you, wise friends, that the Tathāgata is about to enter ﬁnal nirvana in the middle of this night. You should go ask him about whatever doubts you have [regard- ing your salvation] and directly receive his answer and instruction. Do not make cause for regret by missing this opportunity.
At that time, having heard this news, the Mallan clanspeople loudly cried out in grief, their bodies twisting and falling to the ground as they fainted, then recovering consciousness, just as when huge trees fall due to the complete loss of their roots’ hold, their branches breaking in a mess [on the ground]. They lamented in unison:
How is it that so soon the Buddha should go to cessation? Why must the Buddha go to cessation so quickly? When the Eye of Insight of the world ceases to be, all sentient beings will surely wither for a long time to come.
Ānanda was then obliged to console the Mallans:
Please stop your wailing and do not be grief-stricken. There is no one in heaven or on earth who once his life has begun it will not end. No matter how hard we try to make conditioned things continue in their existence, such a result is totally out of the question. Hasn’t the Buddha said frequently that whenever there is a meeting, there is a separation? Whatever has its birth has its death as well.

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The Mallan clanspeople then said to each other:
We shall go home at once and then go to the twin śāla trees accompa- nied by our families, as well as taking with us white cloth equally as long as ﬁve hundred suits of garments.
The Mallan clanspeople then returned home at once and, accompanying their families and taking with them a white cloth equally as long as ﬁve hun- dred suits of garments, they started out from Kuśinagara to the site of the twin śāla trees, where Ānanda [awaited their arrival].
Seeing the Mallan clanspeople approaching, Ānanda thought to himself: “There are too many people. If each of them wishes to see the Buddha, he will have passed away before everyone in the line has seen him. I should present all of them to the Buddha together before midnight.” Thus he led the ﬁve hundred Mallan clanspeople and their families to the place where the Buddha was, and after venerating him by bowing his forehead to the Buddha’s feet, he stood to one side. He then stepped forward and said to the Buddha:
So-and-so, so-and-so, [these] Mallan clanspeople and their families respectfully enquire of the World-honored One as to whether or not he is at ease with his rising and sitting, and whether he feels strong or weak in his walking, sir.
The Buddha replied [to all the Mallan clanspeople], “I appreciate your visit and wish you a long life and freedom from illness and pain.” In this manner, Ānanda guided the Mallan clanspeople and their families to see the Buddha. Subsequently, they venerated the Buddha by bowing their foreheads to his feet, and sat to one side. The World-honored One then taught them about the impermanence of life, encouraging, beneﬁting, and delighting them. With a feeling of delight in their hearts, after listening to the teaching the Mallan clanspeople presented to the Buddha the white cloth, equally as long as ﬁve hundred sets of garments, which they had brought with them. The Buddha accepted it for the sake of their merit. The Mallan clanspeople rose from their seats and, having venerated the Buddha, departed.
At this time, there was a brāhmaṇa ascetic in the city of Kuśinagara, Subhadra by name. He was as old as one hundred twenty years of age, well established in his career, and renowned for his knowledge. Having heard

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that the śramaṇa Gautama was taking the course of cessation, he thought to himself:
I still have some doubt regarding religious salvation in the matter of Dharma. Only Gautama alone understands the meaning of my doubt. Now I should see him, visiting there by my own strength.
At once, he left the city of Kuśinagara during the night, [traveling to] the twin śāla trees, and arrived at the place where Ānanda was. Having greeted him, he stood to one side and said to Ānanda:
I was informed that the śramaṇa Gautama is going to enter cessation during this night. I have come here because of that. I wish to meet him because I have a doubt about a religious matter on the nature of Dharma. By meeting Gautama, I wish to settle my mind once and for all. If there is some extra time, may I be allowed to see him, sir?
Ānanda replied, “O Subhadra, do not impose [your questions] on him.
The Buddha is physically very ill. You should not bother him.”
Subhadra, however, ﬁrmly requested repeatedly, saying three times:
I have heard that the Tathāgata appears in this world only once in a long period of time, like the udumbara ﬂower that blooms only very rarely and intermittently. Therefore, I have dared to come here, because I wish to settle my doubt. May I see the Buddha even for a short time, if he can spare any moment at all?
Ānanda replied in the same way, “The Buddha is physically very ill. You should not bother him.” However, the Buddha said to Ānanda:
Do not prevent him. Let him come here and permit him to settle his doubt. It will not bother me too much. If he listens to my answer to his question on the subject of Dharma, he will surely be able to resolve his problem
Ānanda immediately conveyed the Buddha’s permission to Subhadra, “If you wish, you may see him whenever you are ready.” At once Subhadra went in and, having greeted the Buddha with a bow, sat to one side and said to him:

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I have been troubled by a doubt on the matter of religious salvation, sir. If your holiness has a moment, may you help me to settle my doubt once and for all, sir.
The Buddha replied, “Question me as freely as you wish.” Subhadra then asked:
Why, O Gautama, are there a number of teachers, each of whom respec- tively claim that they themselves are the true teachers, for example, Purāṇa-kāśyapa, Maskarin-gośālīputra, Ajitakeśa-kambalin, Kakuda- katyāyana, Sañjayin-vairāṭīputra, and Nirgrantha-jñātiputra. These teachers all hold different doctrines. O śramaṇa Gautama, I wish to know whether or not your holiness has understood all these doctrines without exception.
The Buddha said:
Do not ask me to talk about all these doctrines. Let me simply say that I know all of them without exception. For now, for your sake, I shall teach you the very profound and subtle doctrine. Listen attentively, and you should contemplate and remember [what I shall now say].
Subhadra focused his attention on the teaching. The Buddha said to him:
If whatever doctrine among these schools lacks the practice of the eightfold noble path (āryāṣṭāṅgika-mārga), it can neither yield the fruit of the ﬁrst saintly state, nor that of the second, nor that of the third, nor that of the fourth. O Subhadra, if any of these doctrines had this practice of the eightfold noble path, it should have yielded the fruit of the initial state of spiritual development, or that of the second, or that of the third, or that of the fourth. O Subhadra, there is the practice of the eightfold noble path in my teaching; hence it yields the fruits of the ﬁrst saintly state, the second, the third, and the fourth. But no other school or group of practitioners has this fruit of the śramaṇa.
At that time, the World-honored One uttered the following verses for Su- bhadra:
In the twenty-ninth year of my life, I renounced family life

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To seek the path of religion (i.e., the good path). O Subhadra, it has been already ﬁfty years now Since I realized enlightenment.
I have practiced morality, concentration, and wisdom, And I have been in solitary thought in seclusion.
Now, I am explaining to you the essentials of my teaching. There is no saintly realization
Through anything else but this practice.
The Buddha said to Subhadra, “If bhikṣus diligently worked for the goal of deliverance, this world would be ﬁlled with arhats and would not be a for- saken place.” Subhadra then said to Ānanda:
His teaching assures us that if every śramaṇa has already been practicing the practice of austerity under the guidance of Buddha, is currently engaged in the practice of austerity, and will continue to carry it out properly in the future, [that śramaṇa] will be able to realize the great result. O Ānanda, you too have realized that great result since you have been engaged in the practice of austerity under the guidance of the Tathāgata. I have directly met the Tathāgata and have been able to ask him about my doubts; therefore, I should be able to realize that great result. Now, the Tathāgata has assured me that as his disciple I too am able to accomplish such a great result.
Then he asked the Buddha, “May I now renounce my family life under the Tathāgata’s Dharma and be ordinained to receive the vow of the precepts?” The Buddha told Subhadra:
If a brāhmaṇa ascetic, [previously] a student of another school, wishes to be ordained for the practice of austerity under my Dharma [and Vinaya], there is set a probation period of four months during which he should be subjected to observation as to his practice and his per- sonality. If he is able to maintain dignity and proper manners, he may be ordained under my Dharma [and Vinaya] to receive the vow of pre- cepts. O Subhadra, you should know that it depends on the nature of the candidate’s conduct.

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Subhadra again said to the Buddha:
I understand, sir, that in the case of a student ascetic of any other school there is a probation period of four months during which he should be subjected to observation as to his practice and his personality. If he is able to maintain dignity and proper manners, he may be ordained under your authority of Dharma [and Vinaya] to receive the vow of precepts. I have served in the right Dharma for the duration of four years by now, sir. I have maintained my dignity and proper manner without omission. I should be entitled to the ordination, sir.
The Buddha replied, “I have already said that it depends solely on the person’s conduct.” As it happened, that night Subhadra went forth from family life to be ordained, strove for perfection in the practice of austerity, directly experienced for himself in the present life [the realization] that the cause of birth and death is exhausted; the practice of austerity was accom- plished; what should be done [for religious salvation] was thus accomplished; and Subhadra realized the insight into the nature of things as they really are and the subsequent insight that there would be no further birth for him. Before the night had passed he realized the ultimate state of arhatship. Thus he was regarded as the last direct disciple of the Buddha. Thereupon, it was Subhadra who initially passed away into cessation, and the Buddha entered into ﬁnal cessation afterward.
At that time, Ānanda was standing behind the Buddha and stroking the edge of the bed couch he wept bitterly, unable to control himself. Weeping, he said:
How is it that so soon the Buddha should go to cessation? Why must the Buddha go to cessation so quickly? How swiftly the great religion (i.e., the Dharma) is lost and obscured. When the Eye of the World ceases to be, sentient beings shall surely wither for a long time to come. Why? Though I have received the Buddha’s teaching and have been practicing moral discipline, before I am able to realize what should be done in my religious path he will have gone to cessation forever.
At that time the World-honored One, though [already] knowing [the

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answer], deliberately questioned the bhikṣus, “Is the bhikṣu Ānanda present now?” The bhikṣus replied:
The bhikṣu Ānanda is standing behind your holiness, sir. Stroking the edge of the bed couch, he weeps bitterly in sorrow, unable to control himself, sir. While sobbing, he lamented, “How is it that so soon the Buddha should go to cessation? Why must the Buddha go to cessation so quickly? How swiftly the great religion (the Dharma) is lost and obscured. When the eye of the world ceases to be, sentient beings shall surely wither for a long time to come. For what reason? Though receiv- ing the Buddha’s teaching and being able to practice moral discipline, before I am able to realize what should be done in my religious path, he will have gone to cessation forever.”
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
May you grieve no more, nor do not wail any more. Since you began to serve as my personal attendant I have noticed an incomparable and immeasurable sense of love (i.e., benevolence) in your physical conduct, an incomparable and immeasurable sense of love in your verbal conduct, and an incomparable and immeasurable sense of love in your volitional conduct. O Ānanda, you have attended me with care (paricarati). Your merit is great, far superior to that of anyone, whether they are gods, evil ones, Brahmā, śramaṇas, or brāhmaṇas. You must continue to exert yourself. It will not be too long before you realize enlightenment.
Thereupon, the World-honored One said to the bhikṣus:
Those disciples who personally attended the past buddhas were also like Ānanda. Those disciples who will personally attend future buddhas will also be like Ānanda. Each of those personal attendants of the past buddhas knew what his master wished of him only after he was told, but my attendant Ānanda now knows what I wish him to do through observing my eyes: “The Tathāgata wishes to have this done. The World-honored One wishes to have that done.” This is a wondrous realization of excellence on Ānanda’s part. You should acquire this kind of excellence.

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The universal ruler had four kinds of wondrous excellence. What are the four? First, whichever country the holy ruler happened to visit, all the people of that land assembled to welcome his arrival with the sense of hospitality. Second, they were delighted in seeing the ruler and rejoiced in listening to his exhortation. Third, they never tired of viewing his digniﬁed countenance. Fourth, regardless of whether he was walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, all the ofﬁcials and the populace came to see him, were delighted to see him, rejoiced in lis- tening to his exhortation, and never tired of viewing his digniﬁed coun- tenance. These are the four signs of the extraordinary popularity of the universal ruler.
I point out now that our Ānanda is also endowed with four such kinds of popularity. What are the four? First, when Ānanda joins the gathering of bhikṣus, even without [speaking] a word, the members of the sangha are delighted. Second, when he preaches the Dharma to the members of the sangha, they are delighted to listen to it. Third, they are also delighted to observe his digniﬁed manner and listen to his preach- ing, and they never tire of doing so. Fourth, regardless of whether it is an assembly of bhikṣuṇīs (nuns), lay [male] householders (upāsakas), or [lay] female householders (upāsikās), when he joins their meeting, even without [speaking] a word, the participants of that meeting are delighted to see him, rejoice in listening to his preaching, and never tire of viewing his digniﬁed countenance and pleasant manner. These are his four kinds of excellence.
At that time, Ānanda rearranged his robe to expose his right shoulder, kneeled with his right knee on the ground, and said to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, at present, the śramaṇas of all regions, well learned and knowledgeable, those who clearly understand the collection of scriptures and disciplines and who are endowed with excellent virtue and noble conduct, have all come to see the World-honored One. Because of this I have been able to venerate and respect them, closely associate with them, and greet them with a bow. After the Buddha takes the course of cessation, however, they will not return again, because

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there [will no longer be] someone to look up to, sir. What should be done about this situation?
The Buddha replied to Ānanda:
Have no worry, for those sons of good families have four kinds of thought recollection. What are the four? First, they are mindful of the birthplace of the Buddha and will always be delighted to see it. They will not forget it but cherish a feeling of yearning for it. Second, they are mindful of the place of the Buddha’s initial enlightenment and will always be delighted to see it. They will not forget it but cherish a feeling of yearning for it. Third, they are mindful of the place of the Buddha’s initial turning of the wheel of the Dharma and will always be delighted to see it. They will not forget it but cherish a feeling of yearning for it. Fourth, they are mindful of the place of the Buddha’s ﬁnal nirvana and will always be delighted to see it. They will not forget it but cherish a feeling of yearning for it. O Ānanda, after my ﬁnal nirvana, the merit of those sons and daughters of good families who are mindful of the time of my birth is as such. It is also like this with the merit of their being mindful of how the Buddha’s supernormal power acquired enlightenment. It is also like this with the merit of their being mindful of how his initial turning of the wheel of the Dharma brought conver- sion. It is also like this with the merit of their being mindful of how the Buddha left the Dharma for them at the time of his ﬁnal nirvana. If they have each respectively completed their journeys and sojourns to these places and have paid tribute to the Buddha at various com- memorative towers and temples, they will be born in heaven after death, except for those who [have already] realized enlightenment.
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
After my ﬁnal nirvana, when the Śākya clanspeople come to seek the path, you should permit them to renounce family life and grant them the ordination vow of precepts for joining the sangha. You should not make it difﬁcult for them to stay on. If a follower of a non-Buddhist school genuinely comes to seek the path, you should not impose the

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four-month probation period. Why is this so? Even if he has different thoughts regarding religion, after staying a while he may come to share the original doctrine of the Dharma.
At that time, Ānanda knelt and, with his palms joined together, said to the Buddha:
The bhikṣu Channa, because of his background, behaves in an insistent manner regarding his own way. How should we deal with his behavior after the Buddha’s cessation?
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
After my cessation, if Channa does not follow the standard manner of dignity, refuses to follow the admonitions, all of you should apply the punishment of verbal excommunication by instructing all bhikṣus to not exchange words with him, nor engage in forwarding or relaying instructions to or from him.
At that time, Ānanda again said to the Buddha, “After the Buddha’s nir- vana, what should be done with the female members who still refuse to take the act of repentance, sir?” The Buddha replied to Ānanda, “No one should meet with them.” Ānanda again said, “If someone [unexpectedly] encounters them directly, what should be done, sir?” The Buddha replied, “You should not exchange words.” Ānanda again asked, “If one is in an inevitable situation of talking with them, what should be done, sir?” The Buddha replied, “One should examine his own mind.” The Buddha continued:
O Ānanda, are you saying that after the Buddha’s nirvana there will be no protective umbrella (i.e., cover) over your head or that you might lose whatever you have? You should not entertain this kind of view. Since my realization of enlightenment, the discourses and disciplines that I have continually taught are your protectors and your possessions. O Ānanda, from today onward, the bhikṣus must be permitted to aban- don trivial formalities and adopt the [simpliﬁed] rule of propriety as a measure for distinguishing between senior and junior bhikṣus. This is called the rule of propriety for bhikṣus.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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If any of you have doubt regarding the Buddha, Dharma, or Sangha, or doubt regarding the path, you should question me at once. Don’t let this opportunity pass without asking me about your doubts, and later have regret because you did not do so now. As long as I am alive, I shall explain the subject with which your doubts are concerned.
All the bhikṣus remained silent, not uttering a word. The Buddha again said to them:
If any of you have doubt regarding the Buddha, Dharma, or Sangha, or doubt regarding the path, you should question me at once. Don’t let this opportunity pass without asking me about your doubts, only later to have regret because you did not do so now. As long as I am alive I shall explain the subject with which your doubts are concerned.
Once again all the bhikṣus did not utter a word, remaining silent. The Buddha again said to them:
If you do not question me about your doubts because you are afraid of shame within or without, bring up your questions to me by way of your colleagues. Don’t let this opportunity pass without asking me about your doubts, only later to regret not having done so now.
The bhikṣus once again did not utter a word and remained silent. Ānanda said to the Buddha:
I have no doubt in my mind that all the members of this sangha are steady in genuine faith, sir. There is not even a single bhikṣu who doubts the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha or the path.
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
I myself know that even the youngest bhikṣu of this sangha now sees the path of practice and shall not fall into an evil course of life. The [bhikṣus] will return seven times to this world and necessarily exhaust the fundamental cause of suffering.
At that time, the World-honored One thus granted his assurance to the one thousand and two hundred bhikṣus regarding their respective goals of

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realization. Thereupon, the World-honored One opened his upper robe to reveal his golden forearm and said to the bhikṣus:
You should contemplate the fact that the Tathāgata appears in this world only once in a long period of time, like udumbara ﬂowers that bloom only very rarely and intermittently.
At that time, contemplating the meaning of this matter, the World-honored One repeated it in verse:
His right arm is of purplish-golden hue. The appearance of the Buddha
Is like that of a divine gem. Things that pass away and
Come into being are impermanent;
[Hence] there is no dissoluteness in manifesting cessation. [The Buddha continued:]
Therefore, O bhikṣus, be on guard against dissoluteness. It was on the basis of constant vigilance against indolence that I realized perfect enlightenment. An immeasurable number of sentient beings will also realize perfect enlightenment on the basis of constant vigilance against indolence. Of all things in this world, there is nothing whatsoever that exists forever. This is the teaching exhorted by the Tathāgata in his last moment of life.
Thereupon, the World-honored One entered the initial state of meditative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered the second state of med- itative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered the third state of meditative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered the fourth state of meditative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered the ﬁrst formless state of concentration on the sphere of inﬁnite space; coming out of this state he then entered the second formless state of concentration on the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness; coming out of this state he then entered the third formless state of concentration on the sphere of nothing or nonutility; coming out of this state he then entered the fourth formless state of concentration on the sphere of “neither ideation nor nonideation”; coming

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out of this state he then entered the ﬁnal state of cessation, transcendent from senses and ideation, equivalent to third saintly state of an anāgāmin.
At this time, Ānanda asked Anuruddha, “Has the World-honored One entered ﬁnal nirvana?” Anuruddha replied:
Not yet. O Ānanda, the World-honored One is now in the state of ces- sation. In olden days I directly heard from the Buddha that the ﬁnal nirvana is entered from the fourth meditative state of absorption.
Then at that time, the World-honored One, coming out of the state of ces- sation of ideation, entered into concentration on the sphere of “neither ideation nor nonideation”; coming out of this state he then entered into concentration on the sphere of nothing or nonutility; coming out of this state he then entered into concentration on the sphere of consciousness; coming out of this state he then entered into concentration on the sphere of space; coming out of this state he then entered into the fourth meditative absorption (rūpa-dhyāna- samādhi); coming out of this state he then entered into the third meditative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered into the second med- itative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered into the first meditative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered into the sec- ond meditative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered into the third meditative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered into the fourth meditative absorption; coming out of this state he then entered final nirvana.
Just at that moment the earth trembled greatly and heavenly gods and humans were greatly terriﬁed. Various underworlds, dark and gloomy, in which neither the sun or moon shone, were equally illuminated, allowing those beings who were born therein to see each other, and they all exclaimed, “That person has been reborn here,” “That one too was born here,” [and so on]. A ray of light permeated the entire world, surpassing the luminosity of heavenly beings. Then from the thirty-third heaven various lotus ﬂowers, blue utpala, pink padma, red kumuda, and white puṇḍarīka, dropped and scattered into the air over the Tathāgata as well as the assembled host of bhikṣus, and heavenly sandalwood powder also scattered over the Buddha below and the assembly of bhikṣus. The Buddha thus passed away into ﬁnal nirvana. Thereupon, the god Brahmā uttered these verses from midair:

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Whoever belongs to the species of sentient beings
Should equally discard the conﬁgured aggregates of his being. The Buddha is one who is highest,
Unsurpassed by any one of this world. O Tathāgata, the Great Sage hero,
Endowed with fearless supernormal power, Though he could remain forever,
He has now entered ﬁnal nirvana.
At that time, the god Indra uttered the following verse: No permanence is found
With the conditioned elements of an aggregate.
They embody nothing but the law of arising and perishing. Once born, no one escapes from death.
The Buddha made his cessation the goal of happiness.
Then Vaiśravaṇa, guardian of northern heavenly quarter, composed the following verse:
O fortunate trees and the great grove,
Those śāla trees acquired the highest fortune, Because, at the spot between the twin śāla trees, The best and most qualiﬁed
For offerings and merit-cultivation passed away.
Then Anuruddha composed the following verse:
The Buddha abides in unconditioned transcendence and Does not depend on breathing in and breathing out.
He originally came from that total quiescence, Where the Sun (i.e., the Buddha) himself set.
Then the bhikṣu Upavāna composed the following verse:
With neither indolence nor pride, But with self-restraint,
He practiced the supreme faculty of prajñā.

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Free from attachment and untainted by deﬁlement, He was the foremost Honorable [One]
Who freed himself from craving desire.
Then, the bhikṣu Ānanda composed the following verse: Heavenly gods were terriﬁed, and
Because of this their hair stood on end. Everything was fulﬁlled and
The Perfectly Enlightened [One] took the course of cessation.
Then the god Kumbhīra also composed a verse: This world has lost the protective umbrella.
Sentient beings shall remain blinded for a long time, Nor will they see the Perfectly Enlightened [One], The human Hero, the Lion of the Śākyas, again.
Then the guardian god Guhyaka composed the following verse:
Whether it in this life or in the next, The residents of Brahmā Heaven Could never see such a human hero Like that of the Śākya lion.
Then, Māyā, the mother of the Buddha, composed the following verse:
The Buddha was born in the Lumbinī grove; His religion has spread widely.
He returned to the place
From which he was originally born, and Forsook his human body
That was subject to the law of impermanence.
Then the spirit of the twin śāla trees composed the following verse: We do not know when we may again
Make an offering of unseasonably blooming ﬂowers, After now scattering them over the Buddha like this.

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Well endowed with
The ten supreme powers of authority and virtue, The Tathāgata has entered ﬁnal nirvana.
Then the spirit of the śāla forest composed the following verse:
This is the most satisfactory place Where the Buddha grew up,
Where he turned his Dharma wheel, and Where he has entered ﬁnal nirvana.
Then the four guardians of the heavens composed the following verse:
With his highest transcendental knowledge, The Tathāgata always taught
The doctrine of impermanence,
Rescued all sentient beings from the bondage of suffering, And having realized the ultimate goal,
He has entered ﬁnal nirvana.
Then the lord of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven composed the following verse: During the period of millions of millions of kalpas,
He sought the highest goal of the path,
Rescued sentient beings from the bondage of suffering, And, having realized the ultimate goal,
He entered ﬁnal nirvana.
Then the lord of the Yamaka underworld composed the following verse: This is the last robe that the Buddha wore
Before his cessation.
Since the Buddha has gone to ﬁnal nirvana, To whom should this robe be given?
Then the lord of Tuṣita Heaven composed the following verse:
This is the last body of the Buddha,
In which the conﬁguration of his aggregates

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Has been totally dissolved.
There are neither thoughts of sorrow nor of joy, Nor any danger of birth and death.
Then the lord of Nirmāṇarataya Heaven composed the following verse:
The Buddha laid down Upon his right side;
The Śākya lion entered ﬁnal nirvana In this śāla grove.
Then the lord of Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven composed the following verse:
The world shall wither in darkness For a long time to come
The moon, lord of the stars, fell away, and Hindered by the force of impermanence, The sun of great wisdom
Is shadowed for a long time.
At that time, the bhikṣus composed the following verse: This body is like a water bubble.
Vulnerable as it is to any danger, Who could ever enjoy it?
The Buddha obtained the imperishable body Like that of a diamond, and
Yet his body is dissolved
Because of the force of impermanence.
The buddhas are in possession of the diamondlike body, Yet all are subject to the force of impermanence,
So quickly perishing like a small pile of snow.
How could anything else be any different from this?
The Buddha thus entered ﬁnal nirvana. Some of the bhikṣus fainted in sorrow and grief, casting themselves upon the ground, bitterly weeping, their bodies twisting, unable to control themselves. While weeping, they lamented:

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How is it that so soon the Buddha should go to cessation? Why must the Buddha go to cessation so quickly? How swiftly the great religion (i.e., the Dharma) is lost and obscured! Sentient beings shall surely wither for a long time to come, when the world has lost its Eye of Insight forever, just as when huge trees fall due to the total loss of their roots’ hold, their branches breaking in a mess; or just as a snake, its head chopped off, continues twisting and wriggling without knowing where it is going.
Then some other bhikṣus also fainted, grief-stricken, throwing themselves to the ground, their bodies twisted, wailing loudly in grief, unable to control themselves. While weeping, they lamented:
How is it that so soon the Buddha should go to cessation? Why must the Buddha go to cessation so quickly? How swiftly the great religion (the Dharma) is lost and obscured! Sentient beings shall surely wither for a long time to come when the Eye of Insight of the world has ceased to be.
At that time, the elder bhikṣu Anuruddha said to those bhikṣus, “All of you, grieve no more. The host of heavenly beings above us are also curiously voicing similar lamentations.” Then the bhikṣus questioned Anuruddha, “How many gods are there above us?” Anuruddha replied:
They ﬁll the entirety of space, beyond calculation. All of them are roaming in midair in confusion, weeping, wailing, stamping with grief, and shedding tears, saying, “How is it that so soon the Buddha should go to cessation? Why must the Buddha go to cessation so quickly? How swiftly the great religion (the Dharma) is lost and obscured! Sen- tient beings shall surely wither for a long time to come, when the world has lost its Eye of Insight forever, just as huge trees fall due to the total loss of their roots’ hold, breaking their branches in a mess, or just as a snake, its head chopped off, continues to twist and wriggle without knowing where it is going.”
At that moment, the heavenly beings, as described by Anuruddha, who were roaming in midair in confusion, weeping, wailing, stamping with grief, and shedding tears, said:

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How is it that the Buddha should go to cessation so soon? Why must the Buddha go to cessation so quickly? How swiftly the great religion (the Dharma) is lost and obscured! Sentient beings shall surely wither for a long time to come when the world has lost its Eye of Insight forever.
Thereupon, throughout that night, the host of bhikṣus discussed the words of the Dharma and completed [the recitation] by the arrival of the dawn. Anuruddha said to Ānanda:
May you go to the city and tell the Mallan clanspeople, “The Buddha has already entered ﬁnal nirvana. Those who wish to make tribute and offerings to the Buddha are commended to know that now is the appro- priate time.”
At that time, Ānanda stood up and after venerating the Buddha, accompanied by a bhikṣu, with tears on his face, he entered the city, where he happened to see ﬁve hundred Mallans gathered in one place for some reason. The Mallan clanspeople too, noticing Ānanda approaching them, stood up to greet him, venerated him [by bowing their foreheads to] his feet, and said to him, “Venerable, why have you come here so early, sir?” Ānanda replied:
Because I wish to beneﬁt you, I have come here as quickly as possible this early morning. You should know that the Tathāgata already entered ﬁnal nirvana last night. If you wish to make offerings, now is the appro- priate time.
When the Mallan clanspeople heard this news, there was none among them who did not lament and grieve. Wiping tears from their faces, they said, “How is it that the Buddha has gone to ﬁnal nirvana so soon? How is it that so swiftly the Eye of Insight has ceased to be in this world?” Ānanda responded:
Dear friends, weep no more. Even if one wished to prevent conditioned things from changing, this is not at all possible. Did not the Buddha teach us while he was alive that “whoever is once born is bound to die; whenever one meets with another, he will be separated from the other; and that there is none in this world whom we love and for whom we feel affection who will exist forever”?

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Then some Mallan clanspeople said to each other:
We should return home, and bringing with us various incense, ﬂowers, and musical instruments, go to the twin śāla trees as quickly as possible to make offerings to the World-honored One or his ashes.
[Again, some other Mallans said:]
After an entire day of offerings, we should place the body on the couch, let the Mallan youths lift the four corners of the couch, and carry the canopy and the streamers. [We should] burn incense, scatter ﬂowers, and with accompanying musical performance, enter the city from the eastern gate, make a round through various streets so as to allow all the citizens of the country the opportunity to make offerings, then come out of the western gate, proceed to a higher and visible place, and cre- mate the body there.
Having discussed the proceedings, they went home to prepare incense, ﬂowers, and musical instruments, gathered at the twin śāla trees, and made their offerings the whole day long. When the ﬁrst day ended, they placed the body on a couch, and a number of Mallan clanspeople got together and tried to lift the couch, but they could not do so. Then Anuruddha said to the clans- people. “You should leave the couch as it is. Do not exhaust yourselves in vain. Soon some heavenly beings who wish to lift the couch will come.” Some of the Mallan clanspeople questioned Anuruddha, “Why do these gods wish to lift this couch, sir?” Anuruddha replied:
You have been planning to make offerings to the Buddha’s body with incense, ﬂowers, and music for the entire day, then to place the body on the couch. The Mallan youths will then lift the four corners of the couch and carrying the canopy and streamers, burning incense, scat- tering ﬂowers, and with accompanying musical performance, they will enter the city from the eastern gate, making a round through various streets so as to allow all the citizens of the country to have an oppor- tunity to make offerings. They will then come out of the western gate, proceed to a higher and more visible place, and cremate the body there. Yet, according to their will, the heavenly gods wish to have the body

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remain in the same place for seven days, to be honored throughout that period with various offerings, and thereafter to place the body on the couch. Then the Mallan youths will lift the four corners of the couch, and carrying the canopy and streamers, burning incense, scattering ﬂowers, and with accompanying musical performance, they will enter the city from the eastern gate, make a round through various streets so as to allow all the citizens of the country to have an opportunity to make offerings. They will then go out of the northern gate, cross the Hiraṇyavatī River to reach the Makuṭabandhana shrine, and cremate the body there. Because of this wish, the heavenly gods will not [yet] allow the couch to be lifted.
The Mallan clanspeople said, “We agree, sir.” Splendid were the words of Anuruddha! It precisely accorded with the will of the heavens.
The Mallan clanspeople said to each other:
Let us go back to the city and repair the roads and streets, clean them, and burn incense along them, then return here and continue to make offerings to the World-honored One for seven full days.
All the Mallan clanspeople then returned to town, repaired the roads and streets, cleaned them, burned incense along them, and, coming out of the town, made offerings for seven full days at the twin śāla trees by scattering ﬂowers, burning incense, and playing musical instruments near the time of sunset on the last day. The body was then moved onto the couch. The Mallan youths lifted the four corners of the couch. They carried the canopy and streamers, scattered ﬂowers, burned incense, and played musical instruments. In this manner, the [funeral] procession proceeded, calmly accompanied in front and behind by the leading group and the following group, respectively.
Then the gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven scattered from midair various lotus ﬂowers, blue, pink, red, and white, as well as heavenly sandalwood incense over the body of the World-honored One, thus ﬁlling up the streets with [these offerings]. Some heavenly beings played music and the spirits sang songs. Then the Mallan clanspeople spoke among themselves, “Halt the human performance of music and let the heavenly performance of music be an offering to the body.” In this manner, the Mallans carried the couch and proceeded gradually. Entering

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the town from the eastern gate, they stopped at various streets to make offerings by burning incense, scattering ﬂowers, and performing music.
The daughter of a Mallan, a devoted believer of the path taught by the Buddha, offered a golden ﬂower garland as large as a carriage wheel. An elderly woman gave praise in an uplifted voice:
These Mallans will acquire great beneﬁt. For at the end of his career, the Tathāgata entered ﬁnal nirvana in this place, and it is for him that all the citizens of this country are delightfully paying tribute by means of various offerings.
Having completed the various offerings, the procession of Mallans then departed from the northern gate of the city, crossed the Hiraṇyavatī River, and reached the Makuṭabandhana shrine, where they placed the couch on the ground. The Mallan clanspeople then said to Ānanda, “What else should we do to make additional offerings?” Ānanda replied:
I closely heard from the Buddha and received an instruction directly from him. The funeral rite should be exactly similar to that which should be held for a universal ruler.
The Mallans asked him again, “How should the funeral rite for the universal ruler be done, sir?” [Quoting the Buddha’s words,] Ānanda replied:
For a universal ruler, you should ﬁrst bathe the body with warm scented water, cover the entire body with new cotton cloth, wrap it in a cloth equally as long as ﬁve hundred sets of garments, place the body within a golden cofﬁn, pour sesame oil over it, place the golden cofﬁn inside a second but larger iron vault, cover it with a sandalwood vault, cover that vault with a thick pile of a variety of incense, and then cremate the whole thing. After retrieving the ashes, build a commemorative tower or shrine at each major crossroads and hang a picture on the rock pillar set before it, so as to enable the citizens of the country who are passing on the roads to view the towers of the universal ruler of the law, causing a sense of affection to rise in their hearts toward his benevolent rule, and thus bring about a beneﬁcial inﬂuence upon the populace.

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O Ānanda, if you wish to conduct the funeral rite for me, you should bathe my body with warm scented water, cover my entire body with new cotton cloth, wrap it in a cloth equally as long as ﬁve hundred sets of garments, place the body within a golden cofﬁn, pour sesame oil over it, place the golden cofﬁn inside a second but larger iron vault, cover it with a sandalwood vault, cover that vault with a thick pile of a variety of incense, then cremate the whole thing. After retrieving my ashes, build a commemorative tower or shrine at each major crossroads and hang my picture on the rock pillar set before it, so as to enable whoever passes on the road to view the Buddha’s tower, refreshing his [or her] sense of affection toward the religious deeds accomplished by the Tathāgata and encouraging them to strive for their own goal of hap- piness in life when born into this world, and obtain the opportunity upon their death to be reborn in heaven. Of course, this excludes those who have [already] realized the ultimate goal of the path.
Thereupon, the Mallan clanspeople said to each other:
We should go back to the city to collect the funeral items, the incense and ﬂowers, cotton cloth, the cofﬁn and vault, and the scented oil, as well as the roll of white cloth.
They returned together and completed the preparation of the necessary things. Returning to the Makuṭabandhana shrine, they bathed the Buddha’s body with warm scented water, covered it entirely with a new cotton cloth, wrapped it in the roll of cloth equally as long as ﬁve hundred sets of garments, placed it in the golden cofﬁn, poured scented oil over it, placed the cofﬁn inside a second, larger iron vault, covered it with another sandalwood vault, and cov- ered the vault with a thick pile of various renowned incense. The minister of the Mallan country held up a huge torch to set ﬁre to the funeral pyre of the Buddha but the ﬂame did not reach the pyre. A few other Mallan dignitaries one after another tried to set ﬁre to the pyre, but the ﬂame would not reach the pyre. Then Anuruddha said to the Mallan clanspeople,“Try no more. Wise gen- tlemen, it is beyond your power. The ﬁre extinguished itself due to the will of the gods.” The Mallans questioned him, “Why should the heavenly gods prevent it from being burned, sir?” Anuruddha replied:

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Our senior bhikṣu Mahākāśyapa, accompanied by ﬁve hundred disciples, is enroute midway from the city of Pāvā to this place. If it has not yet been cremated, he wishes to see the Buddha’s body once again. As the gods know his thoughts, they have prevented this funeral pyre from burning.
The Mallans said, “Let his wish be realized.”
At that time, Mahākāśyapa was hurrying on the way from Pāvā, accom- panied by ﬁve hundred of his disciples. Mahākāśyapa and his disciples met a Jain ascetic who was holding a mandāra ﬂower in his hand, standing on the road. Noticing the Jain ascetic from a distance, Mahākāśyapa approached him and questioned him, “Where have you come from?”
[The Jain ascetic] replied, “I have come from the city of Kuśinagara, sir.” Kāśyapa again asked him, “Do you know my master?”
He replied, “Yes, I know him.” [Kāśyapa] again asked, “Is he still alive?”
[The ascetic] answered, “Seven days have now passed since his ﬁnal nir- vana. I have come from there, having obtained this heavenly ﬂower, sir.” Having heard this, Kāśyapa was disheartened with disappointment. The ﬁve hundred disciples, having heard of the Buddha’s cessation, wept in sorrow, wailing, their bodies twisted, hardly able to control themselves.
Wiping away their tears, they lamented:
How is it that the Buddha should go to cessation so soon? Why must the Buddha go to cessation so quickly? How swiftly the great religion (the Dharma) is lost and obscured! When the Eye of the World ceases to be sentient beings shall surely wither for a long time to come, just as when huge trees fall due to the total loss of their roots’ hold, breaking their branches in a mess, or just as a snake, its head chopped off, con- tinues to twist and wriggle without knowing where it is going.
At that time, a Śākya monk, Upananda by name, stopped the bhikṣus, saying:
Don’t worry. Because of the World-honored One’s cessation I have obtained my freedom. He used to say to us, “Do this at all times,” “This you should not do.” From now on I can do as I wish.

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Having heard these words, Kāśyapa was disheartened, and with disap- pointment said to the bhikṣus:
All of you, pack your robes and almsbowls. We are going to the place of the twin śāla trees. Since the cremation has not yet been done we may yet be able to see the Buddha.
Then the bhikṣus, having heard Mahākāśyapa’s words, rose from their seats and followed him, proceeding to the city of Kuśinagara, crossing the Hiraṇyavatī River, and [ﬁnally] arriving at the Makuṭabandhana shrine.
Having arrived at the place where Ānanda was, and after greeting him with a bow, Mahākāśyapa said to him, “We wish to see the body once again. Since the cremation has not yet been done, is it possible to do so?” Ānanda replied:
Though the cremation has not yet been done, it would be very difﬁcult to see the body, sir. The reason is that the Buddha’s body was washed with warm scented water, totally covered with new cotton cloth, wrapped in a roll of cloth equally as long as ﬁve hundred sets of garments, placed in a golden cofﬁn, then placed inside a second, larger iron vault, and then encased in a sandalwood vault. Because of this it would be very difﬁcult to see the Buddha’s body once again, sir.
Though Kāśyapa requested three times, Ānanda replied exactly as he had ﬁrst replied, “For this reason, it would be difﬁcult to see the Buddha’s body again, sir.” Mahākāśyapa then faced the funeral pyre directly and both of the Buddha’s feet extended out from within the vault, bearing a strange color. Having examined this, Kāśyapa was curious and asked Ānanda, “Why do the Buddha’s feet appear so different, having a golden color?” Ānanda replied:
Previously, an elderly woman, in her grief, stretched out both her hands to rub his feet. The change in the color of the Buddha’s feet was effected by her tears falling upon them, sir.
Having heard this, Kāśyapa again felt disheartened with disappointment, but he faced directly the funeral pyre and venerated the Buddha’s body. At that moment, all four kinds of the Buddha’s disciples (i.e., bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas, and upāsikās) as well as heavenly beings all accordingly offered veneration at the same time. At that moment both of the Buddha’s feet suddenly

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disappeared. Thereupon, Mahākāśyapa circumambulated the funeral pyre three times and uttered the following verses:
The supreme insight of all the buddhas, Which has no equal in this world Except among the buddhas themselves, To that sacred insight
That is without equal in this world, I pay tribute with a bow.
The śramaṇa who has no equal in this world Except among the buddhas themselves,
Highest, spotless, the Great Sage of all relations, Most honored by heavenly gods,
Toward that foremost human hero, I pay tribute with a bow.
Having no equal in the practice of austerity, Teaching others without attachment, Untainted and undeﬁled,
Toward that highest Honorable One, I pay tribute with a bow.
Having totally exhausted three fundamental deﬁlements, He who was engaged
In the practice of ultimate quiescence;
Having neither a second, nor any of similar standing, Toward he who is worthy of the ten supreme titles,
I pay tribute with a bow.
The Sugata (Well-gone) was the highest, The most honorable
Among all venerable ones in the human world; He who discovered the Four Noble Truths and The way that leads to ultimate cessation,
To that insight of safety and peace, I pay tribute with a bow.

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The highest among the ascetic mendicants (śramaṇas), Turning wrong to right,
He who introduced the way to total quiescence, Toward he whose trace is like the deep water,
I pay tribute with a bow.
Without the heat (of passion), With the spotless teaching, And the mind that is quiescent,
He who has removed all deﬁlements,
Toward that Honorable One, without deﬁlement, I pay tribute with a bow.
Immeasurable with his eye of insight, Wonderful and unthinkable is the title
Of [sublime] authority like that of nectar, Toward that matchless (i.e., unequaled) one, I pay tribute with a bow.
With his voice like a lion’s roar, With no fear in the forest,
He who overcame the Evil One [Māra] And transcended the four social classes, For that reason,
I pay tribute with a bow.
Thus Mahākāśyapa, who was endowed with great authority and virtue, well equipped with the four logical-linguistic excellences (catuṣ-pratisaṃvi- daḥ), ﬁnished the foregoing verses. At that moment, the funeral pyre started to burn of its own accord. The Mallan clanspeople said to each other:
Now the ﬁre appears to have intensiﬁed and is spreading over the pyre, and it may not be controlled. After cremation it will extinguish itself, but where can we now obtain water to prevent the ﬁre from spreading over the whole pyre?
Then the śāla tree spirit by the side of the funeral pyre, who was devoted to the path of the Buddha, extinguished the ﬁre with his supernormal power.

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The Mallan clanspeople said to each other:
To the right and left beyond the city of Kuśinagara, for a range of twelve yojanas, let us go collect fragrant ﬂowers to offer to the Buddha’s body.
At once they left the city and collected fragrant ﬂowers to be used for the funeral rite. Then each of the Mallan clanspeople of Pāvā, having heard that the Buddha had entered ﬁnal nirvana under the twin śāla trees, without excep- tion thought, “I must now go there and seek a part of his ashes (śarīras). We shall erect a commemorative tower in our original place and conduct offering services to the Buddha.” The Mallan clanspeople of Pāvā assembled the four divisions of their army, the elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers, and well prepared they marched toward the city of Kuśinagara. On their arrival they sent a messenger who delivered the following words:
We have been informed that the Buddha stayed in reliance upon your service and entered ﬁnal nirvana in your country. He was also our teacher. We have come here to receive some of his ashes out of respect and affection for the World-honored One. We intend to erect commem- orative towers in order to make offerings to him.
The king of Kuśinagara replied:
That is right, sir. Your claim is indeed correct, sir. However, the World- honored One happened to be here and entered ﬁnal nirvana in our land. Our ofﬁcials and countrymen should themselves perform the memorial service for the Buddha. Though it has caused you such trouble to come from such a long distance, we cannot pass the ashes into your hands, sir.
At that time, the Buli people of the country of Allakappa, the Kauliyan people of Rāmagrāma, the brāhmaṇas of Vaṭhadvīpa (Veṭhādīpa), the Śākya people of Kapilavastu, the Licchavi people of Vaiśālī, and King Ajātaśatru of Magadha had been informed that the Tathāgata had entered ﬁnal nirvana at the twin śāla trees near the city of Kuśinagara. All equally thought to them- selves, “We must now go there and receive some ashes.” So the rulers of those countries, [especially] King Ajātaśatru of Magadha, at once ordered

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their countrymen to assemble the four divisions of their armies, the elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers, and well prepared they marched and crossed the Ganges River, sending the brāhmaṇa Droṇa as [the king’s] proxy by instructing him:
Go to the city of Kuśinagara under my name and ask the Mallan clans- people: “May I enquire as to whether you gentlemen are at ease in your rising and siting, and feel strong in your walking, sirs. Wise gentlemen, I am delighted to exchange mutual respect with you. We have been on good terms as to territorial demarcation and have never put the matter into the form of a public suit. I understand that the Tathāgata has entered ﬁnal nirvana within your country. I simply wish to pay my respects and reverence to the highest Honorable One as if he were a heavenly god. Hence I have traveled a great distance to obtain a share of the Buddha’s ashes, and upon taking the ashes to my own land I will erect a commemorative tower for them in order to conduct offerings. If you grant me some of the ashes, I will arrange for some of my country’s treasure to be shared with your country, sir.”
Having thus received the king’s instruction, the brāhmaṇa Droṇa at once went to the city and said to the Mallan clanspeople:
The king of Magadha makes courteously enquires as to whether you [respected gentlemen] are at ease in your rising and sitting, and feel strong in your walking. [He says:] “Wise gentlemen, I am delighted to exchange mutual respect with you. We have been on good terms as to territorial demarcation and have never put the matter into the form of a public entered ﬁnal nirvana within your country. I simply wish to pay my respects and reverence to the highest Honorable One as if he were a heavenly god. Hence I have traveled a great a distance to share some of the Buddha’s ashes, and on taking the ashes to my own land I will erect a commemorative tower for them in order to conduct offer- ings. If you grant me some of the ashes, I will arrange for some of my country’s treasure to be shared with your country, sir.”
At that time, the Mallan clanspeople replied:

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That is right, sir. Your claim is indeed correct, sir. However, the World- honored One happened to enter ﬁnal nirvana in our land. Our ofﬁcials and countrymen should themselves perform the memorial service for the Buddha. Alhough it has caused you such trouble to come from such a long distance, we cannot pass the ashes into your hands, sir.
The rulers of various countries assembled their respective ofﬁcials to dis- cuss the matter and composed the following verse:
With courtesy we have come from a far distance For the sake of a peaceful consultation and to Request a share of the ashes
With words of moderation. If this is not granted,
We have readied the four divisions of our armies here. If [the relics] cannot be obtained on a justiﬁable basis, Without fearing injury or death,
We will obtain them by force.
Then the people of Kuśinagara [also] assembled their ofﬁcials, and together with the public they discussed the matter and replied in verse:
Although you have taken the trouble To come from a long distance and Proposed a deal with humility,
We dare not allow ourselves to yield The ashes of the Tathāgata.
If you decide to resort to military force, We have our own force here and
Will ﬁght against you even if we lose our lives. We have no doubt about this.
At that time, the brāhmaṇa advised the people:
Dear wise men, you have received the Tathāgata’s teaching through the long night. Do you not wish to recite the words of his Dharma, convert yourselves to his compassion, and be mindful of the peace of all sentient beings? If you raise armed conﬂict for the sake of the

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Buddha’s ashes, everyone shall injure and kill each other. If you wish to have the Tathāgata’s ashes, beneﬁt everyone widely; since the ashes are available here, it is surely better to divide them among those who wish to have a portion.
Everyone agreed that this would be best. Next, they discussed who would be fairminded enough to carry out the task. Everyone agreed, “Let the brāh- maṇa Droṇa divide the ashes through his humane wisdom.” Thereupon, those rulers of the various countries entrusted the task to the brāhmaṇa Droṇa, saying, “Please divide the ashes on our behalf into eight equal portions.” Droṇa, having listened to the rulers’ agreement, went to the place where the ashes were stored and, having honored the ashes by bowing his head, pro- ceeded to gently take an upper tooth and placed it aside. He sent for a mes- senger and instructed him:
Carry this upper tooth of the Buddha to King Ajātaśatru. You should present my words to his majesty: “O great king, may I humbly enquire as to whether your majesty is at ease in his rising and sitting, and feels strong in his walking. Since the ashes have not yet been brought forth, your majesty may feel immeasurably impatient. Now I have entrusted an upper tooth of the Tathāgata in the hands of this messenger to carry it to your majesty, so that an offering service may be conducted before it and so that your majesty may be comforted by it, prior to the expected plan (i.e., of erecting a commemorative tower). At sunrise tomorrow I shall complete [the task of] dividing the ashes and will personally transport your portion of the ashes to your majesty.”
Having received Droṇa’s instruction, the messenger at once went to King Ajātaśatru and said:
With immeasurable honor, the brāhmaṇa Droṇa enquires as to whether your majesty is at ease in his rising and sitting, and feels strong in his walking. Since the ashes have not yet been distributed, your majesty may feel immeasurably impatient. Now he has entrusted an upper tooth of the Tathāgata into my hands to bring to your majesty, so that an offering service may be conducted before it and so that your majesty may be comforted by it, prior to the expected plan (of erecting a commemorative

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tower). At sunrise tomorrow he will complete the division of the ashes, and will personally transport your portion of the ashes to your majesty.
At that time Droṇa received all the ashes, measuring one shi, collected in a urn, and at once divided the ashes into eight equal portions. Having done so, he said to those who attended the session, “May I request you to use this urn and yourselves witness who takes what through mutual consultation.” Everyone praised Droṇa, “What splendid wisdom this is! He really knows what is most proper at this given moment,” and each mutually agreed to accept a portion. Then the people of Pippalavana made a request of all the people, saying:
We would like to receive the amber that remains on the ground, for the sake of erecting a commemorative tower in our country in order to conduct an offering service.
Everyone agreed, “Let them have it.” Then the people of Kuśinagara received a portion and erected their commemorative tower for conducting their offering service. The people of Pāvā, those of Allakappa, those of Rāma- grāma, those of Veṭhadvīpa, those of Kapilavastu, those of Vaiśālī, and the king of Magadha, Ajātaśatru, having received their respective portions, returned to their countries and erected commemorative towers for conducting offering services. The brāhmaṇa Droṇa received the urn that contained the ashes, returned to his country, and erected a commemorative tower there. The people of Pippalavana took the amber to their country and erected a commemorative tower in their country. At that time, eight commemorative towers were built, and a ninth was erected for enshrining the vase, a tenth for enshrining the amber, and an eleventh for enshrining the World-honored One’s hair.
When was the Buddha born? When did the Buddha realize enlightenment? And when did he enter ﬁnal nirvana? He was born when the boiling star ( feixing) appeared; he was enlightened when the boiling star appeared; he entered the city of nirvana when the boiling star appeared.21
When was the foremost among humans born? When did he renounce the world of suffering? When did he realize the highest path?

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When did he enter the city of nirvana? When the boiling star appeared,
The Foremost among Humans was born. When the boiling star appeared,
He came forth from the world of suffering. When the boiling star appeared,
He realized the highest path. When the boiling star appeared, He entered the city of nirvana.
On the eighth day, the Tathāgata was born.
On the eighth day the Buddha renounced the world. On the eighth day, he realized perfect enlightenment. On the eighth day, he entered ﬁnal cessation.
On the eighth day, the Foremost among Humans was born. On the eighth day, he came out from the world of suffering. On the eighth day, he realized the highest path.
On the eighth day, he entered the city of nirvana. In the second month, the Tathāgata was born.
In the second month, the Buddha renounced the world. In the second month, he realized enlightenment.
In the second month, he entered ﬁnal nirvana.
In the second month, the Foremost among Humans was born. In the second month, he came out of the world of suffering. In the second month, he realized the highest path.
In the second month, he entered the city of nirvana. The śāla tree ﬂowers were profusely blooming; Various lights mutually illuminated.
At that original place,
The Tathāgata entered ﬁnal nirvana.
When the Great Merciful [One] entered ﬁnal nirvana, Many people praised and venerated him.
Having removed all the people’s fearfulness,
He was determined to take the course of nirvana. [End of Sutra 2: Last Journey and Sojourns]

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Sutra 3
A Great Treasury Councilor
(Dīgha Nikāya 19: Mahāgovinda Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was sojourning on the [moun- taintop called] Vulture Peak in the city of Rājagṛha, together with one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples. At that time, the god Pañcaśika, son of Gan- dharva, brightly illuminated Vulture Peak with a great ray of light and visited the Buddha when the place was all quiet and no one was around. Having venerated the Buddha [by bowing] his forehead to [the Buddha’s] feet, he withdrew and stood to one side, then said to the Buddha:
The god Brahmā, lord of Brahmā Heaven, recently visited Trāyastriṃśa Heaven to consult with the god Indra, lord of that heaven. I happened to hear directly from the god Brahmā. Shall I now tell your holiness about this matter?
The Buddha replied, “If you wish to tell me about it, then do so.” Pañca- śika thus related the following story:
At one time, the gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven assembled at the Su- dharma-sabhā hall to discuss a certain matter. At that time, the four guardians of the heavens stationed themselves in their respective posi- tions. Dhṛtarāṣṭra sat to the east while facing west; Indra was in front of him. Virūḍhaka sat to the south while facing north; Indra was in front of him. Virūpākṣa sat to the west while facing east; Indra was in front of him. Vaiśravaṇa sat to the north while facing south; Indra was in front of him. Waiting until all these four guardians took their seats, I then sat down.
There were also other great luminaries who had previously accom- plished the practice of pure and genuine austerity under the Buddha’s guidance. Upon death they were reborn in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven and [now] help the residents of that heaven increase the ﬁve kinds of ben- eﬁts: (1) heavenly longevity, (2) good appearance, (3) prominence,

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(4) happiness, and (5) authority and virtue. [Accordingly,] the residents of that heaven all rejoice, dancing and leaping, and praise them, “They promote our well-being, thereby causing the advantage of the asuras, the adversarial demigods, to diminish.”
At that time, knowing the joy of the residents in his heaven, the god Indra composed the following verse on their behalf:
The residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven and Their lord Indra rejoice together
In the harmonious life of pleasure and happiness, And respectfully venerate the Tathāgata and
The truth of his Dharma.
[For] the heavenly citizens have been beneﬁted With visible fortunes, such as
Longevity, good complexion, fame, Happiness, and authority.
The contributors of these beneﬁts
Were previously trained under the Buddha’s guidance In the practice of austerity, pure and genuine,
And because of that merit
They have been born in this heaven. Some of these citizens,
Whose auras and complexions Are exceedingly noble and august,
Were [previously] the disciples of the Buddha. Having acquired insight and
Having been born into this heaven, They too became prominent.
The residents of Trāyastriṃśa and The lord of this heaven, Indra,
Thinking of the state of happiness promoted by them, Venerate respectfully the Tathāgata and
The truth of his Dharma.
Upon hearing this verse uttered by their lord, the gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven could not help rejoicing all the more about such good fortune

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beyond their control, which thus promoted their well-being while caus- ing the advantage of the asuras, the adversarial demigods, to diminish. Having observed their joy and delight, the lord Indra said to them, “Dear wise citizens, don’t you wish to learn the eight supreme qualities that pertain to the Tathāgata?” The Trāyastriṃśa gods replied, “Yes, we would be most delighted to hear about them, sir.” The god Indra said, “Listen attentively, you should contemplate and remember the following.”
O wise citizens, the Tathāgata is endowed with ten titles, such as One who Realized Ultimate Truth, One who Realized Perfect Enlightenment, and so forth. Throughout the past, present, and future I have never seen anyone like the Buddha, to whom these ten titles, Arhat and so forth, pertain so perfectly. Not only in teaching the subtle Dharma so well but also in putting his knowledge of this subtle Dharma into his own practice, throughout the past, present, and future I have never seen anyone like the Buddha who combines these two aspects of excellence in unison. Because of this subtle Dharma, the Buddha was himself enlightened with it, became an expert in it, and enjoyed it. Throughout the past, present, and future I have never seen anyone like the Buddha who, because of this Dharma, was himself enlightened, became an expert in it, and enjoyed it.
O wise citizens, because of this Dharma, the Buddha was not only enlightened, but the passage that leads to the goal of nirvana was also opened and shown; he associated himself with this path, gradually proceeded upon it, and ﬁnally entered the state of total quiescence, just like the waters of the Ganges and Yamunā Rivers combine and ﬂow together into the same ocean. The Buddha is also like this. Not only in opening and showing the passage toward the goal of nirvana but also in associating himself with it and gradually proceeding on it, and ﬁnally entering the state of total quiescence. Throughout the past, present, and future I have never seen anyone like the Buddha who opened and showed the passage that leads to the goal of nirvana.

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O wise citizens, the Tathāgata organized the members of his [religious] family. Whether they were kṣatriyas, brāhmaṇas, house- holders, or śramaṇas, whoever has acquired insight is a member of his sangha. Throughout the past, present, and future I have never seen anyone like the Buddha who has accomplished such a family. O wise citizens, the Tathāgata organized his host of followers, namely bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, and [male and female lay] householders (upāsakas and upāsikās). Throughout the past, present, and future I have never seen anyone like the Buddha who accomplished an
organization of such a host of members.
O wise citizens, the Tathāgata’s words and conduct match per- fectly. Whatever he says becomes his action; however he acts is in accordance with his words. In accomplishing the constant relation between what is said and what is done like this, throughout the past, present, and future I have never seen anyone like the Buddha, none who is as consistent in his speech and conduct, accomplishing such an invariable relation between what is said and what is done. O wise citizens, the Tathāgata enormously beneﬁted people in their well-being and gave them [real] assurance. In beneﬁting heav- enly citizens through his mercy and sympathy, throughout the past, present, and future I have never seen anyone like the Buddha who beneﬁted us so well and gave us such assurance. O wise citizens, these are the eight supreme qualities that pertain to the Tathāgata.
At that time, the gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven argued, asserting an opinion:
If we could have eight buddhas arise into this world, they would promote our well-being while causing the advantage of the asuras, the adversarial demigods, to diminish.
Another group of Trāyastriṃśa residents spoke:
Setting aside the number of eight buddhas, seven, or six, and so on, if even only two buddhas should arise into this world simultaneously, this too would greatly enhance the fortunes of the heavenly citizens,

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while contrarily causing the advantage of the asuras to diminish. How much more so if all eight buddhas could arise at once!
Then the lord Indra said to the Trāyastriṃśa residents:
I have heard from the Buddha, directly from him, that even if people wish for two buddhas to arise simultaneously, there is no such place in this world where they could arise at the same time. If only one could successfully cause the Tathāgata to extend his life span, then, since his love and sympathy are great, there would be many more ways in which Tathāgata could beneﬁt people, but there also would be greater appeasement of the heavenly citizens through the pro- motion of their well-being, thereby diminishing the advantage of the asuras, the adversarial demigods.
At that time, Pañcaśika said to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, the purpose for which the Trāyastriṃśa residents assembled at the Sudharma-sabhā hall was to discuss together, to think together, to evaluate together, to investigate together, and to instruct together. After that, the assembly gave various instructions to the four guardians of the heavens and, having received the instructions, the guardians returned to their respective positions. But soon after they had returned to their respective positions an unusual ray of light illu- minated all the regions. The Trāyastriṃśa gods, having seen this light, were all terriﬁed, thinking, “What kind of ill omen does this unusual ray of light indicate?” Some of the great deities endowed with super- normal powers were also terriﬁed, wondering, “What kind of ill omen does this unusual ray of light indicate?”
The god Brahmā then assumed the form of a young boy and, with his head shaped like a pentagon and his hair spread out over the host of gods, he rose in midair. His appearance was exceedingly handsome, surpassing that of the gods. His body was purplish gold, overwhelming the luminosity of all the heavenly beings. The Trāyastriṃśa residents did not then stand up to welcome him, nor did they greet him or com- mend him to take his seat. The Brahmā youth, however, took his seat

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in an available space. He was delighted, as if an anointed kṣatriya had ascended to the throne, and rejoiced, dancing and leaping. Soon after he sat down, he changed himself into the form of a young boy, with his head in the shape of a pentagon and his hair spreading out over the host of gods, sitting in midair, just as a wrestler sits in his permanent seat, immovable like a mountain. He then composed the following verse:
The residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven and Their lord Indra rejoice together
In the harmonious life of pleasure and happiness, And respectfully venerate the Tathāgata and
The truth of his Dharma.
[For] the heavenly citizens have been beneﬁted With visible fortunes, such as
Longevity, good complexion, fame, Happiness, and authority.
The contributors of these beneﬁts
Were previously trained under the Buddha’s guidance In the practice of pure and genuine austerity,
And because of that merit
They have been born in this heaven. Some of these citizens,
Whose auras and complexions Are exceedingly noble and august,
Were [previously] the disciples of the Buddha. Having acquired insight and
Having been born into this heaven, They too became prominent.
The Trāyastriṃśa residents and The lord of this heaven, Indra,
Thinking of this state of happiness promoted by them, Venerate respectfully the Tathāgata and
The truth of his Dharma.

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At that time, the citizens of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven said to the Brahmā youth, “We have just heard our lord Indra’s exhortation on the eight supreme qualities that pertain to the Tathāgata and have been rejoicing, dancing and leaping; we feel as if we are beyond self-control.”
The Brahmā youth said to the Trāyastriṃśa gods, “What are the eight supreme qualities of the Tathāgata? I wish to also hear about them, sirs.” Thus, the lord Indra at once also gave him his exhortation on the Tathāgata’s eight supreme qualities. Having twice listened to Indra’s exhortation, the Trāyastriṃśa gods uncontrollably rejoiced all the more at the promotion of their well-being and the diminishment of the asuras’ advantage.
At that time, observing the rejoicing Trāyastriṃśa gods, the Brahmā youth also felt more and more joyous, as if he could not stop himself from dancing, and at once said to the Trāyastriṃśa gods, “Do you not wish to hear about another supreme quality of the Tathāgata?” The gods replied, “Excellent, we wish to hear about it!” The boy said to them, “Since you do wish to hear about it, listen attentively and I shall explain it to you.” He related the following story to the gods:
Once, when the Tathāgata was a bodhisattva, he was sagacious and acquired all kinds of knowledge in his birthplace. O wise citizens, you should know that in an immemorial past there was a king, Diśāṃpati (“Lord of the Region”) by name, in that world, and his eldest prince was called Reṇu (“Mercy”). The king had a treasurer, Govinda, as his prime councilor, and the latter had a son called Jyotipāla. Prince Reṇu had a group of six kṣatriya friends who were also ministers. When King Diśāṃpati withdrew to the rear palace for leisurely amusement and pastimes, it was customary that he entrusted the business of governance to the treasury councilor. Only then did he withdraw to his palace to enjoy [the pleasures of the] ﬁve senses, such as listening to music, watching performances of dancing, and so on.
Whenever the treasury councilor Govinda conducted government business he ﬁrst listened to his own son’s advice, and only then made his decisions. Whenever he faced issues that required a decision,

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he sought his son’s advice. After a while, the treasury councilor suddenly passed away. When King Diśaṃpati was informed of the treasury councilor’s death, he felt pity and sorrow, lamenting, “Alas, what can I do now? I have lost the most important pillar of my state.”
Prince Reṇu quietly thought to himself, “The king regrets the death of the treasury councilor. I should go see him to advise him that he should not succumb to his suffering in mourning his coun- cilor’s death, because his son, Jotipāla by name, is sagacious and learned, and has acquired varieties of knowledge exceeding even that of his father. The king should appoint him to conduct the gov- ernance of the state.”
Prince Reṇu at once visited his father, the king, and advised him, explaining the foregoing in detail. Having heard this advice, the king summoned Jyotipāla and said to him, “I shall appoint you to the same position held by your respected father and entrust you with the seal of the councilor.” As soon as Jyotipāla received it, the king further instructed him to take over the duties of governance and retreated to the rear palace. By then, the councilor Jyotipāla knew the business of governing well; he knew not only what his father had been doing before him but also whatever his father had left unaccomplished. Jyotipāla’s name and reputation spread throughout the continent as far as the limit of the ocean, and everywhere under the sky he was called the “great treasury councilor” by everyone.
Sometime later, the great treasury councilor thought to himself, “King Diśāṃpati, whose body and mind have been impaired by age, has little time left before his death. It would not be difﬁcult for the prince to succeed his throne. I should inform the six kṣatriya ministers, ‘King Diśāṃpati, whose body and mind have deteriorated from age, has little time left before his death. It would not be difﬁcult for the prince to succeed his throne. Your territorial lands too must be sealed for your respective kingdoms. Do not forget this matter after the new king is enthroned.’”
The great treasury councilor then visited the six kṣatriya ministers and said to them, “Your honors, you should know that now King

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Diśāṃpati, whose body and mind are impaired by age, has little time left before his death. It would not be difﬁcult for the prince to succeed to the throne. Go speak to the prince about this matter, say- ing, ‘Honorable prince, we were born together with you and befriended you from childhood. If your excellence is suffering, we too are suffering. If your excellence is happy, we too feel happy. Now the king’s body and mind have become impaired, and his age is reaching its limit and he has little time left before passing away. It would not be difﬁcult for your excellence to succeed to the throne. When you ascend the throne, may you also seal the respective ter- ritorial lands for our kingdoms.’”
Thereupon, having listened to this advice, the six kṣatriya min- isters at once visited the prince and advised him by explaining the foregoing matters. The prince replied, “When I ascend the throne, with whom, I wonder, should I consult in order to enumerate the lands and allocate the countries?”
The king died suddenly soon after. The ministers of the state in due order supported Pince Reṇu’s ascent to the throne. Having been enthroned, the new king thought to himself, “I should now appoint someone as my prime minister, following the fashion of the previous ruler. Who is capable of this position? The great treasury councilor who assisted my father before—he alone should be appointed as my prime minister.”
King Reṇu summoned [the treasury councilor] and said to him, “I now appoint you as prime minister and give you the ofﬁcial seal. May you, with exertion and care, assume general oversight of the governance of state affairs.”
Having heard to the king’s words, the great treasury councilor accepted the seal. It was customary that whenever the king withdrew to the rear palace for his pastimes he entrusted the task of governance to the prime minister. The great treasury councilor again thought to himself, “I should visit the six kṣatriya ministers now and ask them if they remember what was said in the past about their feudal lands and countries.”

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At once he visited and said to the ministers, “Your honors, do you still remember what was said in the past? Prince Reṇu has now been enthroned. He withdraws to the rear palace to enjoy his ﬁve senses in pastimes. Your honors should visit the king to enquire, ‘Your majesty has ascended the throne and enjoys the ﬁve senses in pastimes. Does your majesty still remember what was said about our feudatory lands and countries, sir?’”
Having heard his advice, the six kṣatriya ministers at once visited the king and said to him, “Your majesty has ascended the throne and enjoys the ﬁve senses in pastimes, but do you recall what was said in the past regarding our feudal lands and countries? The arrangement of lands and districts should be sealed for each of us respectively, sir.” The king replied, “I have not forgotten what I said in the past. It was for you, and for whom else should I speak about such arrangements of lands and districts to be sealed?”
The king again thought to himself, “This Jambudvīpa continent extends wider toward the north but is narrower toward the south. Who would be able to divide this continent into seven equal parts?” Again he thought to himself, “The great treasury councilor alone is capable of such a task.” Thus he at once asked the treasury councilor, “Please divide the Jambudvīpa continent into seven parts.” Accord- ingly, the great treasury councilor took up the task. First, he accom- plished the administrative divisions of the territory that his king ruled into cities, villages, towns, counties, and countries, and then, in a similar manner, he accomplished the administrative divisions for the six territories to be sealed for the six new kṣatriya rulers.
Delighted, King Reṇu said, “My wish has been granted.” The six kṣatriyas were also pleased, and with satisfaction said, “Our wishes have also been realized. It is due to the great treasury coun- cilor’s talent that this deed has been accomplished.” The six kṣatriya kings each thought again to themselves, “My country has just been founded, and I need someone who can assist me as prime minister. Who is really capable of this task? Our great treasury councilor alone is capable of such a task.” Each of the six kṣatriya kings sum- moned the councilor, saying, “My state needs a prime minister. May

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you take on the general oversight of the governance of my state.” Thereupon, all six kings each granted their ofﬁcial seals to the great treasury councilor. As soon as the latter accepted the ofﬁcial seals, the six kings retreated to their rear palaces to enjoy pastimes of games and amusements. Thus, entrusted with the task of governance, the great treasury councilor assumed general oversight of the gov- ernance of all seven countries. There was nothing whatsoever that was left incomplete in his stewardship.
At that time, there were seven wealthy householders within the country. The treasury councilor also managed their household affairs for them, as well as teaching seven hundred brāhmaṇas how to recite their sutras. The seven kings respectfully treated the great treasury councilor as if he were a god, the seven wealthy householders regarded him as if he were a great king, and the seven hundred brāh- maṇas looked up to him as if he were the god Brahmā. Then the seven kings, seven householders, and seven hundred brāhmaṇas respectively thought to themselves, “The great treasury councilor always meets with the god Brahmā, exchanges words with him, and sits down and stands up in intimate association with him.”
The great treasury councilor, however, who quietly knew the thoughts of the kings, householders, and brāhmaṇas, thought to himself, “According to their beliefs, I meet often with the god Brahmā, exchange words with him, and sit down and stand up in intimate association with him. In actuality, however, I have never seen the god Brahmā, nor have I exchanged words with him, hence I ought not to accept this praise by remaining silent. I also remember the words of various learned elders that if one withdraws into a secluded place during the four summer months and practices the four kinds of immeasurable minds, the god Brahmā will descend from his heaven to meet with the practitioner. I should now practice the discipline of the four immeasurable minds and see if the god Brahmā really will come down to meet with me.”
Having so decided, the great treasury councilor went to see each of the seven kings, requesting of each, “Your majesty, may you take over the general oversight of the governance [of your country], for

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I wish to take a leave of absence for the duration of the four summer months in order to practice the discipline of the four immeasurable minds, sir.” The seven kings each answered, “You may go whenever you are ready.” The great treasury councilor also said to the seven wealthy householders, “You should look after your household affairs by yourselves for the duration of the four summer months, because I wish to practice the discipline of the four immeasurable minds during that time.” The householders all answered, “Yes, sir. You may go whenever you are ready, sir.”
He also said to the seven hundred brāhmaṇas, “You should be busily engaged in the practice of recitation and also teach each other among yourselves. I am planning to leave for the four summer months in order to practice the discipline of the four immeasurable minds.” The brāhmaṇas replied, “Yes, sir. Great teacher, you know you may go whenever you are ready, sir.”
The great treasury councilor then built a secluded abode on the eastern outskirts of the city and resided there while engaging in the practice of the four immeasurable minds during the summer months. Lord Brahmā, however, did not come to meet him. The treasury councilor thought to himself, “According to my learning from the words of some elders, if one practices the discipline of the four immeasurable minds during the four summer months, Lord Brahmā is supposed to descend, manifesting himself before the practitioner. Now, however, in my state of quiescence, there is no trace at all of such a vision.” Then, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, on the night of the full moon, the great treasury councilor came out of his solitary abode and sat in the outdoor alley. Soon after he sat down outdoors there appeared a bright illumination. The great treasury councilor quietly thought to himself, “Is this strange light the sign of Brahmā descending?” Brahmā then transﬁgured himself into the form of a boy and appeared with his pentagonal-shaped head and wildly disheveled hair, and hovered in midair in a sitting posture above the treasury councilor. On seeing this, the treasury councilor com- posed the following verse:

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What heavenly god is this form, Sitting in midair,
Illuminating all four directions Like a great ﬁre burning intensely?
The Brahmā youth responded in verse:
Only those gods of Brahmā Heaven
Know that I am Brahmā in the form of a boy. The rest call me a god of ﬁre and
Enshrine me in the ﬁre god shrine.
The great treasury councilor continued in verse:
Now I wish to communicate with you, Receive your instruction,
Pay my reverence and respect to you, and Set forth a meal of superior taste for you, sir. May I request, O god:
“May you fathom my mind of enquiry.” The Brahmā youth replied again in verse:
O treasury councilor,
While you are engaged in practicing some discipline, What do you wish to seek for?
Since you have set forth this offering, I shall accept it for your sake.
Again the god Brahmā said to the great treasury councilor, “If you have any questions, ask me as freely as you wish. I shall answer them for you.” Thereupon, the great treasury councilor thought to himself, “Now, should I ask about the matter of the present life or that of the future?” Again he thought to himself, “Sometime later I may ask about present life matters. I should instead ask about the future life after death.” He thus questioned the Brahmā youth in verse:
Now I shall ask the Brahmā youth, “May you resolve my doubt

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So as to free me of doubt.
By practicing (studying) what discipline and Abiding in what kind of mental state (dharma), Can I be born in Brahmā Heaven, sir?”
At that time, the Brahmā youth replied in verse:
You should forsake the thought of selﬁshness, Abide in seclusion,
Practice the mind of benevolence,
Remove desires, and absent yourself from ﬁlthiness. Then you may be able
To be born in Brahmā Heaven.
At that moment, when the great treasury councilor heard this reply, he thought to himself, “The Brahmā youth replied in verse that one should remove ﬁlthiness, but I do not understand what this means. I must ask him again.” Then the great treasury councilor questioned the god Brahmā in verse:
Your verse refers to ﬁlthiness.
May I now ask you to explain to me what this means? Who opens the gate of this world
Through which one falls into evil courses of life and Cannot be born in the world of heaven?
At that time, the Brahmā youth replied in verse:
Those who harbor deceit and jealousy,
Who are accustomed to self-conceit and undue self-esteem, Who cherish avarice in the heart,
Desire, hate, anger, delusion, and arbitrariness, These people are said to be ﬁlthy.
Now I let you know that these vices Open the gate that leads to the fall Into the evil courses of life,
And not to rebirth in heaven.

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At that time, having heard this verse, the treasury councilor thought to himself, “I have now understood the meaning of ‘ﬁlthiness,’ but it is not possible to remove it while living a householder’s life. Shouldn’t I now renounce ordinary life, go forth from family ties, shave my hair and beard, wear a mendicant’s robe, and practice the path of religion?” At that moment, the Brahmā youth knew the coun- cilor’s thoughts and related the following in verse:
You have good courage. Your wish is superb.
It is what a man of wisdom does, and after death, He will surely be born in Brahmā Heaven.
Thereupon, the Brahmā youth suddenly disappeared. The foremost treasury councilor returned to visit the seven kings and said to them, “Your majesties, may you make yourselves models in assuming oversight of governing state affairs. I am planning to leave family life, wear a mendicant’s robe, and practice the path of religion. The reason is this, sirs. Recently I happened to listen to the god Brahmā’s exhortation on the deﬁled state of life, and in my mind I despise it. As long as I am in the householder’s life there is no possibility of removing it totally from my life, sirs.”
At that time, the seven kings thought to themselves, “The brāh- maṇas in general desire riches and treasures. I should open up the state’s storehouses and let him have whatever he wishes, so that he will change his mind.” The seven kings said to the treasury councilor, “If you need anything, I will give you whatever you wish. You should not leave the householder’s life.”
The treasury councilor replied to the kings, “I have now already received your generous offer. I have my own riches and treasures, sirs, but I shall present all of them to your majesties as my gift. May I request your majesties to accept my petition so that I may realize the goal of my pursuit, sirs.”
Then the seven kings thought to themselves, “The brāhmaṇas in general desire fancy food. I should provide him with some palace

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ladies to satisfy his mind and taste, so that he may change his mind.” Then each king told him, “If you need some palace ladies, you may have any of them as you wish. You should not leave the house- holder’s life.”
The treasury councilor replied, “I have now already received your generous offer, sirs. Though I have a number of palace ladies in my household now, I have sent them all away in order to sever the relation of love and affection, and am ready to go forth in the practice of the religious path. The reason is this, sirs. Recently I happened to listen to the god Brahmā’s exhortation on the deﬁlement of life, and in my mind I despise it. As long as I am in the house- holder’s life there is no possibility of removing it totally from my life, sirs.” Then the great treasury councilor said to King Reṇu in verse:
May your majesty allow me my say:
The king is the most honorable among men. Though you would provide me riches and ladies,
These treasures are not ones with which I can be satisﬁed.
King Reṇu replied in verse as well:
Kaliṅga and its capital city, Dantapura, Aśvaka and its capital, Potana,
Avanti and its capital, Māhīṣmatī, Aṅga and its capital city, Caṃpā,
The cities of Xiuo, Shumisaluo, and Roruka, Vārāṇasī and its capital, Kāśī,
All these have been developed by you, the treasury councilor. If you lack anything in your possessions
For the fulﬁllment of the senses,
I shall provide you with anything you need. May you remain in the position and, Together with me, handle the state’s affairs. You need not go away,
Renouncing your family relations.

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At that time, the great treasury councilor responded in verse:
I have little desire to fulﬁll my ﬁve senses, and Hence naturally I am not attached to my life In the manner of other people.
I have already heard the words of the heavenly god.
Hence my mind will never remain in the householder’s life.
King Reṇu replied in verse:
From which god have you acquired, as you say, The wish to forsake the objects
Of the ﬁve senses?
Now I ask you to reply to me at once.
The treasury councilor replied in verse:
Some time ago I sat alone and Thought to myself in a secluded place. Then the god Brahmā descended
With the splendid ray of light illuminating everywhere. Ever since I learned things from him,
I have not been able to enjoy this world.
Then King Reṇu told him in verse:
Remain a short while, O great treasury councilor.
Let us together propagate the good inﬂuence of religion and Then let us renounce family life together.
You are my teacher.
Just as lapis lazuli gems, pure and genuine, Fill up the midair,
Now my faith, pure and genuine,
Is permeated with the teaching of the Buddha.
Then the great treasury councilor said in verse:
The heavenly gods and the people of this world Should forsake the objects of the ﬁve senses,

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Remove various deﬁlements, and
Carry out the practice of pure and genuine austerity.
At that time, the seven kings said to the great treasury councilor, “You should remain seven years, enjoying entirely the ﬁve senses in this world, and then abandon the country, leaving things to our children and relations. Wouldn’t it be a good idea for you to renounce family life together with us? We shall then follow you; whatever you do, we shall do likewise.”
The great treasury councilor replied to the seven kings, “The world is impermanent. Human life passes swiftly and cannot be sustained [unchanged] even for a moment’s breath. Therefore, isn’t the duration of seven years an awfully long time?”
The seven kings said again, “If you think that seven years is too long a time, let us wait for six years, ﬁve years, nay even only one year, staying in a quiet palace, exhaustively enjoying the ﬁve senses, spending time together in pastimes; then, after that, let us renounce our countries, leaving them to our children and relations. Wouldn’t it be a good idea for you to renounce family life together with us? Whatever you do, we shall do likewise.”
The great treasury councilor again spoke to the kings, saying, “The world is impermanent. Human life passes swiftly and cannot be sustained [unchanged] even for a moment’s breath. Therefore, isn’t the duration of one year an awfully long time? In this matter, seven months and so forth, even a month, is all the same and I cannot wait for that period, sir.”
The kings said again, “For seven days we shall stay in the rear palace and enjoy in every way the ﬁve senses in this world. After that we shall renounce our states, leaving them to our sons and relations, and together we shall renounce family life. Is this not a good idea?”
The great treasury councilor replied, “The duration of seven days is not too long. By my own decision I shall remain, sirs. May I, however, emphasize to your majesties that the words of your pledge must be honored without fail, sirs. If after seven days your majesties do not leave, I shall myself go forth alone, sirs.”

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Thereupon, the great treasury councilor visited the seven wealthy householders and said to them, “Dear householders, you should handle your household affairs by yourselves. I shall be leaving family life and will practice the path to realize the goal of uncon- ditioned transcendence. The reason is that recently I happened to listen to the god Brahmā’s exhortation on the deﬁlement of life, and in my mind I despise it. As long as I am in the householder’s life there is no possibility of totally removing it from my life.”
The seven householders replied to the treasury councilor, “Your decision is splendid. You should know when it is the right time. We wish to renounce our family ties at the same time, together with you, sir. In whatever you do, we shall follow and do the same.” Then the great treasury councilor also visited the seven hundred brāhmaṇas and said to them, “Gentlemen, you should exert your- selves in the practice of reciting sutras, search for the meaning of morality, and teach among yourselves. I shall be leaving family life to practice the path and realize the goal of unconditioned transcen- dence. The reason is that recently I happened to listen to the god Brahmā’s exhortation on the deﬁlement of life, and in my mind I despise it. As long as I am in the householder’s life, there is no pos-
sibility of totally removing it from my life.”
The seven hundred brāhmaṇas said to the treasury councilor, “Great teacher, you should not renounce family life. The house- holder’s life is much easier, and one is entitled to enjoy the ﬁve senses. In the householder’s life many people attend and take care of you, and you do not have to suffer or worry about anything. [In contrast,] those who renounce family life have to live in the wilder- ness, neither desiring anything, nor grasping anything because of desire.”
The treasury councilor replied, “If I consider the householder’s life as a happy one, I would regard its renunciation as suffering, and thus eventually discard such an idea myself. But it is solely because I consider the householder’s life to be suffering and its renunciation to be happiness that I shall take the course of forsaking the householder’s life.”

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The brāhmaṇas replied: “O great teacher, if you renounce family life, we too shall renounce family life, sir. Whatever your reverence does, we shall do likewise, sir.”’
Then the treasury councilor returned to his wives and said to them, “Ladies, according to your preference, whoever wishes to stay may stay, and whoever wishes to return [to their original home] may do so. This is because I wish to renounce family life and practice the path of religion in order to realize the unconditioned state of transcendence.”
He discussed the matter and explained his intended renunciation in detail. His wives then replied, “O great treasury councilor, you have been in part my husband, and in part my father. Though you are renouncing family life, we shall follow your path, sir. Whatever the treasury councilor practices, we shall likewise practice, sir.” In this way, after seven days had passed, the great treasury coun- cilor shaved his hair and beard and departed, wearing the three formal robes of a mendicant, leaving household life. The seven kings, seven great householders, seven hundred brāhmaṇas, and forty wives respectively increased the number of their companions one after another, ﬁnally adding up to as many as eighty-four thou- sand people. All of them simultaneously renounced family life and
followed the treasury councilor.
Subsequently, the great treasury councilor wandered through many different countries and beneﬁted people everywhere widely by propagating the inﬂuence of the religious path.
At that time, the god Brahmā said to the residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven:
This treasury councilor was none other than Śākyamuni Buddha himself, you should never think otherwise. The World-honored One then renounced his family life after seven days of waiting and, leading a host of people, wandered through various countries, beneﬁting people everywhere widely by propagating the inﬂuence of the religious path. All of you, if you have any doubt regarding my words, since the World- honored One is sojourning at Vulture Peak you should visit him and ask him about it directly. Whatever the Buddha says should be accepted.

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The visitor Pañcaśika said:
Because of this story I have come here, sir. Is it true that this great treasury councilor is indeed the same as the World-honored One, sir? World-honored One, after seven days of waiting, did your holiness really renounce family life together with the seven kings, and so forth, and also with a host of eighty-four thousand people who simultaneously renounced family life? Did you really accomplish the propagation of your religious path by wandering through various countries and ben- eﬁting people everywhere, sir?
The Buddha replied to Pañcaśika:
Indeed, the treasury councilor of that time was none other than myself, Śākyamuni Buddha, you should never think otherwise. At that time the people of that country all came out in procession, and excitedly, despite some unavoidable damage, everyone raised their voices, chant- ing, “Homage to the great treasurer Mahāgovinda, the seven kings’ councilor! Homage to the great treasurer, the seven kings’ councilor!” The chanting was repeated in this way three times.
O Pañcaśikha, although the great treasury councilor bore such great virtue and power he could not teach the ultimate path of salvation for the sake of his disciples, he could not help them practice the ultimate discipline of austerity, and he could not lead them to the ultimate place of safety and freedom. The doctrine he taught and which his disciples followed in practice was that which said that when one’s body dissolved at the end of life he would be born in Brahmā Heaven. If one’s practice could not reach full realization but only the secondary level, then that person would be born among the gods who control enjoyments that are magically created by others, highest in the world of the senses; if one’s practice reached the third level, that person would be born among the gods who control enjoyments magically created by themselves, and so on. In descending gradation, then, one would be born among the gods of Tuṣita Heaven, Yāmadeva Heaven, Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, in the realm of the four guardians, then among the kṣatriyas, the brāh- maṇas, the lay [Buddhist] householders (upāsakas and upāsikās), and

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ﬁnally in any wealthy family able to acquire anything freely according to their wish.
O Pañcaśikha, those who were the disciples of the great treasury councilor, who renounced family life without confusion, were able to acquire their rewards and teachings but because it was not the ultimate path they could not be helped to practice the ultimate discipline of aus- terity, and hence they could not reach the ultimate place of safety and freedom, nirvana. For whoever excelled well in this path was only des- tined to be born in Brahmā Heaven.
Now I have been exhorting the Dharma to my disciples in order to help them realize the ultimate path, the ultimate practice of austerity, and the ultimate place of safety and freedom, namely, the ﬁnal goal of nirvana. Any disciple who accepts and practices my teaching of the Dharma will be able to forsake the deﬁled state of conditioned existence and accomplish the undeﬁled state of unconditioned transcendence, realize the emancipation of mind and emancipation through analytical insight, and will himself directly experience in the present life the exhaustion of the cause of birth and death. [Furthermore, he will] accomplish the practice of austerity, accomplish that which should be done [for religious salvation], and become free from rebirth. Even for the disciple who cannot reach this ﬁnal goal, insofar as his practice reaches a secondary level he will still be able to terminate the ﬁve deﬁlements that bind sentient beings to the lower sphere of desire, and he will enter ﬁnal nirvana directly from the heavenly state in which he is reborn without returning to this human world again (i.e., the state of anāgāmin).
Those disciples who reach the third level will extinguish the initial three of those ﬁve deﬁlements (i.e., the heretical belief in a real per- sonality, doubt, and attachment to non-Buddhist practices and obser- vances), and reduce the affectation of desire (rāga), hate (dveṣa), and delusion (moha), returning only once to this world (i.e., the state of sakṛdāgāmin) before realizing ﬁnal nirvana.
Those disciples who reach the fourth level will likewise terminate three of the ﬁve deﬁlements, preventing themselves from falling into the evil courses of life, will realize the saintly state of stream-enterer

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and, returning to this world seven times, shall surely realize ﬁnal nirvana on the last return.
O Pañcaśikha, those among my disciples who have renounced family ties in genuine faith will receive reward and instruction, investigate the methods of the path, thoroughly carry out the practice of austerity, seek the ultimate place of security and peace, and thus ﬁnally return to nirvana.
At that time, having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, Pañcaśikha was delighted and respectfully followed what had been instructed.
[End of Sutra 3: A Great Treasury Councilor]

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Sutra 4 Janavasabha’s Exhortation
(Dīgha Nikāya 18: Janavasabha Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was sojourning at the resthouse called Giñjakāvasatha in the village of Nādika, accompanied by a host of one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. At that time, Venerable Ānanda was in meditation in a secluded room and quietly thought to himself:
It is remarkable and extraordinary that the Tathāgata assures people of their destinies, thereby enormously beneﬁting them. When the minister Kakkaṭa (or Kakkudha) died, the Tathāgata assured his destiny, pre- dicting that upon his death he would terminate the ﬁve deﬁlements that bind sentient beings in the lower world of desire, take the course of entering nirvana from the heaven into which he was born, and hence not return to this world again.
In a similar manner, when Kaliṅga, Nikaṭa, Lishu, Sāḷha, Poyalou, Potoulou, Subhadra, Tuolishetu, Soudalishetu, Yaśas, and Yeshuduolou (some of whom were ministers) died, the Buddha also assured that they had terminated the ﬁve deﬁlements that bind sentient beings in the lower world of desire, taking the course of entering nirvana from the heaven into which they were born, and would not return to this world again.
When a group of ﬁfty people died, the Buddha also assured that they terminated the initial three of those ﬁve deﬁlements: heretical belief in a real personality, doubt, and attachment to non-Buddhist practices and observances, whereby they were freed from desire, hatred, and delusion, and thus acquired the saintly state of stream-enterer, the ﬁrst of the four states of spiritual development. They were obliged to return to this world once in order to terminate the root causes of suf- fering. Also when [another] ﬁve hundred people died, the Buddha again assured that they had terminated the initial three deﬁlements and had acquired the ﬁrst saintly state of stream-enterer, and would not fall into

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an evil course of life but return to the world seven times and would surely terminate the root cause of suffering.
When the disciples died, the Buddha invariably assured their des- tinies without fail, predicting that so-and-so would be born in such- and-such place, so-and-so would be born in such-and-such place. The Buddha assured without exception the destinies of those who died in the sixteen major countries, such as Aṅga, Magadha, Kāśī, Kośala, Vṛji, Malla, Ceḍi, Vatsa, Kuru, Pañcāla, Aśvaka, Avanti, Matsya, Sūrasena, Gandhāra, and Kāmboja. However, he did not make any assurance for the people of Magadha who were kṣatriyas and those Magadhans who were trusted by the kings, even after their deaths.
Thereupon, Ānanda left the secluded room and came to the place of the World-honored One. Having venerated the Buddha by bowing his forehead to [the Buddha’s] feet, he withdrew to sit at one side and said to the Buddha:
A while ago, I was contemplating that it is remarkable and extraordinary that the Tathāgata assures the destinies of people, thereby beneﬁting them enormously. Your holiness assured without exception the destinies of those who died in the sixteen major countries. The people of Maga- dha, however, even those who are kṣatriyas and are trusted by other kings, alone have not been assured of their destinies, even upon their deaths, sir. May I request, O World-honored One, that the destinies of these people be assured, sir. May I repeatedly request that an assurance be granted for their destinies, sir. Your holiness’ assurance will beneﬁt people and gods for their ultimate quiescence.
Again the Magadhan faithful who realized the path and died in their country have not yet been assured of their destinies. May I request, O World-honored One, that their destinies be assured. O World-honored One, may I repeat this request that your holiness assure their destinies, sir. The king of Magadha, Bimbisāra, for instance, became a faithful devotee of the Buddha and provided many offerings before his death. Through this king, many were drawn to the religion and dedicated themselves to the Three Treasures. Despite this, sir, the Tathāgata has not given any assurance about his destiny.

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I earnestly wish, O World-honored One, that an assurance be given to [Bimbisāra] as well as others, so that all sentient beings may be assured and heavenly beings may be at ease.
At that time, having made a request to the World-honored One on behalf of the people of Magadha, Ānanda rose from his seat and, after venerating the Buddha, left the room.
Thereupon, the World-honored One, donning his saṃghāṭī robe and with his almsbowl in hand, went into the city of Nādika. After the almsround, having come to the great forest, he sat under a tree and meditated on the Magadhan devotees with respect to their deaths and births.
At that moment there was a spirit not too far away from the Buddha. He introduced himself to the World-honored One, “I am Janavasabha, I am Janavasabha” (“Victor over Delusion”). The Buddha said:
Why do you call yourself by the name Janavasabha? On the basis of what religion do you use such a subtle expression that means “you have witnessed the trace of the path”?
Janavasabha replied:
I am not from another place. I was formerly a king. I became a lay devotee of the Tathāgata’s religion and ended my life with the earnest recollection of the Buddha in my mind. Because of that, I was reborn as the prince of the guardian god Vaiśravaṇa. Ever since, I have been able to illuminate the various religious practices and realized the state of stream-enterer, never falling into the evil courses of life. Thus throughout seven rebirths in the human world I have always been called Janavasabha, sir.
The Buddha stayed in the great forest as time allowed and then returned to the brick resthouse in Nādika. After he took his seat in the prepared position, he asked a bhikṣu, “Please convey my words to Ānanda: ‘Come see me.’” The bhikṣu answered “Yes, sir” and went to call Ānanda. Having arrived at the place of the World-honored One, Ānanda venerated him by bowing his forehead to the Buddha’s feet and, withdrawing to sit at one side, he said to the Buddha:

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I notice that the Tathāgata’s complexion is especially superior today and your sense faculties are most quiescent, sir. Through what kind of thought has your holiness managed to attain such a good demeanor, sir?
The World-honored One said to Ānanda:
A while ago you came to see me concerning the people of Magadha and requested me to assure their destinies. After you left, I donned my robe and went into the city of Nādika for an almsround and then pro- ceeded to the great forest. I sat under a tree to contemplate the destinies of those Magadhan people with regard to their deaths and births. At that moment, there was a yakṣa, a spirit, not too far from my place, and he introduced himself to me by repeating his name, saying, “I am Janavasabha. I am Janavasabha.” O Ānanda, have you ever heard the name Janavasabha?
Ānanda replied:
I have never heard that name, sir. Having heard the name now, I feel a sense of thrill and my hair stands on end. O World-honored One, this yakṣa must have great authority and virtue. Because of that he may be called Janavasabha, sir.
The Buddha continued:
I then asked him, “Why do you call yourself by the name Janavasabha? On the basis of what religion do you use such a subtle expression that means you have yourself witnessed the trace of religious salvation?” Janavasabha replied, “I am not from anywhere else, nor [was my name given] on the basis of any other religion. I was formerly a king, sir. I became a disciple of the World-honored One, and with earnest faith, became a lay householder and ended my life with earnest recol- lection of the Buddha in my mind. Because of that, I was reborn as the prince of the guardian god Vaiśravaṇa, realized the state of stream- enterer, never falling into the evil course of life, and thus returned here seven times in order to exhaust the root cause of suffering. Throughout seven rebirths in the human world, I have always been called Janava-
sabha, sir.”

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[Janavasabha continued his story:]
At one time, the Buddha was seated under a tree in the great forest. I happened to be riding on the heavenly thousand-spoked wheel to visit the guardian god Virūḍhaka for some reason, and on the way I saw the World-honored One seated under a tree in the great forest. His appearance was handsome and his calm, restrained senses were like a deep pool of still water, transparent, bright, and clear. Having seen the Buddha, I thought to myself, “I should instead visit the World-honored One and ask him where the Magadhan people will be reborn after their deaths.”
Again, on another occasion, the guardian god Vaiśravaṇa uttered a verse among the gods:
We do not try to recollect the past or repeated things. Now, as I have met the world-honored One,
[I feel that] my longevity has been increased.
Again on another occasion, the residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven were assembled at one place for some reason. The four guardian gods were seated in their respective positions: Dhṛtarāṣṭra sat to the east while facing west; Indra was in front of him. Virūḍhaka sat to the south while facing north; Indra was in front of him. Virūpākṣa sat to the west while facing east; Indra was in front of him. Vaiśravaṇa sat to the north while facing south; Indra was in front of him. Waiting for the moment when all these four guardians took their seats, I then sat down.
There were also other great luminaries who had previously accom- plished the practice of pure and genuine austerity under the Buddha’s guidance. They were reborn in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven upon their deaths and [now] help the residents of that heaven increase their ﬁve kinds of beneﬁts: heavenly longevity, good complexion, prominence, hap- piness, and authority and virtue. [Accordingly,] the residents of that heaven all rejoice with dancing and leaping, and praise them, “They promote our well-being, thereby causing the advantage of the asuras, our adversarial demigods, to diminish.” At that time, knowing the res- idents’ joy in his heaven, the god Indra composed the following verse on behalf of those residents:

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The residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven and Their lord Indra rejoice together
In the harmonious life of pleasure and happiness and Respectfully venerate the Tathāgata and
The truth of his Dharma.
[For] the heavenly citizens have been beneﬁted With visible good fortune, such as
Longevity, good complexion, fame, Happiness, and authority.
The contributors of these beneﬁts
Were previously trained under the Buddha’s guidance In the practice of austerity, pure and genuine,
And because of that merit
They have been born in this heaven. Some of these citizens,
Whose auras and complexions Are exceedingly noble and august,
Were [previously] the disciples of the Buddha. Having acquired insight and
Having been born into this heaven, They too became prominent.
The Trāyastriṃśa residents and The lord of this heaven, Indra,
Thinking of this state of happiness promoted by them, Venerate respectfully the Tathāgata and
The truth of his Dharma. The god Janavasabha continued:
The purpose for which the Trāyastriṃśa residents assembled at the Su- dharma-sabhā hall was to conduct discussion together, to think together, to evaluate together, to investigate together, and to instruct together. After that, the assembly gave various instructions to the four guardians of the heaven and, having thus received the instructions, the guardians returned to their respective positions. Soon after they had settled in their respective positions, an unusual ray of light illuminated all the regions.

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Then the Trāyastriṃśa gods, having seen this light, were all terriﬁed, thinking, “What kind of ill omen does this unusual ray of light indicate?” Some of the great deities endowed with supernormal powers were also terriﬁed, wondering, “What kind of ill omen does this unusual ray of light indicate?”
Then the god Brahmā assumed the form of a young boy, and with his pentagonal head and his hair spread out over the host of gods, he rose in midair. His appearance was exceedingly handsome, surpassing that of the gods. His body was purplish gold, overwhelming the lumi- nosity of all the heavenly beings. The Trāyastriṃśa residents did not then stand up to welcome him, nor did they greet him or bid him to take his seat. The Brahmā youth, however, took his seat in an available space. He was delighted, as if an anointed kṣatriya had ascended to the throne, and rejoiced with dancing and leaping. Soon after he sat down he changed himself into the form of a young boy, with his head in the shape of a pentagon and his hair spreading out over the host of gods, sitting in midair, just as a wrestler sits in his permanent seat, immovable like a mountain. He then uttered the following verse:
O foremost honorable one in the discipline of restraint, May the source of wisdom arise in this world.
One who is endowed with the great insight Exhorts the truth of the Dharma.
His practice of austerity has no equal companion. May the sentient beings, pure and genuine
Be born in the heavens of purity.
Thereupon, having uttered this verse, the Brahmā youth said to the gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven:
There are ﬁve kinds of pure and clear [qualities of] sound, which are called the sounds of the god Brahmā. What are these ﬁve types of sound? The ﬁrst is honest; the second, gentle; the third, thoroughly clear; the fourth, deep and wide; and the ﬁfth, heard in all directions and in the far distance. If a sound possesses these ﬁve qualities it is regarded as Brahmā’s sound.

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Let me further explain. Listen attentively. The disciples of the Tathāgata, the Magadhan householders, realized either the saintly state of nonreturner, the state of once-returner, or the state of stream- enterer when they died, and were reborn in either the heaven of con- trolling enjoyments magically created by others, the heaven of con- trolling enjoyments magically created by themselves, Tuṣita Heaven, Yāmadeva Heaven, Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, the realm of the four guardians, among the kṣatriyas, the brāhmaṇas, the lay [Buddhist] householders, or wealthy families. In all of these cases, they freely enjoyed the ﬁve senses.
Then the Brahmā youth composed a verse:
I have been told that
As many as eighty-four thousand Magadhan lay householders, Equally accomplished their paths when they died,
Realizing the saintly state of stream-enterer, Thus not falling again into an evil course of life, Equally riding on the right road,
Reaching the path and salvation. These sentient beings,
Aided by their insight derived from their merits, Were able to forsake their love and affection, To liberate themselves from fraudulence Through the repentance of inner
As well as outer senses of shame, and Are reported by the Brahmā youth
To those Trāyastriṃśa gods
As having realized the state of stream-enterer, All rejoicing.
Having heard this verse, Vaiśravaṇa was delighted and said:
It is extraordinary and it has never before happened that the World- honored One appeared in this world and taught such a true doctrine. Originally I did not know that the Tathāgata appeared in this world,

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taught such a true doctrine, and made the residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven greatly rejoice.
Then the Brahmā youth said to the god Vaiśravaṇa:
Why do you make such a statement? Why do you think it is extraor- dinary and that it has never before happened that the Tathāgata appeared in this world and taught the true doctrine like this? The Tathāgata taught through his power of expediency what is good and what is bad; while thus giving detailed exhortation on this, he did not make them as ultimately real by exhorting on the pure nature of elements of existence as empty, whereby he accomplished some attainment of real insight. This truth is delicate and subtle like the ﬁrst taste of the cream of clariﬁed butter.
Then the Brahmā youth again said to the residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven:
Listen attentively. Contemplate and remember what I am going to explain to you. The Tathāgata who is “liberated from attachment” teaches the set of four applications of mental awareness on four conditions of existence through an efﬁcient analytical method. What are these four? First, observation of one’s inner body or inner senses; one should exert himself without slackening, being mindful of his observations and keeping them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and worries.
Further, in observing his outer body or outer senses, one should exert himself without slackening, being mindful of his observations and keeping them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and worries. It is the same with the three remaining applications: in observing one’s sense perception, mental intellect, and psy- chophysical elements, one should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations and keeping them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and worries. When observation into the outer body is completed there should arise insight into the bodies of others; when observation of the inner sense perception is

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completed, there should arise insight into the inner sense perception of others; when observation into the inner mind is completed there should arise insight into the minds of others; when observation into the inner psychophysical elements is completed there should arise insight into the psychophysical elements of others. The foregoing are called the four applications of mental awareness on the four conditions of existence in the Tathāgata’s efﬁcient analytical method. Again, O residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, listen attentively, and I shall explain next the Tathāgata’s seven requirements of con- centration (sapta-samādhi-pariṣkāra) in efﬁcient analytical method. What are the seven? They are: right view, right conception, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right endeavor, and right
mindfulness.
Next, O residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, I shall explain the Tathāgata’s four supernormal powers of concentration in efﬁcient analytical method. What are the four? They are: ﬁrst, the supernormal power derived from dispositional forces bearing the exertion of con- centration motivated by desire; second, the supernormal power derived from dispositional forces bearing the exertion of concen- tration motivated by mind; third, the supernormal power derived from dispositional forces bearing the exertion of concentration moti- vated by endeavor; fourth, the supernormal power derived from dispositional forces bearing the exertion of concentration motivated by investigation. These are the four supernormal powers of con- centration in the Tathāgata’s efﬁcient analytical method.
Again, may I tell you, O residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, that the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of the past who relied on innumerable expedients to produce immeasurable supernormal powers did so fundamentally by deriving them from the four foregoing types of supernormal powers (as variations). Therefore, those future śra- maṇas and brāhmaṇas also should rely on innumerable expedients to produce immeasurable supernormal powers, doing so funda- mentally by inducing them from the four foregoing types of super- normal powers.

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At that moment the Brahmā youth transﬁgured himself into thirty-three bodies which respectively sat together with the thirty-three gods, saying to each of them, “Have you recognized my supernormal power of trans- ﬁguration?” They replied, “Yes, we have seen it.” The Brahmā youth said, “Since I practice the four types of supernormal powers I am able to transﬁgure myself into innumerable forms.”
At that moment, each of the thirty-three gods thought to themselves, “Now a single Brahmā youth sits alone in my seat and speaks these words to me. Thus, the transﬁgured form of this Brahmā youth speaks this way, and other transﬁgured Brahmā youths are also speaking. When the original Brahmā youth becomes silent, all the transﬁgured forms shall fall silent as well.”
The Brahmā youth then removed the spell of supernormal power, seated himself in the position of Indra, and said to the residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven:
I shall now explain to you. Listen attentively. The Tathāgata, who is the Arhat, himself opened the three passages with his own power, and himself realized the perfect enlightenment through such a pas- sage. What are these three?
First, suppose a human being has strong desire and learns of bad things. If he later associates with good friends and listens to words on the Dharma, and then acquires the truth of that Dharma, having done so he shall free himself of desires and abandon bad conduct, obtain a feeling of delight, and joy and simply become happy. Also, the way in which great joy arises from within happiness is like the manner in which, having thrown away poor food after partaking of a tasty meal, a person still seeks an even better meal. The practitioner should be like this. Having forsaken morally bad elements one obtains a state of joy and happiness, and yet within the state of hap- piness one ﬁnds further causes for the arising of great joy. This is the stage in which the Tathāgata opened the initial passage of real- ization through his power, himself realizing perfect enlightenment through this passage.

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Second, again suppose some individual entertains a sense of hatred and anger and does not forsake his bad physical, verbal, and volitional habits. Later on, however, he meets some good friends and listens to good words on the Dharma and then acquires the truth of the Dharma. Having done so, he frees himself from bad physical, verbal, and volitional actions, causes joy to arise in his mind, and simply becomes happy. He then ﬁnds within the state of happiness further cause for the arising of great joy. This is like the manner in which, having thrown away poor food after partaking of a tasty meal, a per- son still seeks an even better meal. The practitioner should be like this. Having forsaken morally bad elements one obtains a state of joy and happiness, and yet within that state of happiness one ﬁnds further cause for the arising of great joy. This is the second passage of realization that the Tathāgata opened.
Third, again, some people are stupid and ignorant, do not know what is good and what is bad, and cannot know the Four Noble Truths, [the nature of] suffering, the causes, cessation, and the path as they truly are. Later on, however, a person meets some good friends and listens to good words on the Dharma and then acquires the truth of the Dharma. Having done so, he frees himself from bad physical, verbal, and volitional actions, causing joy to arise in his mind, and he simply becomes happy. He then ﬁnds within the state of happiness further cause for the arising of great joy. This is like the manner in which, having thrown away poor food after partaking of a tasty meal, a person still seeks an even better meal. The prac- titioner should be like this. Having forsaken morally bad elements one obtains a state of joy and happiness, and yet within that state of happiness one ﬁnds further cause for the arising of great joy. This is the third passage of realization that the Tathāgata opened.
At that time, the Brahmā youth exhorted the foregoing doctrines to the Trāyastriṃśa gods, and the guardian god Vaiśravaṇa became a follower of his teaching and propagated the right Dharma along with him. The yakṣa Janavasabha also exhorted this Dharma before the Buddha, and the World- honored One exhorted this Dharma to Ānanda. Ānanda then also exhorted

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this Dharma to the bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, and male and female lay householders (upāsakas and upāsikās). Having listened to this doctrine taught by the Buddha, Ānanda experienced joy, respectfully received the teaching, and carried out what was taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 4: Janavasabha’s Exhortation]

Sutra 5 Lesser Causality
(Dīgha Nikāya 27: Aggañña Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was sojourning in the country of Śrāvastī at Mṛgamātā’s lecture hall at the Nunnery of the Eastern Grove, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. At that time, two brāhmaṇas, with ﬁrm faith in their hearts, visited the place of the Buddha, renounced family life, and joined the Buddha’s religious path. One was called Vāseṭṭha (Pāli) and the other was Bhāradvāja.
At that time, the World-honored One came out of the meditation room and began his meditative walk back and forth on the hall’s terrace. Then, having seen the Buddha practicing walking meditation, Vaseṭṭha quickly went to Bhāradvāja and said to him:
Don’t you know that the Tathāgata has now come out of the meditation room and has begun his meditative walk? We should go see the World- honored One, and we should listen to what the Tathāgata teaches us.
Then, as advised by his friend, Bhāradvāja followed Vāseṭṭha to visit the World-honored One and, having venerated the Buddha by bowing their fore- heads to his feet, both began to follow the Buddha in the practice of walking meditation.
At that time, the World-honored One said to Vāseṭṭha, “O you two, born in the brāhmaṇa class, with ﬁrm faith in the Dharma that I teach, have you decided to forsake family life and practice the way?” Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, we have so decided, sir.”
The Buddha said to them, “O you two, when you are practicing the path of religion under my instruction, isn’t it likely that other brāhmaṇas will accuse you and make complaints and warnings?” They answered, “Yes, sir, our renunciation of family life and conversion to the path of practice under the Buddha’s guidance will invite such accusations of us, sir.”
The Buddha asked, “Why do they accuse you?” At once they replied to the Buddha:

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They accuse us, saying, “Our brāhmaṇa class is superior while the rest are inferior; our class is clean and white, while the rest are black and dark; our class is derived from Brahmā, born of his mouth; and as our class realizes pure and genuine emancipation in this present life, the life to come will [therefore] also be pure and genuine. Why do you abandon our pure and genuine class and join the different religion pro- fessed by Gautama?” O World-honored One, when they see our renun- ciation of family life and conversion to the practice of the Buddha’s path, they will surely criticize us with these accusations, sir.
The Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha:
You may ﬁnd many people who are as stupid and ignorant as animals and birds. Thus some claim, “Our brāhmaṇa class is superior while the rest are inferior; our class is clean and white while the rest are black and dark; our class is derived from Brahmā, born of his mouth; and as our class realizes pure and genuine emancipation in this present life, the life to come will [therefore] also be pure and genuine.”
O Vāseṭṭha, in the path of the highest truth that I now teach, no such criterion invoking class difference is needed. The path I cultivate does not rely on a mind of self-conceit. The secular world relies on such a criterion, but not my religious salvation. If any śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa relies on the class-status criterion, he cannot realize highest, perfect enlightenment. Only when one casts away the class-status criterion and removes the mind of self-conceit can one realize genuine enlight- enment and accept the right Dharma that I teach. People do not like those of inferior backgrounds. The Dharma that I teach does not so discriminate.
The Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha:
Even when the four class divisions are differentiated, I am obliged to say that both good and bad are equally found in all of their members, and the wise praise equally the good while accusing the bad in any of these classes of people. What are the four [classes]? They are ﬁrst, the kṣatriyas, with royal or warrior status; second, the brāhmaṇas, of priestly or scholarly status; third, the vaiśya householders, who are

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farmers and merchants; and fourth, the śūdras, who are destitute or of servile status.
O Vāseṭṭha, listen carefully. Within the kṣatriya class there are mur- derers, thieves, those who commit sexual abuse, speakers of falsehood, double-dealers, speakers of harsh words, frivolous sycophants, those who have covetous minds, those with malicious intent, and those with wrong views. There are also these kinds of wrongdoers among the brāh- maṇa class, among the vaiśyas, and among the śūdra people as well. O Vāseṭṭha, for any wrong action there will be a unfortunate retri- bution. When one commits an evil action, he will reap an evil retribu- tion. If such causal effect occurs only among those of the kṣatriya, vaiśya, and śūdra classes but not among the brāhmaṇas, then the brāh- maṇas could claim that their class is superior while the rest are inferior; that their class is clean and white while the rest are black and dark; that their class is derived from Brahmā, born of his mouth; and that because their class realizes pure and genuine emancipation in the present life, the life to come will also be pure and genuine. If, however, accord- ing to the same principle, for a wrong action there is an evil retribution; that is, if one were to commit an evil action, black and dark in nature, that person will receive an evil retribution equivalent in nature with its action. This also invariably applies equally to those of the brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya, and śūdra classses, and therefore the brāhmaṇas cannot claim that their class alone is pure and genuine and superior. O Vāseṭṭha, if, on the other hand, within the kṣatriya class there are those who abstain from committing murder, theft, sexual abuse, speak- ing falsehoods, double-talk, using harsh words, frivolous sycophancy, and who do not have a covetous mind, malicious intent, and wrong views, then in a similar manner there are also those who abstain from these wrong deeds among those of the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, and śūdra classes. If anyone who belongs to any of these classes should learn the foregoing ten kinds of good deeds and actually put them into practice, good rewards will necessarily follow. If one commits a good and gen- uine act, he will receive a good reward. If this principle of causal reward applies only to the brāhmaṇa people and not to kṣatriyas, vaiśyas, or śūdras, then the brāhmaṇas can claim that their brāhmaṇa class alone

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is pure and genuine and superior. If, however, the same principle equally and invariably applies to all four classes, then the brāhmaṇas cannot claim that their class is pure and genuine and superior.
The Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha:
Now, we see no difference from others in the manner of childbirth in marriage among the brāhmaṇa people, yet some of them falsely claim that their brāhmaṇa class is born from the mouth of the creator Brahmā, is pure and genuine in this life, and will also be pure and genuine in the life to come. My disciples all vary as to their class status and back- grounds, yet even though they come from different classes and back- grounds, they have renounced family life and joined my religion, and have received higher ordination in order to practice the path. If someone asks them, “What class are you from?”, they should reply to this ques- tion by saying, “I am a son [or daughter] of the Śākya śramaṇa.”
One should also say, of his own initiative:
We śramaṇas are all born from the parental mouth. Born out of our religious conversion, we realize the pure and genuine life [now] and the life to come will also be pure and genuine. The reason is that the name “the great god Brahmā” is a title for the Tathāgata, and the Tathāgata is the Eye of Wisdom of this world, the insight of this world, the Dharma of this world, the Brahmā of this world, the Dharma wheel of this world, the nectar of this world, and the foremost religious master of this world.
O Vāseṭṭha, if one among the kṣatriya people devoutly believes in the Buddha, he necessarily believes that the Tathāgata is endowed with the ten supreme titles, such as the one liberated from attachment, the fully enlightened one, and so forth. He who devoutly believes in the Dharma believes that the Dharma of the Tathāgata, subtle and delicate, pure and genuine, should be practiced and exhorted at all times, that it is shown to be the essential nature of nirvana, and that it can be known only by people of insight. It is not the kind of teaching that an ordinary person can fathom. He who devoutly believes in the sangha believes that the members of the sangha are good and honest, have

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realized the fruits of the path, and have acquired their own disciples and followers, and, being true disciples of the Buddha, they have accom- plished the truth of the Dharma. “Sangha” means realization of the membership that embodies the discipline, concentration, analytical insight, emancipation, and subsequent insight of emancipation. The sangha consists of those who are spiritually ready for the state of stream- enterer, and those who have realized it; those who are ready for the state of once-returner, and those who have realized it; those who are ready for the state of nonreturner, and those who have realized it; those who are ready for the state of arhat, and those who have realized it. Whoever devotedly believes in the sangha should have faith in these, known as the four pairs of people or the eight distinguished persons, the wise and holy disciples of the Tathāgata, worthy of honor and respect as the best ﬁeld of merit for charity in the world. Therefore when one has devout faith in the efﬁcacy of precepts and discipline and holds steadfastly to them, without slackening, without dropping out in hiatus, without deﬁlement, that person will be one who is praised by the wise as perfectly endowed with goodness and quiescence. O Vāseṭṭha, all people, whether they are members of the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra class, should ﬁrmly believe in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha and thereby realize the holy precepts and discipline that
are upheld by holy disciples.
O Vāseṭṭha, among those of the kṣatriya class, there are many who dedicate themselves to the Arhat (i.e., the Buddha) with offerings of food and service, reverence and veneration. In a similar manner, among members of the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, and śūdra classes too, there should also be those who dedicate themselves to the Arhat with offerings of food and service, reverence and veneration.
The Buddha said further to Vāseṭṭha:
Now, on the one hand, those kṣatriyas who are related to me as members of the Śākya clan support King Prasenajit of Kośala as their common ancestral monarch with propriety and respect, while, on the other hand, King Prasenajit visits me with offerings of food and service, as well as reverence and veneration. It is not because the king thinks to himself,

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“The śramaṇa Gautama comes from a powerful clan, whereas I come from a family inferior to his.” Nor is it because he thinks, “The śramaṇa Gautama was born in a family endowed with great wealth and great inﬂuential power, whereas I was born in a lowly, impoverished, and uncultured family.” Nor is it because he makes offerings and service to the Tathāgata that visits me with offerings and service. King Prasenajit views things in reference to the Dharma and clearly recognizes the dis- tinction between what is true and what is false. Because of his conviction he began to develop pure and genuine faith, and now offers his respects to the Tathāgata.
O Vāseṭṭha, I shall now inform you of the ultimate origin of the four class-status differences. At the beginning of this new eon and at the end of the former one, when the preceding eon was totally destroyed, all sentient beings died and were reborn in Light-sound Heaven, where light becomes word. They were physically transformed so as to be able to live on ideas or thoughts as food, emitting light automatically, and ﬂying in midair with supernormal speed. Later on, the surface of the earth changed into water all around. There was no sun, moon, or stars, neither day or night, year or month; total darkness prevailed. Later on, when the water had changed into solid ground, the heavenly beings in Light-sound Heaven naturally lost their merit after their deaths and they came to be born in this new land. Although they were reborn in a different world they still continued to live on thoughts, ﬂy with super- normal speed, their bodies automatically emitting light, and they con- tinued to exist in that new world for some time. They called themselves “sentient beings.”
Later on, however, a fountain of sweet water sprang up, just as cream arises from butter or honey springs up from underground. Some of the ﬁrstborn, whose natures were imprudent, having seen the foun- tain quietly thought to themselves, “I shall taste this water to ﬁnd out what it is.” Immediately they stuck their ﬁngers into the fountain and tasted the water, and in this way, having repeated this a few times, they were addicted to the sweetness of the taste and openhandedly indulged themselves, partaking of it with insatiable desire. This kind of attachment, addicted to pleasure, can hardly be ended through a

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sense of weariness due to overabundance. Other sentient beings also imitated these beings in tasting the water, and after a few tastes they too were invariably soon addicted to it as well. Even before they felt fully satisﬁed, because of this diet their bodies became coarse and their ﬂesh became stiff, losing its heavenly subtle color. They no longer had the supernormal speed of ﬂight and were only able to crawl on the sur- face of the ground. Their bodily light was totally diminished, and heaven and earth were nearly all dark.
O Vāseṭṭha, you should know of the regularity of heaven and earth, such that after the great darkness there will appear the sun, moon, and stars in mid-space; later there will appear day and night and brightness and darkness, respectively; and ﬁnally, days, months, and years. At that time the sentient beings ate only from the earth and thus existed a while on the surface of the ground. Whoever ate more of the food developed a sickly complexion with rough and ugly skin, whereas whoever ate less of it continued to bear a pleasant complexion. Varieties of appearance, such as pleasant, ugly, noble, and handsome, all began from that circumstance.
Some of those whose appearance was more handsome than ordinary became conceited and slighted those whose appearance was ugly. In return, those whose appearance was ugly felt jealous and covetous, and hated those whose had a better appearance. The sentient beings began to dispute among themselves. At that time, the sweetwater foun- tain dried up of its own accord, but the area naturally produced out- growths upon the ground, which were of pleasant color and taste, good scent and cleanliness, and could be eaten. At that time, the sentient beings continued to live again by partaking of these outgrowths from the ground. Whoever ate [of these outgrowths] excessively lost their good complexion, their skin becoming rough and ugly, while whoever ate less retained their pleasant complexion. The beings who managed to keep their pleasant appearance became conceited and disdained those who looked ugly, while the latter became jealous and covetous and hated the former. The sentient beings thus once again began to dis- pute among themselves.

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At that time the outgrowths ceased to be produced, and in the ground there grew instead coarse, thick outgrowths, some of which had good scent and taste and could be eaten, though these were far fewer in quan- tity. The sentient beings continued to live again by partaking of these outgrowths from the ground. Whoever ate excessively lost their good complexion, their skin becoming rough and ugly, while whoever ate much less maintained a pleasant complexion. As before, the problem of good or bad with regard to those whose appearance was handsome and those whose appearance was ugly [once again] led to disputes. Then those outgrowths ceased to be produced. In the ground there instead grew a nonglutinous rice crop. Since its grains had no husks but were of good color and taste and were quite edible, the sentient beings again continued to live for some time by partaking of this rice crop. While their subsistence on the rice crop continued in the world, male and female beings were attracted to each other, resulting in the natural arousal of carnal desire and mutual intimate relations. Having seen them together, the others warned them, saying, “What you are doing is not right. You are excommunicated and driven out of our human community. Come back when the duration of three months has passed.”
The Buddha continued:
What had once been regarded as bad then came to be regarded as good. Those sentient beings learned the pleasure of sexual intercourse, pursued emotion, and fulﬁlled desire in every way without control, without restriction. Because of their mutual shame they began to construct pri- vate houses. This was the beginning of the institution of housing. As they indulged in sexual intercourse, this naturally reinforced their carnal desire to increase in intensity. Thus developed the womb, due to unclean behavior, and this was the functional beginning of the human repro- ductive organs.
At that time, the sentient beings partook of rice grain grown naturally. They harvested it as needed throughout the day, and hence it was never overharvested. Then a lazy person quietly thought to himself, “Har- vesting rice for breakfast in the morning and again for dinner in the evening is too much work. I will take at one time enough rice for both

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meals.” Later, one of his friends called him to go harvest rice together. The former replied, “I have [already] harvested enough rice to be used for two meals today. If you wish to harvest, go by yourself.” The man then thought to himself, “How cunning he is! He harvested more rice than he needed for one meal and stored it until it was needed. I too will now harvest and store enough rice for three days.” Thus, that man [har- vested and] stored enough rice for three days’ meals. Then another man asked him to harvest rice together. He replied, “I have already harvested and stored the amount I need for three days. If you wish to go harvest rice, go by yourself.” So this man too thought to himself, “He is cunning; he harvested enough rice to serve for three days and keeps it in storage. I will try to best him by harvesting and storing enough rice for ﬁve days.” At once he harvested rice to serve for ﬁve days. Soon all the sentient beings tried to outdo the others in harvesting rice. Thus, overharvested, the rice crop became barren and weed-ridden and began to produce husks. Once cut down it did not grow again.
The sentient beings were not pleased at all and were worried and bewildered. They thought:
When originally born, I initially lived on thoughts as food, ﬂew with supernormal speed in midair, my body automatically emitted light, and I continued to exist in this world. Later on a sweetwater fountain sprang up. Since it was like cream from butter or honey with its good scent and taste, it was edible and we partook of it together at all times. As things went on in this manner for some time, whoever partook of it more began to look ugly with a bad complexion, whereas those who partook of it less maintained their good appearance and pleasant complexion. Because of this difference in diet, our appearances began to vary as to fair or ugly. We sentient beings thus held different judgments and hated each other.
Then the sweetwater fountain dried up all by itself, and some outgrowth from the soil of this land then developed. Since the taste of this outgrowth was endowed with good color, ﬂavor, and scent and it was edible, we began to partake of it again for some time to come. Whoever partook of it more began to look ugly with a bad

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complexion, whereas those who ate less of it maintained their good looks and pleasant complexion. Because of this difference in our diets our complexions began to vary as to fair or ugly. The sentient beings thus held different judgments and hated each other.
At that time, the [previous] outgrowth from the ground ceased to grow, replaced instead by a coarse, thick outgrowth. Since some of this outgrowth was of good scent and taste and was edible, we again began to partake of it. Because of this difference in diet, our complexions began to vary as to fair or ugly. The sentient beings thus held different judgments and hated each other.
Then that outgrowth ceased to be produced and a nonglutinous rice crop grew instead. Since the grains had no husks, all of us sen- tient beings again continued to live by partaking of this rice for some time to come. Then some lazy ones among us tried to outdo the others in harvesting it and storing the rice. Thus, overharvested, the rice crop became barren and weed-ridden and began to produce husks, and once cut down it ceased to grow again. What should we do now?
[The sentient beings] then said to each other, “We should divide the land for each of us and put up signs [demarcating ownership].” At once, they divided the land among different owners and erected sign- posts on their parcels of land.
O Vāseṭṭa, this was the origin of the term “rice paddy,” a plot of land for cultivating the rice crop. At that time, when the sentient beings established the boundaries for the respective plots of land assigned to them, the thought of stealing the crops belonging to others gradually developed. Having seen such behavior, the other sentient beings said, “What you have done is not good. Your conduct is wrong because even though you have your own plot of land you steal others’ crops. From now on you should not do such a thing.” Yet there was no end to the thought of theft among those sentient beings. Nor was there an end on the part of other sentient beings of accusing those who had misbehaved. Sometimes they punished those who had misbehaved by striking them and reporting to the others, “This man, who has his own plot of land, has stolen things belonging to others.” The accused, on the other hand,

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also reported to the others, “This man struck me.” At that time, having seen such disputes, everyone was distressed and they said:
The sentient beings are deteriorating morally, just as a rolling stone [degrades], and because of such wrong actions the deﬁlement of ﬁlth has developed in this society. This is the cause of birth, old age, illness, and death, and the effect of the suffering of deﬁlement is to fall into the three evil courses of life. These disputes arose because of the parceled lands of rice crops. We would be better off if we elected someone as our leader and let him deal with these disputes. He should protect those who are worthy of protection and punish those who should be punished. Every member of the community shall give a portion of their rice harvest as payment for the service undertaken by the appointed person in dealing with these disputes.
Then they chose someone from among themselves who was tall and physically imposing, handsome in appearance, and who projected an aura of authority. They said to him, “We wish you to become our leader as elected by us, equal voters, to protect those who need protection, punish those who should be punished, and leave alone those whose lives need not be interrupted. We shall collect a portion of each of our rice harvests for your stipend.” The person thus chosen by the members of the community listened to the people’s words, took on the role of chieftain, and dealt with the various disputes, while the community collected a portion of each member’s rice harvest and provided it to their leader. The [leader] consoled the public with good words. Having heard his words, the people greatly rejoiced and praised him, “Very good, mahārāja (“great king”).”
This was the origin of the title of “king” in the human world. Because the king ruled his citizens in reliance on the right Dharma, he was called a kṣatriya. This was the very beginning of the kṣatriya class in the human world.
There was one person among the members of the community who thought to himself, “Household life is a great danger; it is a poisonous thorn. I should abandon my household and stay in the mountain forests, practicing austerity in a secluded place.” This man thus renounced

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household life, entered the mountain forests, and practiced contemplation in total quietude and silence. When the proper time came, he picked up an almsbowl and went to a nearby village for an almsround. On seeing him, the people willingly offered him food and praised him with delight, “Very good, sir. You courageously renounced family life to reside in the mountain forests, practicing austerity in total silence, in order to free yourself from all kinds of evil inﬂuences.” This was the origin of the word brāhmaṇa in human society. Among these brāhmaṇas there were some who did not enjoy the life of meditation and contemplation in a secluded place, so they returned to ordinary society, making a pro- fession of learning and reciting sutras, and thus said of themselves, “I am a nonpractitioner of meditation.” Because of this, people called such a person a “nonpracticing brāhmaṇa.” When such a person lives among ordinary people he is called an ordinary human brāhmaṇa. Thus there came to be the brāhmaṇa class in human society.
Among the sentient beings there were some types of people in human society who enjoyed conducting business and amassing riches and wealth. Because of this activity, people called them vaiśya, household- ers. Again, among the people there were those who excelled in various activities such as engineering, craftsmanship, and so on, and they were the producers of many things. Because of this, there came to be the name śūdra, craftsman.
O Vāseṭṭha, I have now explained the four kinds of classes, but there was another, ﬁfth classiﬁcation, called śramaṇa. The reason that this term came to be used, Vāseṭṭha, is that among the kṣatriyas there was a man who disliked his own family’s profession, shaved his hair and beard, donned the robe of a mendicant, and practiced austerity. This was the beginning of the word śramaṇa. Regardless of whether one is of the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra class, therefore, when he does not wish to pursue his duty or profession, shaves his hair and beard, dons the mendicant robe, and practices austerity, he is to be regarded as a śramaṇa.
O Vāseṭṭha, if someone of the kṣatriya class physically commits a wrong action, verbally commits a wrong action, or volitionally commits a wrong action, when his body comes to dissolution and his life ends

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he is bound to receive the retribution of suffering. In like manner, if someone of the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra classes commits wrong physical, verbal, or volitional actions, then when his body comes to dissolution and his life ends he is bound to receive the retribution of suffering.
O Vāseṭṭha, if someone of the kṣatriya class performs good physical, verbal, or volitional actions, when his body comes to dissolution and his life ends he is bound to receive the reward of happiness. In like manner, if someone of the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra classes performs good physical, verbal, or volitional actions, then when his body comes to dissolution and his life ends he is bound to receive the reward of happiness.
O Vāseṭṭha, if someone of the kṣatriya class commits a good or bad action physically, verbally, or mentally, when his body comes to dis- solution and his life ends he is bound to receive one of two types [of result]: either the reward of happiness or the retribution of suffering. In like manner, if someone, whether he is of the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra class, commits good or bad physical, verbal, or mental conduct, when his body comes to dissolution and his life ends he is bound to receive either the reward of happiness or the retribution of suffering. If someone of the kṣatriya class shaves his hair and beard, dons the mendicant robe, and practices the path, and if he is engaged in the prac- tice of the seven auxiliary practices of enlightenment, it will not be long before he realizes the path. Why is that so? When someone of the kṣatriya class decides to wear the mendicant robe, renounce family life, and practice foremost austerity, he is certain to experience directly in the present life the exhaustion of the cause of birth and death, the accom- plishment of the practice of austerity, the accomplishment of what should be done [for religious salvation], and freedom from further rebirth. In the same way, when someone, whether he belongs to the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra class, decides to shave his hair and beard, wear the mendicant robe, and practice the seven auxiliary practices of enlight- enment, it will not be long before he realizes the path. Why? Because if he wears the mendicant robe, renounces family life, and practices foremost austerity, he is certain to experience directly in the present life

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the exhaustion of the cause of birth and death, the accomplishment of the practice of austerity, the accomplishment of what should be done [for religious salvation], and freedom from further rebirth.
O Vāseṭṭha, those śramaṇas who come out of those four different classes and are destined to realize insight and practice in perfect accor- dance, and thereby attain the ultimate state of arhatship, should indeed be regarded as primary among the ﬁve classes of people.
The Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha, “The god Brahmā uttered the following verse:”
Among all the sentient beings, The kṣatriyas are superior
In their decisive renunciation of class status. They are foremost in the human world
In regard to their capacity
Of matching insight and practice.
The Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha:
What this Brahmā god said is good, it is not misleading. What this Brahmā god understood is not wrong, it is not a mistaken meaning. I shall now immediately approve his statement. Why? Because as Tathā- gata I am ready to assert the same statement.
Among all the sentient beings, The kṣatriyas are superior
In their decisive renunciation of class status. They are foremost in the human world
In regard to their capacity
Of matching insight and practice.
At that time, the World-honored One completed the foregoing exhortation. Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja realized freedom from the inﬂuence of deﬁlements and attained the state in which their minds were totally liberated. Having lis- tened to the Buddha’s teaching, the two were delighted with the teaching and followed it.
[End of Sutra 5: Lesser Causality]

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Sutra 6
The Universal Ruler’s Practice
(Dīgha Nikāya 26: Cakkavati-sīhanāda Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was sojourning in the communities of the Mātulā country (in Magadha), and after a leisurely journey accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples, he arrived at the country of Mātulā. At that time, the World-honored One said to his disciples:
You should make yourself your [own] lamplight, make the Dharma your lamplight, but you should not make anything else your lamplight. Rely on yourself as your refuge and rely on the Dharma as your refuge, but do not rely on anything else as your refuge. What do you think this means, O bhikṣus, to say that you should make yourself your [own] lamplight, make the Dharma your lampight, but not make anything else your lamplight, and that you should make yourself your refuge, make the Dharma your refuge, but not make anything else your refuge? Here, each bhikṣu should observe his inner body or inner senses in concentration; he should exert himself with no slackening, be mindful of his observations and keep them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and worries. In observing his outer body or outer senses, and also observing both the inner and outer body, each bhikṣu should exert himself with no slackening, be mindful of his observations, and keep them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and worries. It is the same with observing one’s sense perception, intellect, psychophysical aggre- gation of elements, and analytical introspection. This is what I mean when I say that each monk should make himself his [own] lamplight, make the Dharma his lamplight, but not make anything else his lamplight, and to make himself his refuge, make the Dharma his refuge, but not make anything else his refuge. Any practitioner who steadfastly keeps the above principle cannot be deceived even by the Evil One, and that
practitioner’s merit will increase every day. Why is that so?

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Once, during a period in the immemorial past, there was a king, Daḷhanemi (Pāli) by name, who was of the kṣatriya class, anointed on his head, and duly enthroned. He became the holy cakravartin, the universal ruler who turns the golden wheel, and he ruled all four quarters of the continent. The king spontaneously ruled the continent in reliance on the Dharma and was endowed with the seven extraordinary treasures: ﬁrst, the heavenly wheel; second, the white elephant; third, the dark blue horse; fourth, the divine gem; ﬁfth, the jadelike queen; sixth, the gentleman householder; and seventh, the military commander. He had one thousand sons, courageous and valiant, who could defeat any adver- sary and enabled peace to prevail spontaneously everywhere without the use of weapons.
King Daḷhanemi thus ruled for a long time, but ﬁnally he was approaching the end of his life. Then the golden wheel suddenly left its usual position, hovering in midair. The ofﬁcial in charge of the golden wheel at once reported this to the king, “Your majesty, the golden wheel has now moved away from its usual position in midair, sir.” Having heard this report, the king thought to himself:
I once heard from some learned elders that when the golden wheel changes its position it means that the king’s life span is near its end. Though I have already enjoyed extraordinary rewards foremost among men, I aspire to a heavenly happiness through further expe- diency. I should have the prince enthroned as the ruler of all the quarters of the continent, except for a village that I may spare for my barber, and have him shave my hair and beard. I will don the three mendicant robes, go forth from family life, and practice the path of religion.
Then King Daḷhanemi at once summoned the prince and said to him:
I wonder if you know this. I was told by some learned elders that when the golden wheel changes its position, the king’s life span is close to its end. Though I have already enjoyed extraordinary rewards foremost among men, I aspire to a heavenly happiness through further expediency. Now, I am going to shave my hair and beard, wear the

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three mendicant robes, renounce family relations, and practice the path of religion. I entrust to your rule the four quarters of the continent. You should exert yourself in inquiring after the populace and assisting them in their well-being and the security of their possessions.
The prince accepted all the instructions the king left for him. Thereupon, King Daḷhanemi shaved his hair and beard, donned the three robes, and renounced family life for the practice of the path. After seven days had passed since the king’s renunciation of household life, the golden wheel suddenly disappeared. The ofﬁcial in charge of the wheel reported this to the new king: “Your majesty, the golden wheel has suddenly disappeared, sir.” The king was not pleased and at once visited the [for- mer] king Daḷhanemi and said to him, “O father-king, the golden wheel has suddenly disappeared, sir.” Daḷhanemi replied to his son:
Do not be worried or displeased. This golden wheel is no longer [my] possession. When you have accomplished your rule with exer- tion, according to the right Dharma that is to be upheld by the holy ruler, you should bathe in scented warm water on the full-moon night, the ﬁfteenth of the month, and ascend to the top of the Su- dharma-sabhā hall surrounded by the palace ladies. The golden wheel will [then] spontaneously appear before you. The golden wheel has a thousand spokes, rich in color and splendor. It was built by a heavenly master and does not belong to the human world.
The son asked his father, the [former] king, “What is the right Dharma of the holy king cakravartin, sir? O father-king, please tell me what I should do, sir.” The [former] king said to his son:
Dear king, you should commit yourself to making the Dharma your reliance, uphold it and let it accompany you as your assistance; you should pay respect and reverence to the Dharma and honor it, care- fully evaluate its practical application, make the law primary, and thus protect the right Dharma. Again, you should teach the palace ladies according to the Dharma, and also keep a protective watch over them; you shall instruct the princes, ministers, fellow ofﬁcials, and all bureaucratic members as well as various people, śramaṇas

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and brāhmaṇas, and keep a protective watch over all of them, even down to the level of birds and animals.
The king said again to his son:
Again, if you ﬁnd within your territorial conﬁnes some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who faithfully carry out pure and true conduct, who exert themselves without slackening in the removal of self-conceit, who uphold perseverance and benevolence and with self-motivation practice in solitary seclusion, realizing quiescence and nirvana; and who, having removed their avarice and desire, help others remove their avarice and desire; and, having removed their hatred and anger, help others remove their hatred and anger as well as to remove their delusion; who on meeting with passion are yet unaffected by it, on meeting with evil are yet unaffected by it, on meeting with delusion are yet free from it, on meeting with something with which to become attached they remain unattached to it; who on meeting with something upon which to dwell are not drawn to it and on meeting with some- thing with which to be occupied do not become preoccupied with it; who are honest in their physical, verbal, and volitional deeds; who are pure and genuine in their physical deeds, verbal expressions, and mental thoughts, as well as in right thought; who never weary of compassion and wisdom; who are satisﬁed with their food and robes and know how to be content; who go with an almsbowl on alms- rounds, blessing the donors who offer charity—if you ﬁnd such prac- titioners, endowed with all of the foregoing virtues, you should visit them from time to time and question them:
As to the disciplines that one practices, what is good and what is bad? What should and should not be regarded as committing an offense? With what should one associate and with what should one not associate? What should one do and not do? What kind of principles should one apply in implementing pol- icy in order to secure happiness for a long time?
After asking these questions, you should evaluate their answers in your mind and execute whatever should be done and abandon whatever

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should not be done. If there are elderly people without children, the state should provide for them. When those who are covetous, impov- erished, destitute, and lowly come to take things, you should refrain from rejecting them. You should not change the ancient laws that have existed in the state. These are the major principles that the universal ruler, worthy of turning the golden wheel, should practice. May you respectfully accept these principles and carry them out.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Having listened to his father’s instructions, the new universal ruler carried out his practice of governance in compliance with his father’s admonitions. Later, on the ﬁfteenth day [of the month], the full-moon day, he bathed in scented warm water and ascended to the top of the Sudharma-sabhā hall, surrounded by the palace ladies. The treasured wheel then suddenly appeared before the king of its own accord. The wheel had a thousand spokes, rich in color and splendor. It was built by a heavenly master and was not of this world. It was made of genuine gold and had a diameter of thirty-two feet. The universal ruler quietly thought to himself:
I once heard from my virtuous elder the following words: “When a king of the kṣatriya race, anointed on his head and thus duly enthroned, bathes in scented warm water on the full-moon day, the ﬁfteenth of the month, and ascends to the top of the pavilion, sur- rounded by the palace ladies, then at that moment the golden wheel will appear before him spontaneously. The wheel, rich in color and splendor, has a thousand spokes. It was built by a heavenly master and does not belong to this world. It is made of genuine gold and has a diameter of thirty-two feet. Thereupon, the king is called the cakravartin, or the one who turns the sacred wheel.”
I see this wheel before me, but who knows if it really works? I should now test this wheel treasure.
Then the king cakravartin called the four divisions of the army to assemble. He faced the golden wheel directly, and rearranging his gar- ment to expose his right shoulder and kneeling with his right knee

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touching the ground, he rubbed the wheel with his right hand and said to the wheel, “Let the wheel turn itself toward the east, turning as it should, without losing regularity.” The wheel at once began to roll toward the east. King Mahāsudarśana followed after the wheel, leading the four divisions of his army. As the golden wheel rolled forward the four guardian gods were in charge of guiding it. Wherever the wheel stopped, the king stopped his chariot.
At that time, having seen the great king approaching, the rulers of the small countries in the eastern regions prepared a golden bowl ﬁlled with silver grains and a silver bowl ﬁlled with golden grains, sap- proached the king, and, with their heads bowed, said to him:
Welcome, great king. The eastern countries are now blessed with an abundance of harvests and produce, the people are prosperous, the nature of the populace is friendly and harmonious, and all are ﬁlial to their parents and loyal to their rulers. O holy ruler, your majesty is recommended to govern these lands through ofﬁces estab- lished here. We shall closely attend your majesty and will execute your commands as you wish, sir.
At that time, King Mahāsudarśana replied to the rulers of the small countries:
Enough, dear wise kings, your offerings have already been appre- ciated by me. Your majesties rule these countries on the basis of the right Dharma, so that neither injustice nor wrong action can take place in your countries. I say that these two principles embody my governance.
After listening to his exhortation, the kings of the small countries accompanied King Mahāsudarśana on his inspection tour until they reached the eastern ocean The great king then proceeded toward the south, then to the west, then to the north, and in whatever direction the wheel rolled they followed. The kings of the small countries in these regions all abnegated their dominions for the sake of the great ruler, just as the eastern rulers had done.

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At that time, King Mahāsudarśana, having made a complete round of the four oceans following the golden wheel, educated the populace in the path of morality, provided security in their lives, and then returned to his own country. The golden wheel continued to hover in midair above the palace gate. Rejoicing by dancing and leaping, King Mahā- sudarśana said, “This treasure, the golden wheel, is truly my blessing. Now I am truly the universal ruler who turns this sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the ﬁrst treasure, the golden wheel. Since that time, the king ruled the continent for the full duration of his life. The golden wheel then suddenly shifted its position from where it had been before. The ofﬁcial in charge of the golden wheel at once reported this event to the king: “Your majesty, the golden wheel has now moved away from its usual position, sir.” Having heard this report,
the king thought to himself:
I once heard from some learned elders that when the golden wheel changes its position it means that the king’s life span is near its end. Though I have already enjoyed extraordinary rewards foremost among men, I aspire to a heavenly happiness through further expediency. I will have the prince enthroned as ruler of all the [four] quarters of the continent, except for a village I will spare for my barber, who will shave my hair and beard. Wearing the three mendicant robes, I will go forth from family life and practice the path of religion.
Then the king at once summoned his prince and told him:
I wonder if you know of this. I was told by some learned elders that when the golden wheel changes its position the king’s life span is near its end. Though I have already enjoyed extraordinary rewards foremost among men, I aspire to a heavenly happiness through fur- ther expediency. Now I am going to shave my hair and beard, don the three mendicant robes, renounce family relations, and practice the path of religion. I shall entrust to your rule the four quarters of the continent. You should exert yourself in inquiring after the pop- ulace and assisting them in their well-being and the security of their possessions.

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The prince accepted all the instructions the king left for him. Thereupon, King Daḷhanemi shaved his hair and beard, donned the three robes, and renounced family life for the practice of the path. When seven days had passed since the king’s renunciation of household life, the golden wheel suddenly disappeared. The ofﬁcial in charge of the wheel reported this to the new king, “Your majesty, the golden wheel has suddenly disappeared, sir.” The king was not worried and he did not immediately go visit his father, the king. The father-king then suddenly passed away.
Before the new king, the preceding six cakravartin rulers had handed down the principles of governance from one to another and ruled the continent on the basis of the right Dharma. But the new king of the present time relied solely on his own principles and did not rely on the ancient principles for governing the continent. As a result, his reign became unfair and unjust and the entire continent under the heavens was ﬁlled with grievances and protests. The land was damaged, its productivity diminished, and the populace declined. A brāhmaṇa min- ister visited the king and advised him:
Your majesty, know that the land has now been damaged, its pro- ductivity has been diminished, and the populace has declined, sir. Your majesty, we have still some people who, being learned and knowledgeable, know the history of the past and present, and in addition they know the legacy of the previous king’s governance. Why not summon them and listen to what they advise, sir? They can reply directly to your majesty.
Thereupon, the king invited the retainers and questioned them about the legacy of the previous king’s governance. These wise and knowl- edgeable men answered his questions in detail. Following their advice, the king adopted the ancient principles of governance in an effort to protect the world through the Dharma. But he could not extend the reign’s service and protection either to elderly people who were without support or to those who lived in abject poverty and destitution.
The citizens of the country became increasingly impoverished and ﬁnally began committing various crimes of mutual encroachment and

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seizure by violence, and theft and robbery became more frequent than ever. Then an accuser, hoping to regain his possessions, brought a crim- inal before the king, asserting: “This man is a thief, sir. Please punish him.” The king questioned the [accused] man, “Did you really commit theft?” He replied, “Yes, sir. I am poor, destitute, and unable to survive. Hence, I could not help doing it, sir.” The king provided the man with some money from his treasury, admonishing him, “With this you should support your parents and rescue your family. From now on, do not commit theft.”
Some of those who heard this story then deliberately committed theft, and the king also gave them money from his treasury. Thus, again, when someone was robbed of his possessions, in the hope of regaining his losses he brought the robber before the king, asserting, “This man robbed me, sir. Please, punish him.” The king questioned the accused, “Did you really commit robbery?” He replied, “Yes, sir. I am poor, des- titute, starved, and cannot otherwise survive, sir. I could not help it, sir.” The king then provided the man with some money from his treasury and admonished him, “With this, you should support your parents and rescue your family, and from now on do not commit robbery.”
Having heard that the king gave money to a man who had committed robbery, some again openly plundered others’ possessions. Those who had been robbed, hoping to regain their losses, brought the criminals before the king, saying: “This man is a robber, sir. Please punish him.” The king questioned them, “Did you really commit robbery?” and they replied, “Yes, sir. I am poor, destitute, starved, and I could not otherwise survive, sir. I could not help it, sir.” The king, however, thought to himself:
I saw a dire state of poverty and destitution in those earlier cases of robbery, and thought that if some means were granted these people then their criminal behavior would end. Yet it seems that having heard about the earlier cases from one another, some of these mis- creants have imitated the others and criminal behavior has increased. The way I have tried to rectify this situation is no longer working. Therefore, I should now have this man bound on a wooden rack, issue an announcement of his execution to the public on every street

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corner, and then have him transported in a carriage from the city to the wilderness for execution. This might prevent future occurrences of robbery.
The king thus ordered his aides to have the man chained and pulled all around the city streets, accompanied by the sound of drumming and the announcement of his crime, and then had him transported out of the city and executed in the wilderness.
Then the people all knew, “Whoever steals will be caught by the king’s forces, pulled through the streets with his crime announced to the citizens, and then executed in the wilderness.” The news spread by word of mouth, “If anyone commits robbery, their fate will be exactly like that of the criminal who has been executed.” In this situation, the people began to equip themselves with various weapons in order to protect themselves, such as ﬁghting sticks, knives, swords, and bows and arrows, and they began injuring, murdering, attacking, plundering, and violently robbing one another.
From the time of this king poverty and destitution became a part of human society for the ﬁrst time; because of poverty and destitution, for the ﬁrst time there came to be crimes of theft and robbery; because of robbery or plunder, for the ﬁrst time there occurred armed conﬂict; because of armed conﬂict, for the ﬁrst time there occurred murders; and because of murder the people suffered from bad complexions and exhaustion and their life spans decreased. At that time, the human life span was as long as forty thousand years. Thereafter, it quickly shortened and the average person’s life span became twenty thousand years. The age of people then became limited, they met untimely deaths, and suf- fered unhappiness. Then those suffering people began to have passion for sexual indulgence and insatiable material desire and contrived fraudulent ways to steal others’ things. The sentient beings of that time indeed underwent the depredations of poverty and destitution, robbery and theft, armed conﬂict and murder, one after another, rapidly and frequently.
Human life span was now decreased to ten thousand years. During the age when the life span was reduced to ten thousand years, the sentient

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beings were also engaged in robbery and theft. When an accuser brought a criminal before the king in the hope of regaining his lost possessions, and appealed to him, “This man robbed me, may the king punish him,” and the king then questioned the criminal, “Have you really robbed?”, the criminal replied, “No, sir.” Thus, the vice of speaking falsehoods arose in human society. At that time, because of poverty and destitution many sentient beings were engaged in criminal acts of robbery and theft. Because of robbery by bandits, there occurred armed conﬂict. Because of armed conﬂict, murders occurred; because of murders, the insatiable desire for material goods and sexual indulgence occurred; because of insatiable desire for material goods and passion for sexual indulgence, the vice of falsehood occurred; because of the vice of false- hood, human life span rapidly decreased down to one thousand years. During the period when the life span was one thousand years, three wrong verbal behaviors arose for the ﬁrst time: deceptive speech, verbal abuse, and sycophancy, or ﬂattering words. These wrong behaviors spread widely. As a result, the human life span was reduced to ﬁve hundred years of age. During the period when the life span was ﬁve hundred years, there arose three other wrongdoings: immoral sexual behavior, avarice, and erroneous views. These three wrong behaviors spread widely. As a result human longevity futher decreased to three or two hundred years. The present people of our age live only up to a hundred years of age, only a few people live beyond one hundred while
the majority live less than that.
In this manner, wrongdoings arose and spread without end and human life span decreased further, eventually down to ten years of age. During the period when human life span is ten years, only ﬁve months after birth a female would be of marriageable age. The society of this time would not know of items such as butter, cooking oil, molasses, raw sugar, or any foods of various sweet tastes. The rice grains or rice crop would turn to grass and weeds. Clothing made of silken fabric, silk brocade, twilled fabric, cotton, or white wool, all well known in the present age, would be unknown to those sentient beings. They would make only a rough woven cloth of woolen yarn for wrapping around their upper bodies.

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At that time, the ground would be covered with all kinds of thorny plants and the number of all kinds of poisonous insects such as mos- quitoes and gadﬂies, as well as ﬂies and lice, snakes and vipers, and bees and maggots would multiply. Well-known precious materials, such as gold, silver, lapis lazuli, jade, and pearls, would all sink deep down underground, and only clay, rocks, sand, and gravel would surface. In that age, sentient beings would not have heard of the ten good deeds for a long time. Only the ten bad deeds would prevail and overwhelm their society. There would be no name that refers to any of the good laws or norms of conduct. Indeed, how could these people discipline themselves with good conduct when there is no idea of good whatso- ever? The sentient beings of that age would commit all kinds of wretched, hideous crimes.
They would not be ﬁlial to their parents, nor would they pay respect to their teachers and elders, nor would they be loyal, nor would they have any sense of commitment. Thus only treacherous and unprincipled people would be praised, in exact contrast to the present day, where respect and reverence accrue only to those who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful toward teachers and elders, loyal and faithful, and who prac- tice the disciplines according to the principle of righteousness and morality. The sentient beings of that age would indeed commit the ten evil deeds and thus fall into evil courses of life. Whenever people meet they would wish to kill one another, just as a hunter today would wish to kill deer when encountering a group of them. The earth would be ﬁlled with ditches and pits, creeks and torrential mountain rivers, deep valley crevices, and the terrain would mostly be desert with scarcely any people; it would be extremely frightening to travel throughout the land. In that time, whenever an armed conﬂict or uprising occurred people would fashion spears and lances out of plants and wood, and mutual slaughter and killing would begin and spread widely for seven days. Then some wise one would escape far away from the killing grounds and hide in a pit or cave, and with his mind ﬁlled with fear, he would utter words of friendly love, “If you do not injure me, I too shall not injure you.” Eating fruit and the roots of grass and trees, he would maintain his life for seven days. Finally, emerging from the

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shelter and ﬁnding someone who had survived, he would exclaim in joy, “You have not been killed!” and the two would rejoice and con- gratulate each other. Such joy may be compared to the parents’ joy when their child has been separated from them for some time but they ﬁnally ﬁnd him and are reunited. The person in question would feel exactly like that, and [the survivors] would mutually congratulate each other. They would then return to their homes, only to ﬁnd that many of their relations had died.
Again, for seven days, they would cry in sorrow, wailing and mourn- ing. Having passed the initial seven days like this, upon meeting each other and other survivors, once again they would congratulate one another and enjoy and rejoice in their survival. They would then think to themselves, “Our accumulation of evil causes is extensive. Because of this, we have met the disaster of all our relations having died and our households reduced to nothing. Now we should practice good together. What kind of good deeds do we need to do? It must be the principle of not taking life.” At that time, all sentient beings would be determined to cherish friendly love and not kill each other. Under this circumstance, the life span of sentient beings would rapidly increase from ten to twenty years.
The people of this period, whose life span is only twenty years, would think to themselves, “We have upheld the practice of good, namely not taking life, so our life spans have increased to twenty years. Now we should practice still more good. What kind of good should we practice? We have already upheld not killing, hence it should now be the principle of not stealing.” Having thus practiced the principle of not stealing, their life spans would be able to increase to forty years. The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of an additional good principle, we have been able to lengthen our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles again. What kind of good should we practice? It should be not to indulge in immoral sex.” Thus, whoever refrained entirely from wrong sexual con- duct would to have his life span extended to eighty years.
The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle we have lengthened our life

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spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles again. What kind of good should we practice? It should be not to speak false- hood.” Thus, whoever refrained entirely from speaking false words would have their life span extended to one hundred and sixty years.
The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle, we have lengthened our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles. What kind of good should we practice? It should be not to speak deceptively.” Thus whoever refrained entirely from deceit would have their life span extended to three hundred and twenty years.
The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle we have lengthened our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles. What kind of good should we practice? It should be not to speak abusive words.” Thus whoever has refrained entirely from speaking abusive words would have their life span extended to six hundred and forty years.
The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle we have lengthened our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles. What kind of good should we practice? It should be not to speak ﬂattering words.” Thus, whoever refrained entirely from false ﬂattery would have their life span extended to two thousand years.
The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle we have lengthened our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles. What kind of good should we practice? It should be not to be greedy.” Under this circumstance, whoever refrained entirely from being greedy and practiced liberal charity would have their life span extended to ﬁve thousand years.
The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle we have lengthened our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles. What kind of good should we practice? It should be not to be jealous but to practice instead friendly love.” Thus, whoever refrained entirely from being jealous and practiced friendly love would have their life span extended to ten thousand years.

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The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle we have lengthened our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles. What kind of good should we practice? It should be not to insist on an erro- neous perception but to practice right perception.” Thus, whoever prac- ticed right perception and entirely refrained from erroneous perception would have their life span extended to twenty thousand years.
The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle we have lengthened our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles. What kind of good should we practice? It should be to end three kinds of wrongdoings: immoral sex, immoral greed, and wrong views of life.” Thus, whoever entirely abandoned these three wrongdoings would have their life span extended to forty thousand years.
The people of this period would then think to themselves, “Because of our practice of another good principle we have lengthened our life spans. Now we should increase the number of good principles. What kind of good should we practice? It should be to be ﬁlial to our parents and respectfully serve our teachers and elders.” Thus, whoever was ﬁlial to his parents and respectfully served his teachers and elders would have their life span extended to eighty thousand years. When the human life span increases to eighty thousand years, a woman would be married for the ﬁrst time at the age of ﬁve hundred years.
[Even though] at that time there would be nine causes of sickness for humans (cold, heat, hunger, thirst, excretion, urination, desire, cov- etousness, and aging), the ground would be smooth, even, and orderly with no ditches or pits, no barren hills or wastelands, no thorny trees or plants. There would not be any mosquitoes or gadﬂies, snakes or vipers, or poisonous insects, and clay, rocks, and gravel would turn to lapis lazuli. The population would increase and there would be no limit to the degree of bountiful produce of all kinds of crops for each member of society, even those of the lowest classes. At that time, eighty thousand large cities would be built. Since cities and villages would be close to one another the sound of the roosters crowing in the morning would be heard from one town to the next.

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At that time, there will appear a buddha. He will be called Maitreya Tathāgata, well endowed with the ten supreme titles, such as Arhat, Per- fectly Enlightened, and so forth, just as the present Tathāgata is endowed with all these titles. He will directly accomplish his ultimate experience before the gods Indra and Brahmā, the Evil One [Māra] and his retainers, śramaṇas, and brāhmaṇas, just as I have accomplished the ultimate experience before the gods Indra and Brahmā, the Evil One and his retainers, śramaṇas, and brāhmaṇas. This future buddha will teach the doctrine of his Dharma. His teaching will be lovely at the beginning, lovely in the middle, and lovely at the end; his words will be endowed with the well-matched meaning and subjective sense; and he will carry out the practice of pure and genuine austerity. It shall be just as my words of teaching today are true and right at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end, well endowed with meaning and sense, and just as I have engaged in the practice of pure and genuine austerity.
His disciples will be innumerable, thousands of tens of thousands, just as I have today innumerable disciples. The people of that age shall call his disciples the sons and daughters of Maitreya, just as my disciples today are called the sons and daughters of the Śākya. The king of that age shall be called Suṃkha, a kṣatriya anointed on his head for enthrone- ment. This universal king will rule the four quarters of the continent on the basis of the principle of the right Dharma. There will be no other king who can contest his rule and he will be endowed with the seven treasures of the golden wheel, the white elephant, the dark blue horse, the divine gem, the jadelike queen, the householder gentleman, and the military commander. The king will have a thousand children, courageous and valiant, who will repulse any adversaries or invaders. Thus all four quarters of the continent will pledge respectful allegiance, causing no wars, and peace will naturally prevail everywhere.
At that time, the holy ruler cakravartin will erect a streamer post made of precious gems, with a circumference of one hundred twenty feet and eight thousand feet tall, embellished with a thousand varieties of colors. There will be a hundred corners on the top of the tower post, each corner divided into three branches, from which hang streamers woven out of precious metal threads and studded with various precious

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gems. After it is completed, the holy ruler will dismantle the tower. The entire structure will be donated to the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas as well as to those who are in poverty, and thereafter the cakravartin will shave his head, don the three robes, renounce family life, engage in the practice of the highest path, and will directly experience in the present life the exhaustion of the cause of birth and death, the accomplishment of the practice of austerity, the accomplishment of what should be done [for religious salvation], and freedom from further birth.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
You should practice good as strictly as possible. When one practices good norms his life span will increase, his complexion improves, and he will enjoy his life in peace and happiness. You may acquire abundant treasures and will be endowed with the power of authority. As successive rulers complied with the ancient rules of the cakravartin, their life spans increased, their complexions improved; they enjoyed their lives in peace and happiness; and they were endowed with abundant riches and treasures and vested with the power of authority. It is the same with the bhikṣus. You should practice good. Your life span will increase, your complexion will improve, and you will enjoy lives of peace and happiness.
How can a bhikṣu increase his life span? Each bhikṣu should rely on the practice of concentration motivated by desire, applying his effort, without slackening, to the cessation of dispositional forces and to the practice of the supernormal power thereby attained. In a similar manner, one should rely on the practice of concentration motivated by endeavor, motivated by mind, and motivated by thought, applying his effort, without slackening, to the cessation of dispositional forces and to the practice of the supernormal powers thereby attained. This is called the extension of one’s religious life.
How can the bhikṣus increase their good appearance? If a bhikṣu is well endowed with the precepts and disciplines he will realize the man- ner and aura of authority. He experiences great fear over even a minor offense, learns all the precepts and complies with all of them equally, and satisﬁes all of them meticulously. This is the bhikṣu’s realization of increased good appearance.

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How can the bhikṣus enjoy lives of peace and happiness? A bhikṣu should abandon sexual desire and abandon such wrong passion. He realizes the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption in which there is an awareness of an object and an act of examining, while the sense of joy and bliss increase through removal of the cause of birth (i.e., reach- ing the supramundane sphere). Next, eliminating the awareness of an object and the subjective act of its examination, with increasing tran- quility or self-conﬁdence, continually applying concentration of the mind, he proceeds to the second meditative state of absorption in which there is neither the awareness of an object nor a subjective act but the sense of joy and bliss predominate in the arising state of con- centration. Next, with the fading away of the sense of joy but dwelling in a sense of equanimity, fully aware of subtler bliss, he reaches the third meditative state of absorption in which one experiences the mind- fulness and bliss sought by a wise and holy practitioner. Next, tran- scending both pain and pleasure, removing sorrow and joy, he realizes the fourth meditative state of absorption in which there is neither pain nor pleasure but an increase in the state of equanimity that consolidates pure and genuine mindfulness. This is the bhikṣu’s realization of a life of peace and happiness.
How can a bhikṣu be endowed with abundant riches and treasures? A bhikṣu learns and practices the mind of friendly love, ﬁrst by perme- ating his mind of friendly love inﬁnitely in one direction, then likewise in the remaining three directions. Thus he extends his immeasurable mind of benevolence universally in all directions, neither divided nor bound to limitation. Casting away various feelings of hatred, leaving no ill-will in his mind, the bhikṣu enjoys the state of tranquility and silence, compassion and tenderness. He also completes the remaining three practices: the immeasurable mind of compassion, the immeasurable mind of sympathetic joy, and the immeasurable mind of equanimity. This is the bhikṣu’s realization of abundant riches and treasures. How can the bhikṣus be endowed with the power of authority? A bhikṣu sees the noble truth of suffering as it really is, and likewise sees as they really are the remaining three [noble truths]—[the truth of] the cause of suffering, [the truth of] the cessation of suffering, and [the

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truth of] the path to the cessation of suffering. This is the bhikṣu’s real- ization of the power of authority.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
I have observed all kinds of holders of supernormal power, but none of them surpasses the power of the Evil One [Māra]. Yet a bhikṣu who has annihilated the inﬂuences of deﬁlement has power that is superior to that of the Evil One.
At that time, having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, the bhikṣus rejoiced, respectfully received it, and carried it out.
[End of Sutra 6: The Universal Ruler’s Practice]

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Sutra 7 Pāyāsi’s Dialogue
(Dīgha Nikāya 23: Pāyāsi Suttanta)

At one time, Kumara-Kāśyapa was leisurely traveling through the country of Kośala together with ﬁve hundred bhikṣus and arrived at the village of Śvetavyā. Kumara-Kāśyapa then stayed in a forest of śiṃśapā trees to the north of the village. There happened to be a brāhmaṇa, Pāyāsi by name, who resided in this village. The village was prosperous with bountiful harvests, populous, and full of luxuriant trees. King Prasenajit had granted the brāhmaṇa Pāyāsi the village as a special ﬁef and exempted it from tax collection. The brāhmaṇa always held an unusual view of life and taught it to others: “There is no world after death, nor is there rebirth, nor even any reward for good or bad deeds done in this world.”
The people of Śvetavyā village, having heard that Kumara-Kāśyapa had arrived at the śiṃśapā forest together with ﬁve hundred bhikṣus from the country of Kośala, said to each other:
This bhikṣu Kumara-Kāśyapa is renowned for his realization of the state of arhatship. Being a bhikṣu of advanced, senior rank, learned and erudite in stature, he can respond to anyone with his sagacity, intel- ligence, and eloquence, and he is especially good at doctrinal debate. It would be great if we could see him.
The people of the village then visited the bhikṣu every day in due order.
At that time Pāyāsi was watching the villagers from the top of a high tower as they proceeded one after another in groups, but he was unable to see where they were going. He asked his attendants, who were holding parasols over him on each side, “Where and why are these people forming groups and going one after another?” The attendants replied:
We were told that the bhikṣu Kumara-Kāśyapa, with ﬁve hundred bhikṣus, has been traveling through the country of Kośala and just arrived at the śiṃśapā forest. We have also heard that being a bhikṣu

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of advanced, senior rank, learned and erudite in stature, he can respond to anyone with his sagacity, intelligence, and eloquence, and that he is especially good at doctrinal debate. These people are forming groups and going, one after another, to see the bhikṣu Kāśyapa, sir.
Thereupon, the brāhmaṇa said to his attendants:
Go quickly to these villagers and tell them, “Wait awhile. Pāyāsi will come with you to see the bhikṣu. Why? [I wish to know] if the bhikṣu is a fool, because he is deceiving the people by asserting that there is an afterlife, that there will be rebirth, or that there will be retribution for good or bad conduct, whereas in actuality there is neither afterlife, nor rebirth, nor reward for good or bad deeds.”
As instructed, the messenger at once ran after the villagers and told them, “I am conveying to you that the brāhmaṇa asks you to wait awhile, because he wishes to go with you to see the bhikṣu.” The villagers replied, “Certainly, that is splendid. If he comes here, we shall go together.”
The messenger returned and reported to Pāyāsi, “The villagers are waiting for you, sir. If you wish to go with them, you may go.” The brāhmaṇa came down from the high tower, had his attendant drive the carriage, and surrounded by villagers in front as well as behind, proceeded toward the śiṃśapā forest. Having reached the forest, he descended from the carriage, proceeded on foot, approached the place of Kāśyapa, and, after exchanging greetings with him with a bow, withdrew to one side to take his seat. Some of the villagers, brāhmaṇas and householders, venerated the bhikṣu and then sat; some greeted him with a bow and sat; others announced their names and sat; some respect- fully joined their palms together and sat; and some quietly sat down without saying anything.
Thereupon, the brāhmaṇa Pāyāsi said to Kumara-Kāśyapa, “I am obliged to question you. Can you spare me some time for my questions?” Kāśyapa replied, “Let me ﬁrst hear your question. Then I will know if I can [give you some time].”
The brāhmaṇa said, “Now, as to my own view of life, I hold that there is neither afterlife, nor rebirth, nor reward for good or bad action. What is your theory, sir?” Kāśyapa replied:

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I shall question you now, and please reply accordingly, as you wish. Now, do the sun and moon above us belong to this human world or another world? Are they heavenly things or human things?
Pāyāsi answered, “The sun and moon belong to the other world and not to this world. Heavenly things are not human things.”
Kāśyapa said, “According to your reply, there is necessarily another world; there is also rebirth, as well as the moral retribution of good and bad.”
The brāhmaṇa said:
Although you assert that there is another world, rebirth, and reward and retribution of good and bad, my reply to your previous question, that the sun and moon belong to the other world, leads to my theory that these three (i.e., afterlife, rebirth, and reward or retribution for good or bad) are impossible.
Kāśyapa asked, “Do you have some causal reasons by which to know that there is neither afterlife, nor rebirth, nor reward or retribution for good or bad actions?”
The brāhmaṇa replied, “I have some reason for ascertaining my theory.”
Kāśyapa asked, “On what causal reason do you assert that there is no afterlife?”
The brāhmaṇa replied:
O Kāśyapa, I have some relations and friends who are suffering because they have encountered some calamities and also because they have been ill. I visited and asked them, “Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas respectively teach their different doctrines, such as ‘Whoever is guilty of committing murder, enegaging in theft, immoral sex, double-dealing, harsh words, false speech, frivolous sycophancy, or who have a covetous mind, malicious intent, or wrong views will fall into hell when his body dissolves and his life ends.’ I cannot believe this kind of thing from the outset, because I have never known anyone who, after death, returned to tell us where his [new] life is. If someone were to return after death and tell me where he has been, then I will certainly believe it. Now, you have done all ten kinds of wrongdoings, just as I have done. If the teaching of the śramaṇa is correct, when you die you will

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fall into the great hell. I will believe decisively whatever you say. When you actually ﬁnd hell, return to tell me and let me know about it. Then I will deﬁnitely believe it.”
O Kāśyapa, after someone died he did not return, even today. He was my close relation and certainly would not lie to me. The fact that he has not returned to let me know [about the afterlife] means that there is no such afterlife.
Kāśyapa responded:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of analogy. I shall now give you an analogy to help you understand. For instance, people such as thieves or robbers always contrive cunning schemes in violation of the king’s law. When such a person is caught redhanded, with clear evidence, he is brought before the king and charged: “This man com- mitted robbery. May your majesty punish him.” The king then orders his aides, “Chain him to the wooden rack, pull him all around the city streets, announcing his crime to the public, then transport him out of the city and hand him over to the executioner.” Thus, as instructed, the king’s aides carry out the order and ﬁnally transfer the criminal to the executioner. The criminal speaks in an insinuating voice to the guards, “You should let me go. I must go see my family in order to say goodbye. After that, I will return here.” What do you think, O brāhmaṇa, would that guard agree to let him go?
The brāhmaṇa replied, “No, he would not.” Kāśyapa continued:
There are many people like this criminal in the world, and no guard would let such a person go. How much more so with someone like your kinsman, who committed all ten kinds of wrongdoing and was predestined for hell after his body dissolved and his life ended. The hellish guards are merciless, nonhuman; they are in the world of the dead, distinct from the world of the living. If your kinsman had spoken to those guards in an insinuating voice, “Please let me go for a while. I will return to the living world and see my relations in order to say

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goodbye, and then return here,” what do you think—would those guards have let him go?”
The brāhmaṇa said, “No, sir.” Kāśyapa continued:
If you compare both cases, it would be sufﬁcient for you to know that it is reasonable [that there is such an afterworld]. Why do you insist on a delusion that leads to a wrong view [that there is no afterlife]?
The brāhmaṇa countered, “Although you assert that there is an afterlife by referring to such an analogy, I would still say that there is no such world after death.”
Kāśyapa asked again, “Do you have any other reason on the basis of which you know that there is no afterlife?”
The brāhmaṇa replied, “I have another reason to infer that there is no afterlife.”
Kāśyapa asked, “What is the reason?” The brāhmaṇa replied:
O Kāśyapa, one of my relations was seriously ill. I visited him and said to him, “Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas respectively teach their different doctrines, saying that there is an afterlife, such that whoever has abstained from committing murder, engaging in theft, immoral sex, double-dealing, harsh words, false speech, frivolous sycophancy, and who does not have a covetous mind, malicious intent, and wrong views will be born among heavenly beings after his body dissolves and his life ends. I cannot believe this kind of thing from the outset, because I have never known anyone who, after death, returned to tell us where his [new] life is. If someone was to return after death and tell me where he has been, I will certainly believe it. Now, you are my close relation and have maintained all ten kinds of good deeds. If the teaching of the śramaṇa is correct, after death you will surely be reborn in the heavenly world. I will believe decisively whatever you say, and if it is apparent that you have received the reward of heavenly birth, return to tell me and let me know about it. Then I shall believe it.”

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O Kāśyapa, after his death he has not returned, even now. He was my close relation and certainly would not lie to me. The fact that he has not returned to let me know [about the afterlife] means that there is no such afterlife.
Kāśyapa again said:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of analogy. I shall now make an analogy to help you understand. For instance, a man fell into a deep latrine and his entire body sank up to his neck. The king ordered his attendants to pull him out, take a bamboo spatula and scrape the ﬁlth off of his body three times, wash his body with bean soap and wood ash, then bathe his body with scented warm water, apply scented powder and various incense to his body, have a barber wash his hair and beard, and then wash his body again, three more times. After having his body cleansed with scented warm water, scented powder applied to his body, clothed in a renowned upper garment; and having allowed him to enter the palace and enjoy all the ﬂavors of good food and games and amuse- ments, would he then return to the latrine?
The brāhmaṇa replied, “No, he would not. That was a ﬁlthy and smelly place. Why would he return to such a place?”
Kāśyapa said:
It would be the same with heavenly beings. This Jambudvīpa continent is smelly and ﬁlthy and impure. The heavenly beings are far distant, one hundred yojanas above us, and yet they can sense human odors and smell human waste. O brāhmaṇa, one of your relations or friends, well endowed with the ten kinds of good deeds, was necessarily born among the gods and is now enjoying the best of all pleasures through the ﬁve senses. So how could he think of returning to this world, which is like a lavatory?
The brāhmaṇa replied. “He could not, sir.”
Kāśyapa said again, “If you compare both cases, it is self-evident. Why do you insist on delusion and cherish a wrong view?”
The brāhmaṇa, however, argued, “Though you assert that there is an

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afterlife on the basis of the foregoing analogy, I still insist that there is no such world after death.”
Kāśyapa again asked, “Do you have any other reason on the basis of which you also know that there is no afterlife?”
The brāhmaṇa replied, “I have another reason to infer that there is no afterlife.”
Kāśyapa asked, “What is that reason?” The brāhmaṇa replied:
O Kāśyapa, someone among my relations was been seriously ill and was about to die. I visited him and said to him, “Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas respectively teach their different doctrines, asserting that there is an afterlife such that whoever has abstained from committing murder, enaging in theft, sexual indulgence, false speech, or ingesting intoxicants will be born in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven.” I cannot believe this kind of thing from the outset, because I have never seen anyone who, after death, returned to tell us in which course of life he has been. If someone were to return after death and tell me where he has been, I will certainly believe it. Now, you are my close relation and you have upheld well the ﬁve precepts, so [according to the teaching of the śra- maṇa] you will be born in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven after death. I will believe decisively whatever you say, and if it is apparent that you have received the reward of heavenly birth, return to tell me and let me know about it. Then I will believe it.”
O Kāśyapa, after his death he has not returned, even now. He was my close relation and certainly would not lie to me. The fact that he has not returned to let me know [about the afterlife] means that there is no such afterlife.
Kāśyapa replied:
One hundred years on earth is only a single day and night in Trāyas- triṃśa Heaven. In this manner, thirty days make up a month, twelve months make a year, and the life span of the residents of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven is said to be one thousand years. O brāhmaṇa, your close rela- tion who upheld the ﬁve precepts was necessarily reborn in that heaven

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when his body dissolved and his life ended. But suppose that after being born in that heaven he thought to himself, “Since I have been born here for the ﬁrst time, I should enjoy my stay here for a few days.” If he then comes back to report to you about his experience, would he be able to ﬁnd you here?
The brāhmaṇa replied. “No, he would not. It would already be long after the time of my death. How could he ﬁnd me?” Still, Pāyāsi insisted, “I cannot believe your story. Who could come down from Trāyastriṃśa Heaven and tell you that there is such a heaven and that the life span there is such-and- such?”
Kāśyapa said:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of metaphors. I shall now make another analogy for you to help you understand. For instance, a man who has been blind since his birth cannot know the difference between the ﬁve colors of blue, yellow, red, white, and black, nor could he know by sight the rough or ﬁne surface of objects or the length or size of objects, nor could he see the sun or moon, the shapes of the stars, or hills or ditches. Someone asks him, “What are the ﬁve colors of blue, yellow, red, white, and black?” The blind person replies, “There are no such ﬁve colors, nor is there anything, rough or ﬁne, long or short, nor is there anything such as sun, moon, the shapes of stars, or hills and ditches.” O brāhmaṇa, would his answer be correct?
[Pāyāsi] replied:
No, it is not correct, because we know that there are actually ﬁve dif- ferent colors, blue, yellow, red, white, and black, [and that there are] rough or ﬁne and long or short objects, [and that] the sun, moon, the shapes of the stars, and hills and ditches exist, even though he denies their existence.
Kāśyapa continued:
You are also like this blind man. The life span of the residents of Trāyas- triṃśa Heven is real and not unreal. But you deny it just because you have not seen it yourself.

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The brāhmaṇa said, “Though you assert that there is an afterlife, I still cannot believe it.”
Kāśyapa again asked the brāhmaṇa, “On the basis of what other reason do you know that there is no afterlife?”
The brāhmaṇa replied:
O Kāśyapa, among the people of the village that I received as my ﬁef there are some who have committed robbery. The villagers caught one thief redhanded and, with clear evidence, they brought him before me, demanding, “This man committed robbery. Please punish him.” I replied, “Tie him up, put him into a large cauldron, set its lid tightly and seal it thickly with mud, so that nothing leaks out.” I ordered men to surround the cauldron and build a ﬁre underneath it. At that time I wished to test if the person’s spirit could escape from the cauldron and I walked around it, followed by my retainers, but I did not see any evi- dence of the person’s spirit coming out from that cauldron. Nor did I see any spirit coming or going when I examined the interior by opening the lid. For this reason, I came to know that there is no afterlife.
Kāśyapa continued:
Now I shall question you. Answer me if you can, in any way you wish. O brāhmaṇa, when you rest and fall asleep on the high ﬂoor of your residence, have you ever dreamed of mountain forests and rivers, park groves and bathing ponds, country villages and city streets?
He answered, “Yes, I have.”
Kāśyapa again asked him, “O brāhmaṇa, when you dream, do your family and members of your household guard you closely for your safety?”
[Pāyāsi] answered, “Yes, they do.”
[Kāśyapa] again questioned him: “O brāhmaṇa, do your household mem- bers see your spirit of consciousness going and coming?”
The brāhmaṇa answered, “No, they don’t.” Kāśyapa said:
You cannot see the spirit of living consciousness going and coming. How much less could you see the spirit of a dead man. You should not try to observe the destined afterlife in reference to actual phenomena

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appearing before your eyes. O brāhmaṇa, the bhikṣus reduce the time of sleep during the hours before and after midnight, and without slack- ening they exert themselves to be mindful of the auxiliary disciplines of the path and exercise supernormal vision through the power of con- centration. It is through this supernormal vision that they see the destinies of sentient beings in terms of having died here and having been born there, dying there and being born here, having lived a long life or a short life, having had a good or bad complexion, beautiful or ugly fea- tures, having acquired rewards from good or bad deeds, and having entered good or bad courses of life. You should not try to see through ordinary human eyes that are deﬁled. You deny it because your human vision cannot penetrate the courses of life to which sentient beings are respectively destined. O brāhmaṇa, because of this, you should know that there is necessarily an afterlife.
The brāhmaṇa said, “Though you assert that there is an afterlife by making an analogy, according to my view, an afterlife is still impossible.”
Kāśyapa again said to the brāhmaṇa, “Do you have any other reason on the basis of which you know that there is no afterlife?”
The brāhmaṇa replied, “Yes, I do.” Kāśyapa asked, “What is the reason?” The brāhmaṇa replied:
O Kāśyapa, among the people of the village that I received as my ﬁef, some committed robbery. The villagers caught one thief redhanded, and with clear evidence, they brought him before me, demanding, “This man committed robbery. Please punish him.” I ordered my aides to tie him up and skin him alive, and [while this was being done] I sought to ﬁnd the spirit of his consciousness but I could not ﬁnd it. I also ordered my aides to cut open the ﬂesh and I looked there to ﬁnd the spirit of consciousness, but again I could not ﬁnd it. I also ordered my aides to sever the sinews and I sought to ﬁnd the spirit of con- sciousness between the bones, but still I could not ﬁnd it. I also ordered my aides to crush the bones and squeeze the marrow out and I sought to ﬁnd the spirit of consciousness within the marrow, but again I could not ﬁnd it. For this reason, I know that there is no afterlife.

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Kāśyapa again said:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of analogy. I will now give another analogy to help you understand. Once in the immemorial past there was a country where the land was barren and ruined, and could no longer be used for normal cultivation. Then a group of mer- chants with ﬁve hundred carriages passed through that land. There was a brāhmaṇa who always stayed in the forest to conduct the ﬁre rite in service to the ﬁre god. All the traveling merchants stopped to rest overnight and departed early the next morning. The brāhmaṇa thought to himself, “Last night, many merchants stayed in the forest and they departed early this morning. They might have left some things behind. I shall just go and see.” At once he went to the place where they had camped. He found nothing left behind, but there was a small child, as young as a year old, sitting alone. The brāhmaṇa thought to himself, “I cannot bear to see this child die before my eyes. I must take this child to my place to raise him.” So he picked up the child and returned to his place to rear the child. The child grew quickly and grew to be some ten years of age.
At that time the brāhmaṇa, wishing to go to town for some minor reason, said to the boy, “I must leave on some business and will be gone from here for a while. You should guard this ﬁre and never let it be extinguished. If the ﬁre happens to go out, you should use this drill to bore wood and make ﬁre by friction, kindling it into ﬂames again.” Having instructed the boy in detail, the brāhmaṇa left the forest on his journey. After his departure, however, the boy indulged in his pastimes and forgot to tend the ﬁre as frequently as he should have. The ﬁre eventually went out. Returning from his play, the boy noticed that the ﬁre had gone out and, distressed, he thought to himself, “What I have done is not good. When my father left he instructed me in detail how to guard this ﬁre and prevent its extinction. But I indulged in my pas- times and allowed the ﬁre to go out. What should I do now?”
At once, the boy tried to rekindle the ﬁre by blowing on the embers, but he could not ﬁnd the ﬁre there. He cut wood with a hatchet, seeking ﬁre, but he could not ﬁnd it inside the wood. Then he chopped up some wood and pounded it in a mortar, but he still could not get ﬁre.

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At that time the brāhmaṇa returned from town and entered the forest. He said to the boy, “I instructed you before to guard the ﬁre. I hope that the ﬁre has not gone out.” The boy replied, “While I was playing I failed to guard it at times; the ﬁre is extinct, sir.” The brāhmaṇa asked him, “In what way have you tried to make ﬁre?” The boy replied, “Since ﬁre comes from wood, I split wood with a hatchet, but I could not obtain it. I also chopped up wood and pounded it in the mortar, but I could not obtain ﬁre there either, sir.” Thereupon, the brāhmaṇa picked up the drill to bore wood and made ﬁre by friction, piling sticks on it for kindling. He then told the boy, “When you wish to make a ﬁre you should do so in this manner. You cannot get ﬁre by splitting wood or pounding it.”
O brāhmaṇa, you too are like that boy, lacking a proper way. By skinning a dead corpse, and so forth, you seek the spirit of conscious- ness. Concerning sentient beings, you cannot know it just by looking at the actual phenomena before your human eyes. O brāhmaṇa, the bhikṣus reduce the time of sleep during the hours before and after mid- night, and exert themselves without slackening to be mindful of the auxiliary disciplines of the path and exercise supernormal vision through the power of concentration. It is through this supernormal vision that they see the destinies of sentient beings in terms of their having died here and having been born there, dying there and being born here, hav- ing lived a long or short life, having had good or bad complexion, beautiful or ugly features, having acquired rewards or retribution from good or bad deeds, and having entered good or bad courses of life. You should not try to see through ordinary human eyes that are deﬁled. You deny it because your human vision cannot penetrate the courses of life in which sentient beings are respectively destined. O brāhmaṇa, because of this, you should know that there is necessarily an afterlife.
The brāhmaṇa said, “Though you assert that there is an afterlife by quoting an analogy, according to my view, an afterlife is still impossible.”
Kāśyapa again asked the brāhmaṇa, “Do you have any other reason on the basis of which you also know that there is no afterlife?”
The brāhmaṇa replied, “Yes, I do.” Kāśyapa asked, “What is that reason?”

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The brāhmaṇa replied:
O Kāśyapa, among the people of the village that I received as my ﬁef there are some who committed robbery. The villagers caught one thief redhanded, and with clear evidence they and brought him before me, demanding, “This man committed robbery. Please punish him.” I instructed my aides to measure the man’s weight on a scale. When they completed the measurement of the criminal’s weight, I further instructed them, “Take him away and execute him through the easiest means, but do not damage the skin or ﬂesh.” He was executed without any damage to his body. I instructed my aides to measure the weight of the corpse, which resulted in an indication that the corpse was heavier than the living body.
O Kāśyapa, when the criminal was measured while still alive and the spirit of consciousness was still in his body, his physical complexion was pleasant and good, he was able to talk, and his body was also lighter. After death, however, with the spirit of his consciousness gone, with no particular complexion, and speechless, the corpse turned out to be heavier than the living body. Because of this, I know that there is no afterlife.
Kāśyapa said to the brāhmaṇa:
Now I shall question you. Answer me if you can, in any way you wish. O brāhmaṇa, your experience is comparable to the case in which men measure the weight of iron ore. First, they measure it while it is cool, and then they measure it after it has been heated. Why is iron lighter when it is heated, becoming bright and pliable? Why is it heavier when it is cold and has become dark, hard, and rigid?
The brāhmaṇa replied, “Heated iron is bright in color, pliable, and lighter, whereas cooled iron has no bright color, is rigidly hard, and is heavier.”
Kāśyapa said:
Human beings are also like this. When a person is alive he has color in his complexion and his body is ﬂexible, but after death the body loses color and becomes stiff and heavier. Because of this, you should know that there is necessarily an afterlife.

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The brāhmaṇa said, “Though you assert that there is an afterlife by quoting an analogy, according to my view, an afterlife is still impossible.”
Kāśyapa again asked the brāhmaṇa, “Do you have any other reason on the basis of which you also know that there is no afterlife?”
The brāhmaṇa replied:
I had a relation who became ill, [and when his illness] became critical I visited him and spoke with him. When I helped him lie down on his right side, the movement of his eyes, his limbs stretching and bending, and even his speech was just the same as when he was well. Again, when I helped him turn onto his left side , the turning and twisting of his body, the stretching and bending of his limbs, his eyes’ movement, and even his speech were all ordinary. Then he died. Again I had some men turn his body over to lay it with the right side down and then back the other way, with the left side down. I observed [the body] carefully but it did not stretch or bend, there was no eye movement, and there was no speech. Because of this, I know that there is necessarily no afterlife.
Kāśyapa said again to the brāhmaṇa:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of analogy. I shall now give another analogy to help you understand. Once there was a country where the sound of the conch shell was never heard. At that time a skillful conch horn player reached that country and, entering a [border] village, he blew the conch horn three times and then set the conch shell on the ground. Having heard the sound, the villagers, men and women, were all surprised and asked among themselves, “What was that sound? It was both soft and pleasant and yet thoroughly clear!” The man pointed at the conch shell on the ground and said, “It was the sound of this thing.” Then the village people touched the shell with their hands, saying, ‘O you, make a sound, make a sound!” The shell did not make any sound at all. The owner of the conch shell picked it up and blew it three times, then set it back down on the ground. The villagers said, “The beautiful sound we heard was not because of this shell’s power. It is due to the hands that support it, the mouth that blows air into it, and the air blown through it that it thereby makes a sound.”

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A human being is also like this. If he has a span of life still to live and posesses consciousness, and is breathing in and breathing out, he should be able to stretch or bend his body, look at things by moving his eyes, and speak. On the other hand, when his life span is exhausted and his consciousness is gone, neither breathing in nor breathing out, he can neither stretch nor bend his body, nor move his eyes, nor speak.
Kāśyapa thus said to the brāhmaṇa, “You should abandon your wrong view. You should not prolong your suffering and bring yourself distress.” The brāhmaṇa replied, “I cannot abandon my theory, because from the time of my birth I have continued to intone and repeat it for a long time. Why
should I now abandon it?” Kāśyapa said:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of analogy. I will now give another analogy to help you understand. Once in the immemorial past there was a country in a frontier region that had been mostly deserted by people. There were two friends in that country; one was called “Wise” and the other was called “Fool.” They said to each other, “I am your friend; I will go out of the city with you and we shall seek our fortune together.” Thus they traveled together. They came to an open space [in a village] and saw a heap of hemp that had been thrown away. Wise talked to Fool and they decided that they would both take the hemp. Carrying packs of hemp on their backs, they passed the next village and saw another pile of discarded hemp thread. Wise said, “This hemp thread is well made, lightweight and of ﬁne texture. We should pick it up.” The other fellow, however, said, “I am already carrying a load of hemp, bound tightly and ﬁxed into a pack; I cannot throw it away.” The wise one at once threw away his load of hemp and picked up the hemp thread as his new load.
Again both proceeded on their way and they next found a pile of hemp cloth. The wise one said, “This hemp cloth is well made, light- weight and of ﬁne texture. We should pick it up.” The other fellow, however, said, “I am already carrying a load of hemp bound tightly and ﬁxed into a pack; I cannot throw it away.” Thus, the wise one threw down his load of hemp thread and picked up a new load of hemp cloth.

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Again they proceeded onward and then found a pile of cotton cloth. The wise one said, “Cotton cloth is costly, and this cloth is well made, lightweight, and of ﬁne texture. We should pick it up.” The other fellow said, “I am already carrying a load of hemp bound tightly and ﬁxed into a pack; I carried it for a long distance, so I cannot throw it away.” Thus, only the wise one discarded his hemp cloth and picked up the new load of cotton cloth. They proceeded in this manner, coming upon a pile of cotton thread, next a pile of white cotton blankets, then a pile of copper, silver, and ﬁnally gold.
“The wise one said, “If there is no gold, we should pick up silver; if no silver, we should pick copper, and so forth; we should pick up hemp thread, and if there is no hemp thread, as the last choice, we should pick up the hemp material. This village is located above a pile of amassed gold treasure. You should throw away the hemp. I too will throw away my silver. Both of us should pick up this gold and carry it on our backs on our return.” The other fellow, however, said, “I am already carrying a load of hemp, bound tightly and ﬁxed into a pack; I cannot throw it away. If you wish to pick up the gold, go ahead.” The wise one threw away his silver, picked up the gold, and carried it on the return home. The wise one’s relatives, having seen the gold treasure he was carrying, were delighted and welcomed his return. The wise one who carried a load of gold was also delighted to see his relatives and to be welcomed on his return. On the other hand, the relatives of the foolish man who returned with a load of hemp were not pleased, nor did they come out to welcome him back. Thus, the one who had carried the hemp felt even more regret and distress.
O brāhmaṇa, you should now abandon your obstinate insistence and wrong view. Do not increase your suffering for such a long time. Do not be the foolish man who carried the hemp material, whose obsti- nate nature was ﬁrm to the extent that he did not pick up the gold but continued to carry the hemp material all the way back. He wasted his energy for nothing, his relations were displeased, and his poverty per- sisted for a long time, thus increasing his distress and suffering.
The brāhmaṇa said:

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I cannot abandon this view of mine after all, because I have been teach- ing others from this point of view. When the kings of all the other regions hear my name, without exception, they know me as the one whose view of life is that there is no afterlife.
Again Kāśyapa said:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of analogy. I shall now quote another analogy to help you understand. Once in the imme- morial past there was a country in a frontier region that had been mostly deserted by the people. A group of merchants, driving a thou- sand carriages, were traveling through the region, but they did not have enough water and grain, ﬁrewood, and grass. The leader of the merchants thought to himself, “Since we have too many accompanying members, and we do not have sufﬁcient water or grain, ﬁrewood, or grass, we shall divide the caravan into two parts.” The ﬁrst caravan departed as the advance party. The leader of this party saw a huge, tough-looking man, red-eyed, dark-faced, his body smeared witth mud, approaching from the far distance. The leader asked him, “From where have you come?” The man replied, “I have come from the last village, where you are heading.” Again the leader asked, “Is there adequate water, grain, ﬁrewood, and grass available in that village?” The man replied, “The place I came from had plenty of water, grain, ﬁrewood, and grass. There is no scarcity. During my journey there was a heavy rainstorm and the area should be abundant with water as well as ﬁrewood and grass.” He also told the merchant, “If you are hauling grain and grass in your carriages you should discard all of it. Since everything is plentiful where you are going, why should you travel with heavy carriages?”
The leader of the advance party then said to the merchants in the
caravan, “I saw a man who approached from the direction in which we are going. I asked this man, who had red eyes, a dark face, and a mud-smeared body, ‘Where have you come from?’ The man replied, ‘I have come from the last village, where you are going on your path.’ Again I asked him, ‘Is there enough water, grain, ﬁrewood, and grass

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available in that place?’ He replied, ‘Everything is plentiful there.’ He also said to me, ‘A while ago, I encountered a rainstorm on my way and the area should be abundant with water as well as ﬁrewood and grass.’ In addition, he further told me, ‘If you are carrying grain and grass in the carriages you should discard it all. Since everything is plentiful where you are going, why should you drive heavy car- riages?’ You should discard all of the grain and grass here, and we will travel through with lightened carriages.” Proceeding onward, they did not see any water or grass for a whole day, a second day, a third, and so forth, until a seventh day had passed. The merchants became trapped in a desert marsh, or quicksand, and they were devoured by evil spirits.
Later on, the second party also departed, continuing their journey. The leader of this caravan also saw a man approaching from the direc- tion in which they were headed. He was red-eyed, dark-faced, and had a mud-smeared body. The merchant leader asked him, “Where have you come from?” The man replied, “I have come from the last village, where you are going.” Again I asked him, “Is there enough water, grain, ﬁrewood, and grass available in that village?” He replied, “Everything is plentiful there.” He also said, “A while ago I encountered a rainstorm on my way and the area should be abundant with water as well as ﬁre- wood and grass.” Moreover, he told me, “If you are carrying grain and grass in the carriages you should discard it all here. Since everything is plentiful there, why should you drive heavy carriages?”’
Then the merchant leader said to his caravan members, “I have seen a traveling man who told me ‘If you are carrying grain and grass in the carriages you should throw all of it away. Since everything is plen- tiful where you are heading, why should you drive heavy carriages?’ The merchant leader, however, instead advised the members of the caravan, “Refrain from discarding the grain and grass. Only when a new supply has been obtained should you throw out the old stuff, because by replacing old with new continuously we may be able to cross this wilderness.”
Thus, the second caravan went on, driving heavily laden carriages. They did not see water or grass for an entire day, a second day, a third,

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and so forth, until a seventh day had passed. On the way they saw scat- tered all over the ground the skeletons of many people who had been devoured by evil spirits.
O brāhmaṇa, that red-eyed, dark-faced man was a cannibal demon. Those who follow your teaching will receive suffering for a long time to come, just like the victims of that demon. The merchants of the advance party, lacking wisdom, followed the words of the [foolish] leader and perished. O brāhmaṇa, if they had instead heeded the words given through the exertion and insight of those śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas and followed their teaching, they would have been safe. Just like the leader of the second caravan, if one is endowed with wisdom he can escape from crisis or danger. O brāhmaṇa, you should abandon your wrong view now. You must not increase the suffering and agony of a long night.
The brāhmaṇa replied:
I cannot abandon my point of view after all. Even if someone comes to reprimand me, this only creates indignation on my part. I cannot abandon my view.
Kāśyapa again said:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of analogy. I will give another analogy to help you understand. Once in the immemorial past there was a country in a frontier region where the land had been mostly deserted by people. There was a man who was engaged in raising pigs. He visited another village and found dried cow dung in an open public space. At once he thought to himself, “Here is plenty of cow dung. Since my pigs are starving, I should wrap this dung in grass and carry it on my head.” At once, he collected grass, wrapped up the cow dung, and loaded it onto his head. On the way back, however, he encountered heavy rain and the dung melted, running down his body, down to his heels. Seeing him like that, people regarded him as insane, saying, “Smeared with dung, smelling hideous, it would be terrible to carry such a load on one’s head even on a sunny day, how much more so the impossibility of carrying such a load on one’s head on a rainy day like

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this!” Infuriated, the man spoke angry words at them: “You are stupid, because you don’t know how hungry my pigs are. If you knew, you wouldn’t laugh at me.”
O brāhmaṇa, you should abandon your wrong view. You should not invite protracted suffering by upholding your delusion. It is like the foolish man who carries cow dung on his head. Even when people gave him warning he became angry at them instead, pointing to their ignorance!
The brāhmaṇa said to Kāśyapa:
You people (i.e., śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas) insist on saying that if one does good he will be born in heaven, and in that case his afterlife will be better than the present life. If this is so, you should all commit suicide with a knife, or swallow poison, or bind your bodies and throw your- selves from a cliff. But you seem to be desirous of life, unable to commit suicide. This means that you know that the afterlife is not better than this life.
Kāśyapa continued:
Many wise people acquire their wisdom by way of analogy. I will now give another analogy to help you understand. There once lived a brāh- maṇa in Śvetavyā village. He was an established and erudite man, one hundred twenty years of age, and had two wives. One of his wives had a son, while the other had become pregnant for the ﬁrst time. The brāh- maṇa passed away soon after. The ﬁrst wife’s child said to the second wife, “My father’s wealth should be given to me in its entirety; none should be spared for you.” The second wife said, “You should wait until my baby comes. If it is a boy, the wealth should be divided, and if a baby girl is born I will remarry to obtain wealth for her.” The boy, however, politely asked her the same thing repeatedly, and the woman replied in the same way as before. The child insisted on asking her for the same thing. The woman then cut open her own body in order to see if her baby was a boy or a girl.
Kāśyapa said to the brāhmaṇa:

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The mother killed herself and [in doing so] she killed her fetus as well. O brāhmaṇa, your suggestion implies a similar case. By killing yourself you would also kill others as well. If the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who are well endowed in exertion, good discipline, and the virtue of precepts abide in this world for a long time it will be of greater beneﬁt to this world, since the gods and human beings will thereby be secured under their guidance.
I will give a ﬁnal analogy to help you understand what disasters may be incurred by holding wrong views. Once there were two gamblers who played dice in the village of Śvetavyā. When the two competed, one of them won; the other who did not do well said to the winner, “Let us stop playing today. Tomorrow we shall try again to see who is more skillful.” The man who did not do well returned home and applied poison to the dice and dried them in the sun. The next day, taking the dice with him, he visited the house of the other fellow who had won the day before and said to him, “Let us compete again to see who is more skillful.” To begin the game, the man who did not do well gave the dice to the winner who, on receiving them, licked them to moisten them before casting. Then the man who had poisoned the dice picked them up and moistened them by licking them. The poison began to work in him faster, causing his body to tremble. The one who had poisoned the dice cursed at the other in verse:
I applied poison to the dice.
You licked them without knowing it. Playing for a short time,
Since you have already touched them, You will soon know its effect.
Kāśyapa said to the brāhmaṇa:
You should abandon your wrong view. Do not increase the poison of suffering by prolonging your delusion. You are like that dice player who ingested the poison without knowing it.
At that time the brāhmaṇa said to Kāśyapa:

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Venerable, when you gave the analogy of the moon, I already under- stood it. That I tried to refute your exhortation back and forth has been to examine your rhetorical skill and insight, thereby causing the arising of ﬁrm belief in myself. Now I believe what you have said, O Kāśyapa, and I wish for you to be my refuge.
Kāśyapa said, “Do not make me your refuge. You should take the Highest and Most Venerable One, who is also my own refuge, as your refuge.” The brāhmaṇa said, “I do not know where the Highest and Most Venerable
One to whom you refer is at this time.”
Kāśyapa replied, “My master, the World-honored One, entered ﬁnal nirvana not long ago.”
The brāhmaṇa said:
If the World-honored One was still alive I would not hesitate, whether close or distant, to visit him directly and venerate him as my refuge. Unfortunately, as I have now heard, the Tathāgata has entered cessation. I will now uphold the Buddha who entered nirvana, the Dharma, and the Sangha as my refuge. O Kāśyapa, please permit me to become a lay devotee of the right Dharma. From now until the end of my life I will uphold the ﬁve precepts: abstention from killing life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from speaking falsehoods, and from ingesting intoxicants. I will now also offer general charity to all beings.
Kāśyapa said to him:
If you kill sentient beings, beat young boys, and then offer charity, this is not pure and genuine charity. Just as thorny plants prevail in a poor land with rocks and shallow soil, there will be no good harvest even if you were to sow seeds or plant trees there. If you kill animals, beat young boys, and offer charity to the sangha while holding a wrong view, neither is this a pure and genuine charity. If, however, you offer general charity, neither killing living beings nor beating children with sticks, but make offerings to the sangha with delight, then there will be a great reward, just as one obtains real fruit by sowing seeds or planting trees in good soil, as they wish.

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The brāhmaṇa said, “O Kāśyapa, from now on, I will continue to make offerings to the sangha at all times without fail.”
At that time there was a young brāhmaṇa, Mānava by name, standing behind Pāyāsi. Pāyāsi, looking back at him, said, “I wish to offer universal charity. Please organize an event to offer charity on my behalf.” Having heard Pāyāsi’s instruction, the young brāhmaṇa organized and completed the event of universal charity, and then announced, “May Pāyāsi not be rewarded with any fortune in this life as well as in the hereafter.”
Pāyāsi was informed that when the event of offering charity had been completed the young brāhmaṇa had said, “May Pāyāsi not be rewarded with any fortune in this life as well as in the hereafter.” Pāyāsi questioned the man, “Did you really say such words?” He replied:
Yes, sir. I did indeed make such a wish, sir, because the food prepared for the charity event was of poor quality, and this bad-tasting food was what was offered to the sangha. If the same food were presented before your lordship you would not even touch it, much less partake of it. What was provided is not the kind of food with which one could be pleased or enjoy eating. How could anyone who offers such poor food acquire a good reward in the afterlife, sir? Moreover, your lordship offered robes to the sangha but the clothes were made of hemp. If such clothing were shown to your lordship you would have kicked them away without even touching them, much less wearing them. What has been offered is not the kind of clothing with which one may be pleased or enjoy wearing. How could anyone who offers such poor clothing acquire a good reward in the afterlife, sir?
Pāyāsi then said to the young brāhmaṇa, “From now on, please prepare and offer to the sangha the same kinds of food I eat and clothing of similar quality to what I wear.”
Thus instructed, the young brāhmaṇa then made offerings to the sangha of exactly the same quality of food and clothing as those enjoyed by Pāyāsi. Thus, the brāhmaṇa, on the basis of his genuine offering, was born in Vimāna Heaven after his body dissolved and his life ended. The brāhmaṇa youth who had organized the event of universal charity was born in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven upon the dissolution of his body and the end of his life.

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At that time, having listened to this teaching, the brāhmaṇa Pāyāsi, the young brāhmaṇa, as well as the householders of Śvetavyā village, all rejoiced and respectfully received it and carried it out.
[End of Sutra 7: Pāyāsi’s Dialogue]

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Sutra 8 Sandhāna
(Dīgha Nikāya 25: Udumbarika- Sīhanāda Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was sojourning at the Saptaparṇa Cave on Vulture Peak in the city of Rājagṛha, together with one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples. There was a householder, Sandhāna by name, in that city, who enjoyed making an excursion every day to go out of the city and visit the Buddha. One such day, when the householder looked up at the sun’s position, he quietly thought to himself:
Now would not be a proper time for me to visit the Buddha. By this time, his holiness is surely retired in a secluded room for his daily con- templation and concentration. The disciple bhikṣus should also be engaged in their practice of quiet meditation. I should instead visit Queen Udumbarikā’s pleasure garden set aside for brāhmaṇa wanderers. When the proper time comes, I will visit the World-honored One and greet him with devotion and respect, and in addition also visit the bhikṣus to greet them with respect.
At that time, a brāhmaṇa, Nyagrodha by name, was staying in that grove together with ﬁve hundred brāhmaṇa ascetics. The brāhmaṇa ascetics had gathered there and were involved in massive arguments with loud voices on various nonreligious topics, thus passing many hours, all day long. Some argued about matters of state, while others argued about battles and weapons, still others on matters of justice and peace between the states, or on matters of ministers and people, or on such topics as carriages, horses, and excursions to groves and forests, or seating, clothing, food and drink, or about women, or about mountains, oceans, and the carapace of a turtle. They thus spent the whole day doing nothing but talking about such nonreligious matters.
The brāhmaṇa Nyagrodha saw from afar the householder Sandhāna approaching them and at once ordered the members of the assembly to be

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quiet, saying, “The lay disciple of the śramaṇa Gautama now coming from outside is the foremost among Gautama’s lay devotees. He surely will come here, you should all quiet down.” Then all the brāhmaṇas stopped talking. The householder Sandhāna reached the place of the brāhmaṇa Nyagrodha, and, after greeting him, sat to one side and said to him:
My master, the World-honored One, always enjoys leisure and quietude and does not like noisy confusion like this. He does not act in the way that you do, putting yourself among your disciples who are arguing in loud voices on various nonreligious topics.
The brāhmaṇa responded to the householder:
Śramaṇa Gautama has never debated with others. [So] how can the public know that the śramaṇa is [really] in possession of great insight? Your teacher prefers to stay alone in a secluded place, just like a one- eyed cow that roams alone and onesidedly turns [in a circle] only the part of the grass ﬁeld that comes into its vision. Your teacher Gautama is like that cow, because he likes to stay alone in an isolated place where no other person is around. If your teacher happens to come here, I shall call him “One-eyed cow.” He always claims that he has great insight. [But] with a single word I will surely cause him to be at a loss and pursue him until he surrenders like a turtle withdrawn into its cara- pace. I say that with a single shot of an arrow it would be no trouble to cause him to be at a loss for a way out.
At that time, the World-honored One was alone in his meditation room and, he heard through his supernormal hearing what the brāhmaṇa told the householder. He at once came out of the Saptaparṇa Cave and traveled to the Udumbarikā Grove. The brāhmaṇa saw the Buddha from a distance approaching the Udumbarikā Grove. He ordered his disciples:
All of you, be silent. The śramaṇa Gautama seems to be coming here. Neither pay respect to him by standing up, nor venerate him, nor invite him to take a seat. A separate seat [apart from us] can be offered, and as soon as he sits down, you should question him: “O śramaṇa Gau- tama, from the beginning of your career, for what kind of religion have

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you originally taught your disciples so that they may acquire the state of comfort and tranquility and practice moral and religious austerity?”
The Buddha eventually reached the grove. Then, unintentionally, the brāh- maṇa himself stood up, received the World-honored One, and uttered the following words of welcome:
O Gautama, welcome. O śramaṇa, welcome. I have seen you for a long time. For what purpose have you come here, sir? Please take a seat here at the front.
The World-honored One at once sat on the seat as invited, and laughed cheerfully. He quietly thought to himself:
These foolish men cannot even uphold their [intended] actions on their own terms. Despite planning a cool reception for me, they have behaved contrary to their intent. It is because, before the Buddha’s supernormal power, their minds of ill intent have spontaneously been broken.
The householder Sandhāna venerated the Buddha by bowing to his feet and then sat to one side. The brāhmaṇa Nyagrodha greeted the Buddha with a bow, then sat on the other side and asked him:
O śramaṇa Gautama, from the beginning of your career, upon what religious teaching have you originally instructed your disciples and trained them to acquire the state of comfort and tranquility and to gen- uinely practice moral and religious austerity?
The World-honored One responded to the brāhmaṇa:
Please stop for a moment, O brāhmaṇa. My religious teaching is pro- found and vast. From the beginning of my career I have guided my disciples on the basis of this teaching and trained them to acquire the state of comfort and tranquility and to genuinely practice moral and religious austerity. It cannot be compared with what you are doing.
He continued:
What exactly causes your teacher as well as your disciples (i.e., the

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tradition as a whole) to practice the disciplines of the path to comprise purity as well as impurity? I can explain them exhaustively.
Then all ﬁve hundred disciples of the brāhmaṇa clamored in raising their voices, saying:
O śramaṇa Gautama, you boast of your greatness and supernormal power, to the extent that when you are asked about your teaching, you set aside [the queston] and instead challenge us to explain our teaching!
The brāhmaṇa Nyagrodha then said to the Buddha, “Very well, Gautama, please analyze and explain what you mean by that.”
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa, “Listen attentively. I shall explain it for you.” The brāhmaṇa replied, “Delighted, sir. I am ready [to listen], sir.” The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
What you practice is entirely base and vulgar. You remove all your clothing and go about naked, covering your front with your hands. You accept food neither from a jug or from a serving vessel, nor do you accept food placed inside the threshold, food placed between two people, food placed between two sticks, food placed between two plates, or food placed near people who are eating; nor will you accept food from a pregnant woman or from a house where there is a dog, or from a house with swarming ﬂies; nor do you accept food for which you have been invited or food from a family with whom another ascetic is acquainted; nor do you accept ﬁsh, meat, intoxicants, or anything that has been placed between two cooking vessels (e.g., mortar and pestle). You accept meals and a drinks, and so on, as many as up to seven portions. But when you receive almsfood or helpings you do not go beyond a seventh portion. You partake either one meal a day or a meal every two days or three days, or four, ﬁve, or six days, or every seven days. Or else you partake of fruit and potherbs, you drink rice- water froth, eat sesame seeds or hemp grains, or partake of wild rice, cow dung, or antelope dung. Or you eat plant roots, branches, and leaves, or fruit that has fallen to the ground.
You wear any kind of poor-quality clothing, or clothes made of kuśa
grass ﬁber, or bark garments, or you cover your body with grass, or

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you wear an antelope hide. You let your hair grow, or cover your body with a net made of hair, or you wear clothing taken from a corpse. Some of you keep your arms lifted at all times, or never sit on a couch or chair but only in a squatting position. Even if you shave your head you keep both moustache and beard. You lay on a bed of thorns or on a ﬂoor covered with plant husks, or you lay down naked in cow dung, or you bathe three times a day or three times during the night. You mortify your body with extreme physical pain and suffering. How indeed, O Nyagrodha, are these forms of practice regarded as genuine, pure disciplines?
The brāhmaṇa replied, “These disciplines are pure and genuine and are not contrary, sir.”
The Buddha sid to the brāhmaṇa, “Though you claim that these forms of practice are pure and genuine disciplines, I will explain to you why they are morally deﬁled.”
The brāhmaṇa replied, “Very well, Gautama, explain why our forms of practice are morally impure and deﬁled. I wish to know about it.”
The Buddha continued:
The ascetics engaged in self-mortifying forms of practice invariably entertain an expectation in their mind, thinking, “My ascetic practice should persuade people to make offerings with respect and admiration [for my austerities].” This expectation is by nature a moral deﬁlement. Having received an offering, satisﬁed and reinforced, these extreme ascetics are ﬁrmly attached to their extreme forms of practice, neither knowing how it is important to distance oneself from worldly matters, nor knowing what the essential path of salvation is. This wrong orien-
tation is a moral deﬁlement.
If they see anyone near them or approaching them from a distance, these extreme ascetics invariably assume their [arduous] practice of meditation, but in the absence of other people they resume their undis- ciplined behavior, idly sitting or lying about according to their incli- nation. This is a moral deﬁlement.
Even when they hear a precise exposition of their doctrine by others, they do not acknowledge that it is correct. This is a moral deﬁlement.

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When a proper question about their doctrine is presented to them, these extreme ascetics keep their mouths shut and do not answer or explain it. This is a moral deﬁlement.
When they see people making offerings for the śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas, these extreme ascetics accuse the donors to prevent their acts of charity. This is a moral deﬁlement.
When they see the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas partake of various seed items that regrow as food (i.e., rice grains), these extreme ascetics accuse them. This is a moral deﬁlement.
Even when they receive excess food that is not suitable for them, these ascetics do not offer it to others. When they obtain food that is suitable for them they greedily partake of it all by themselves, neither seeing their own fault of greediness nor knowing that freedom from attachment is essential to salvation. This is a moral deﬁlement.
These extreme ascetics praise their own goodness (regarding their acts of self-mortiﬁcation), and discredit the practices of other schools. This is a moral deﬁlement.
These extreme ascetics commit some of these wrongdoings: injuring life, taking what is not given, engaging in sexual misconduct, engaging in deceptive speech, verbal abuse, using false words, ﬂattery, greediness, jealousy, and wrong views. This is a moral deﬁlement.
These extreme ascetics take delight in idleness and forgetfulness of the practice of meditation, acquiring no insight, just like birds and animals. This is a moral deﬁlement.
These extreme ascetics project a lofty air of self-conceit and arro- gance. This is a moral deﬁlement.
These extreme ascetics not only have neither the virtue of faithful- ness, nor of repeated practice, nor of genuine precepts, but they also do not seriously listen to others’ admonitions. As they always associate with wrong kinds of people, they continue to do wrong things without ever despising their actions. This is a moral deﬁlement.
These extreme ascetics are prone to anger and resentment and they contemplate treacherous schemes against others, trying to show off their views and ﬁnding fault with others. They always entertain wrong opinions and agree with one-sided views. This is a moral deﬁlement.

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How then, Nyagrodha, can these manners of practice be said to be morally free of blemish?
The brāhmaṇa replied, “These are morally deﬁled and cannot be said to be pure and genuine [practices], sir.”
The Buddha continued, “Now, in reference to each of those morally deﬁled forms of practice, I shall explain what the morally pure and genuine nature is.”
The brāhmaṇa replied, “Please explain them one by one, sir.” The Buddha continued:
These ascetics should cherish no expectation in their minds and aban- don the thought, “My practice should bring me offerings, respect, and admiration.” This nonanticipatory practice is free from moral deﬁle- ment.
After receiving offerings, these ascetics should not greedily attach themselves to extreme forms of practice.They should become aware of the importance of distancing themselves from worldly matters, knowing what the essential path of salvation is. This right orientation is free from moral deﬁlement.
These ascetics should maintain regularity in the practice of medi- tation, whether or not other people are present or absent. This form of discipline is free from moral deﬁlement.
These ascetics should be delighted when followers of other schools have a correct understanding of their doctrines, and they should readily acknowledge this. This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement.
These ascetics should be delighted when an appropriate question is presented and they should openly answer and explain it. This disci- pline is free from moral deﬁlement.
Seeing others offering charity to the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, these ascetics should rejoice in the moral and religious advancement expressed in such acts of charity, instead of discouraging the donors. This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement.
Seeing the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who partake of various seed items that regrow as food, these ascetics should not accuse them. This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement.

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These ascetics should neither be stingy with excess food that is not suitable for them, nor should they be overwhelmed by greedy attach- ment when they receive suitable food, thus reﬂecting upon their own faults and knowing the essential path to salvation. This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement.
These ascetics should not boast of their scrupulousness in practices of self-mortiﬁcation, nor should they despise the practices of other schools. This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement.
These ascetics should not commit any of the ten kinds of wrongdoing: injuring life, taking what is not given, engaging in sexual misconduct, deceptive speech, verbal abuse, false words, ﬂattery, greediness, jealousy, and wrong views. This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement. These ascetics should not be forgetful but diligently engage in the practice of meditation and acquire many levels of insight, not regressing to the state of ignorance, like animals. This discipline is free from
moral deﬁlement.
These ascetics should refrain from projecting a lofty air of self-con- ceit and arrogance. This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement. These ascetics should always enhance the virtues of faithfulness, con- tinuous practice, and genuine precepts; they should listen seriously to others’ admonitions, and by associating always with good people never cease to do good things. This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement. These ascetics should neither cherish anger and resentment, nor contemplate treacherous schemes against others, nor show off their own achievements while trying to ﬁnd fault in others, nor should they entertain wrong opinions along with one-sided views or prejudices.
This discipline is free from moral deﬁlement.
Brāhmaṇa, are these forms of practice to be regarded as the way to acquire morally blameless practice?
The brāhmaṇa replied, “Yes, these should be regarded as the way to acquire morally blameless practice, sir.” He further asked the Buddha, “If anyone upholds this kind of ascetic practice, is he regarded to have achieved the utmost essence of the practice, sir?”
The Buddha replied, “No, not yet. This is only the beginning, only the outer bark portion of a tree.”

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The brāhmaṇa said, “May I request you to explain the progressive stages of restraint in the ascetic practice in analogy with a tree.”
The Buddha said, “Listen carefully. I shall explain it to you.” The brāhmaṇa said, “Yes, sir. I am ready.”
The Buddha continued:
O brāhmaṇa, each of these ascetics does not himself commit murder nor persuade others to do so; neither does he himself commit theft nor persuade others to do so; neither does he himself commit sexual mis- conduct nor persuade others to do so; neither does he himself speak falsehoods nor persuade others to do so. Instead he permeates friendly love inﬁnitely in one quarter of the world, then likewise in the remaining three quarters. Thus he extends his immeasurable mind of benevolence universally in all directions, undivided and not bound to limitation. Without enmity, his mind of benevolence permeates throughout the human world, and so do his immeasurable mind of compassion, his immeasurable mind of sympathetic joy, and his immeasurable mind of equanimity [pervade] in a similar manner throughout the human world. These are regarded as the progressive stages of restraint in the tree analogy of ascetic practice.
The brāhmaṇa said to the Buddha, “Please explain the essence of ascetic practice, sir.”
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa, “Listen attentively. I shall explain it to you.”
The brāhmaṇa said, “Yes, World-honored One, I am ready, sir.” The Buddha continued:
Each of these ascetics neither himself commits murder nor persuade another to do so; neither does he himself commit theft nor persuade others to do so; neither does he himself commit sexual misconduct nor persuade others to do so; neither does he himself speak falsehoods nor persuade others to do so. Instead he permeates friendly love inﬁnitely in one quarter of the world, then likewise in the remaining three quarters. Thus he extends his immeasurable mind of benevolence universally in all directions, undivided and not bound to limitation. Without enmity, his mind of benevolence permeates throughout the human world, and

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so do his immeasurable minds of compassion, of sympathetic joy, and of equanimity [pervade] in a similar manner throughout the human world. This ascetic becomes aware of things that happened since imme- morial past eons, and entirely knows all those events during his initial life, second life, and so forth, up to his innumerable positions in the life cycle. Throughout those periods from the beginning to the end of many eons he himself knows through direct perception: “I was once born in such-and-such a class status, had such-and-such name, ate meals consisting of such-and-such food, lived so-and-so many years of age, and experienced such-and-such happiness and suffering. I was reborn from that state to this one, then reborn from that to this, and in this manner I recollect exhaustively all the things that happened through-
out immeasurable numbers of eons.”
This, O brāhmaṇa, is the essential core of ascetic practice that is imperishable.
The brāhmaṇa spoke to the Buddha, “What is the primary of ascetic prac- tice, sir?”
The Buddha replied, “O brāhmaṇa, listen attentively. I shall explain it to you.”
The brāhmaṇa said, “Yes, World-honored One, I am ready, sir.” The Buddha continued:
Each of these ascetics neither himself commits murder nor does he per- suade another to do so; neither himself commits theft nor persuade others to do so; neither himself commits sexual misconduct nor persuades others to do so, neither himself speaks falsehoods nor persuades others to do so. Instead he permeates friendly love inﬁnitely in one quarter of the world, then likewise in the remaining three quarters. Thus he extends his immeasurable mind of benevolence universally in all directions, undivided and not bound to limitation. Without enmity, his mind of benevolence permeates throughout the human world, and so do his immeasurable minds of compassion, of sympathetic joy and of equa- nimity [pervade] in a similar manner throughout the human world. This ascetic becomes aware of things that have happened since immemorial past eons, and entirely knows all those events during his

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initial life, second life, and so forth, up to his innumerable positions in the life cycle, throughout the periods from the beginning to the end of many eons. He also knows through direct perception: “I was once born in such-and-such class status, had such-and-such family name, ate meals consisting of such-and-such food, lived to so-and-so many years of age, and experienced such-and-such happiness and suffering. I was reborn from that state to this one, and reborn from that to this, and in this manner I recollect exhaustively all the things that happened throughout immeasurable numbers of eons.”
With his pure and genuine heavenly vision he exhaustively perceives and knows the kinds of sentient beings as passing away here and being reborn there, as endowed with good complexions, handsome or ugly, with resulting courses of life due to their good or bad deeds, wherever they fall due to their deeds. Also he knows how some of those sentient beings who committed wrong physical, verbal, and mental deeds, speak- ing slanderous remarks against the wise and holy and believing in per- verse, wrong views, fell into the three evil courses of life when their bodies dissolved and their lives ended. He also knows how other sentient beings who have accumulated good physical, verbal, and mental deeds, who speak no evil against the wise and holy and hold the right view, are born among heavenly gods when their bodies dissolved and their lives ended. Thus, each practitioner, endowed with pure and genuine heavenly vision, perceives [the destinies or fates of] sentient beings, wherever they fall according to their deeds, and there is nothing he cannot see. This is the primary essence of ascetic practice.
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
In this foremost primary type of ascetic practice, there is again a superior one, on the basis of which I always teach my disciples (śrāvakas). Their discipline of austerity is based on this superior type of ascetic practice.
At that moment all of the ﬁve hundred disciples of the brāhmaṇa raised their voices, saying to each other, “Now the World-honored One seems to be the highest, foremost venerable, with whom even our teacher cannot be equaled.”

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Then the householder Sandhāna said to the brāhmaṇa:
You said to me before, “If Gautama comes here, I will call him ‘One- eyed Cow.’ Now that the World-honored One is here, why don’t you call him [by that name]? Also, you said before, “I surely will cause him to be at a loss with a single word, and pursue him until he surrenders like a turtle withdrawn into its carapace. It will be no trouble for me, with a single shot of an arrow I can surely cause him to be at a loss for a way out.” Why can you not now, with a single word, cause the Tathāgata to be at a loss?
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa, “Do you remember that you said such a thing before?”
He replied, “I really said so, sir.” The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
Haven’t you heard from your brāhmaṇa elders that buddhas and tathā- gatas reside alone in forest hermitages and enjoy a secluded location, just as I enjoy a life of seclusion, quite opposite to your way of living in which you enjoy congestion, noisiness, speak of useless matters, and thereby pass the hours of the day?
The brāhmaṇa said:
Yes, sir. I have heard that the buddhas of the past enjoyed seclusion and quietude and lived their solitary lives in forest hermitages, just as the World-honored One does. It is certainly not like our way of living in which we enjoy congestion and noisiness, speak of useless matters, and thus pass the hours of the day, sir.
The Buddha further said to the brāhmaṇa:
You should keep the following in your mind: the śramaṇa Gautama teaches the doctrine of enlightenment well, has himself accomplished self-control and helps others learn self-control, has himself realized mental calmness and helps others calm their minds, has himself crossed the water to reach the yonder shore and helps others cross to the yonder shore, has himself attained liberation of his consciousness and helps

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others liberate their consciousnesses, and has himself realized the ulti- mate goal of nirvana and helps others realize ultimate nirvana.
At that moment, the brāhmaṇa rose from his seat, venerated the Buddha by bowing to the Buddha’s feet and, holding the Buddha’s feet in his hands, he announced his name, saying, “I am a brāhmaṇa, Nyagrodha by name. I now venerate the World-honored One by bowing to his feet.”
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa, “Stop, Nyagrodha. Remain seated, and just let your liberated mind pay veneration and respect toward me.”
The brāhmaṇa, however, completed a second veneration to the Buddha’s feet and then returned to his seat.
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
You should never say that the Buddha exhorted his doctrine of practice for the sake of material gain. You should not think so. If there is any material donation for [my teaching] I will give all of it to you as charity. The doctrine I have exhorted, subtle and foremost, is set forth for the sake of terminating wrong practices and promoting good ones.
Again he said to the brāhmaṇa:
You should never say that the Buddha exhorted his doctrine because he wished to protect his fame and keep his name as a religious master, or because he wished to acquire new converts [from among your dis- ciples] and the members of the sangha. You should not think so. All of your disciples are yours. The doctrine I have exhorted is set forth for the sake of terminating wrong practices and promoting good ones.
Again he said to the brāhmaṇa:
You should never say that the Buddha abandoned you in the assembly of bad and ignorant people. You should not think so. As far as those bad and ignorant members are concerned, you should exclude them from your assembly. I have taught only on the essential nature of the good practice.
Again the Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:

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You should never say that the Buddha has taken these good and genuine members away from you. You should not think so. You should carry out your practice diligently among those who carry out good practice and who are genuine. I have exhorted you on the nature of ascetic prac- tice that is good and genuine so as to terminate wrong practices and promote good ones.
At that time, the ﬁve hundred disciples of the brāhmaṇa listened eagerly and attentively to what the Buddha was teaching. The Evil One Pāpīyān thought to himself, “These ﬁve hundred disciples of the brāhmaṇa are now eagerly and attentively listening to the Buddha’s teaching. I should go and disrupt their minds.” Thereupon, the Evil One disrupted the minds of those in the assembly.
At that moment, the Buddha said to Sandhāna:
While the brāhmaṇa’s ﬁve hundred disciples were eagerly and atten- tively listening to my teaching, the Evil One Pāpīyān has now disrupted their minds. Now I wish to return. You should leave here with me.
Then the World-honored One touched the householder Sandhāna with his right hand, held him within his palm, and ﬂew through space. The householder Sandhāna, the brāhmaṇa Nyagrodha, as well as the ﬁve hundred brāhmaṇa disciples who had heard the Buddha’s exhortation, rejoiced, respectfully received the teaching, and carried out what was taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 8: Sandhāna]

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Sutra 9 Numerically Assembled
Doctrines
(Dīgha Nikāya 33: Saṅgīti Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha sojourned in the Mallan country accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. He arrived at the mango grove that belonged to Cunda in the city of Pāvā. On the ﬁfteenth day of the month, the full moon night, the World-honored One sat in the open ground, surrounded by the assembly of bhikṣus on all sides. The World-hon- ored One spent hours of the night teaching the Dharma, and he then said to Śāriputra:
Now many disciples have assembled from all quarters and, being dili- gent, they are disregarding the hours of sleep. Since I have pain in my back and should rest for a while, please conduct the teaching session for the sake of these bhikṣus.
Śāriputra replied, “Yes, sir. I shall do as instructed.” Then the World-honored One folded his outer robe into four layers, spread it on the ground, and lay down on his right side, with one foot placed upon the other, like a lion.
Śāriputra said to the bhikṣus:
The head of the Nirgrantha (Jain) school resided in this city of Pāvā, and not long ago he passed away. After that, his disciples divided into two groups, each of which looked for its own advantage and found fault with the other, mutually disdaining and accusing each other as to what is right or wrong, arguing, “We know the right thing, whereas you do not. You hold a wrong view, whereas we hold the right one.” Their words and language are all confused without logical sequence. Each party claims that their own statements are regarded as true and right, saying, “What we say is superior, while what you said is inferior.” Now, I am going to conduct this session of doctrinal discussion. Who- ever has questions, please come up and question me.

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O bhikṣus, the countrymen who have been supporting the Nirgrantha religion are weary of the mutually contesting voices of the [two schools]. This inner conﬂict seem to show that the religion they proclaim is not really true and right. Unless a religion is true and genuine, it cannot be an essential path of deliverance, just as a dilapidated tower with a crumbling inner structure cannot be repaired only by means of external reinforcement. Their religion is quite different from the religion taught to us by the Perfectly Enlightened One. O bhikṣus, the religious path that our foremost Venerable Śākyamuni has taught to us is the most true and genuine, because through practicing it we are able to realize religious salvation. It is like a new tower that can be easily embellished with external ornaments. This has been taught by the Perfectly Enlight- ened One. All of the bhikṣus should collect the doctrines and disciplines so as to prevent future disputes and controversies, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that various beneﬁts derived thereby will increase the well-being of gods and humans. O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata taught the singular doctrines of his right Dharma: (1) All sentient beings subsist on food for maintaining life.
(2) There is another single doctrine that asserts that all sentient beings exist due to their dispositional forces. The foregoing are the right doc- trines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines in memory to prevent dispute or controversy, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts will thereby increase the well-being of gods and humans.
O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata taught the double doctrines of his right Dharma: (1) There is a doctrine that explains ﬁrst, the category of names; second, the category of forms.
(2) Again there is another double doctrine that explains ﬁrst, igno- rance; second, craving for existence.
(3) Again there is another double doctrine that explains ﬁrst, the view of existence as eternalism; second, the view of nonexistence as view of nihilism.
(4) Again there is another double doctrine that explains ﬁrst, shame- lessness as to self-reﬂection; second, shamelessness before others.

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(5) Again there is another double doctrine that explains ﬁrst, shame- fulness as to self-reﬂection; second, shamefulness before others.
(6) Again there is another double doctrine that explains ﬁrst, knowl- edge of the total eradication of deﬁlement; second, knowledge of the nonorigination of the states of existence.
(7) Again there is another double doctrine that asserts that two causes and two conditions give rise to desire and craving: ﬁrst, pure, subtle form, and second, indifference.
(8) Again there is another double doctrine that asserts that two causes and two conditions give rise to hate: ﬁrst, enmity; second, indifference.
(9) Again there is another double doctrine that asserts that two causes and two conditions give rise to wrong views: ﬁrst, informed by others; second, wrong thought.
(10) Again there is another double doctrine that asserts that two causes and two conditions give rise to right views: ﬁrst, informed by others; second, right thought.
(12) Again there is another double doctrine that asserts that two causes and two conditions give rise ﬁrst to the realization of deliverance with further training, and second to the ultimate realization of deliv- erance without further training.
(13) Again there is another double doctrine that asserts that two causes and two conditions give rise ﬁrst, to the sphere of conditioned phenomena; second, to the sphere of the unconditioned.
O bhikṣus, these are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines [in memory] to prevent disputes and controversy, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby increase the well-being of gods and humans.
O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata has taught the [following] triple doctrines of his right Dharma:
(1) A triple doctrine explains three kinds of unfavorable roots: greed, hatred, and delusion.
(2) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three good roots: absence of greed, absence of hatred, and absence of delusion.

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(3) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of wrong actions: wrong physical action, wrong verbal action, and wrong mental action.
(4) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of wrong actions: physically wrong physical action, wrong verbal action, and wrong mental action.22
(5) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of evil actions: evil physical action, evil verbal action, and evil mental action.
(6) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of good actions: good physical action, good verbal action, and good mental action.
(7) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of unfavorable awareness: awareness of sexual desire, awareness of malice, and awareness of an intent to harm.
(8) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of favorable awareness: ﬁrst, indifference to worldly desire, second, absence of malice, and third, absence of an intent to injure.
(9) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of unfavorable thoughts: the thought of desire, the thought of malice, and the thought of intent to harm.
(10) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of good thoughts: the thought of indifference to worldly desire, absence of malice in thought, and absence of an intent to harm in thought.
(11) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of meritorious action: charity, moral precepts, and repeated practice.23
(12) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of sensation or sense perception: pleasure, pain, and neither pleasure nor pain.
(13) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of craving: craving for desire, craving for existence, and craving for nonexistence.
(14) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of worldly deﬁlement: deﬁlement derived from desire, deﬁlement derived from attachment to existence, and deﬁlement derived from ignorance of the Four Noble Truths.

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(15) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of passion: passion derived from love, passion derived from hatred, and passion derived from delusion.
(16) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of pursuit for fulﬁllment: pursuit for fulﬁllment of desire, pursuit for fulﬁllment of existence, and pursuit for fulﬁllment of the practice of austerity.
(17) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of dominant inﬂuence: the dominant inﬂuence of the self, the dominant inﬂuence of society, and the dominant inﬂuence of religious truth.
(18) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three immoral spheres of existence: the sphere of desire, the sphere of hatred, and the sphere of the intent to harm.
(19) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three spheres of existence: the sphere of indifference to desire, the sphere of no hatred, and the sphere of no intent to harm.
(20) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three spheres of existence: the sphere of form, the sphere of formlessness, and the sphere of cessation.
(21) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of religious training: training in precepts, training in states of concen- tration, and training in analytical insight.
(22) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of practice through cultivation: the practice of precepts through culti- vation, the practice of concentration through cultivation, and the practice of analytical insight through cultivation.
(23) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of concentration: the concentration on the emptiness of the self and things attributed to it, the concentration on the objectless or goal-free state of existence, and the concentration on signlessness or the non- differentiation of things.
(24) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three char- acteristics: quiescence, exertion, and equanimity.
(25) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of knowledge: knowledge in recollection of past lives, knowledge

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derived from the supernormal power of vision, and knowledge of total annihilation of the inﬂuence of deﬁlements.
(26) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of extraordinary occurrence: magical performance through supernormal powers, reading the minds of others in preaching, and the miracle of admonition that destroys someone’s vice.
(27) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of fulﬁllment in the sphere of desires: fulﬁllment due to one’s present desire to be born in the human world as well as in the four lower deva worlds, fulﬁllment due to one’s desire to be born in the heavenly world where one enjoys his own magical creations, and fulﬁllment due to one’s desire to be born in the heavenly world where one enjoys the magical creations created by others.
(28) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of happiness: the happiness that sentient beings spontaneously expe- rience due to fulﬁllment of all things, just as was experienced by the attendants of the god Brahmā at the time of the lord’s initial appearance in Ābhāsvara Heaven; the happiness enjoyed by sentient beings with the spontaneous utterance of “Good,” just as is uttered by the gods of Ābhāsvara Heaven; and the happiness experienced by sentient beings in the third meditative absorption in the heaven of total purity.
(29) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of suffering: suffering due to predisposition, suffering due to existing suffering, and suffering due to incessant change.
(30) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of faculty: the faculty to know what is not yet known, the faculty of perfect knowledge, and the faculty of possession of perfect knowledge.
(31) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of abodes: the abode of the wise and holy, the abode of the gods, and the abode of the god Brahmā.
(32) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of accusation: an accusation based on witness, an accusation based on information, and an accusation based on doubt due to likelihood.
(33) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of doctrinal debate: the doctrinal debate on subject matter and

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controversy in the past, the doctrinal debate on subject matter and con- troversy in the future, and the doctrinal debate on subject matter and controversy in the present.
(34) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of sentient beings: those who are predicted to attain nirvana, those who are not so predicted, and those whose destiny is uncertain.
(35) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of sorrow and lamentation: physical, verbal, and mental.
(36) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of elders: elders by way of seniority, elders by way of religion, and elders by way of consent or choice.
(37) Again there is another triple doctrine that explains three kinds of visual faculty: the physical faculty of sight, the supernormal faculty of sight, and the faculty of transcendental insight.
O bhikṣus, these are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines [in memory] so as to prevent disputes and controversies, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby will increase the well-being of gods and humans.
O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata taught the fourfold doctrines of his right Dharma:
(1) There is a fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of ignoble verbal actions: speaking falsehoods and engaging in double talk, abusive speech, and ﬂattery.
(2) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of noble actions: abstinence from speaking falsehoods, from double talk, from harsh speech, and from ﬂattery.
(3) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of ignoble speech: the false assertion that one has seen something that one has not actually seen, that one has heard something that one has not actually heard, that one has been aware though actually one has not been aware, and that one has known something though actually one has not known.
(4) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of noble speech: the true assertion that one has seen when one has actually

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seen, the true assertion that one has heard something that one has actually heard, the true assertion that one has been aware when one has actually been aware, and the true assertion that one has known when one has actu- ally known.
(5) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of food: edible, material food that is either nutritious [and gives strength] or is exquisite; nutriment that is ingested by tactile contact; nutriment derived from volition and thought; and nutriment derived from con- sciousness.
(6) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of causal relationships between suffering and happiness: [the causal relationship between] hard exertion now and an unhappy effect later; [the causal relationship between] hard exertion now and a happy effect later; [the causal relationship between] easy exertion now and an unhappy effect later; and [the causal relationship between] easy exertion now and a happy effect later.
(7) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of grasping or attachment: attachment to desires, attachment to the self, attachment to the vow of precepts, and attachment to views.
(8) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of fetters: the fetter of covetousness, the fetter of malice, the fetter of the practice and observance of wrong precepts from other schools, and the fetter of the inclination to assert “Only this is the truth” (i.e., strong attachment to a particular dogmatic view).
(9) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of obstacles:24 the obstacle of desire, the obstacle of malice, the obstacle of wrong view, and the obstacle of self-conceit.
(10) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of living creatures: creatures born oviparously, creatures born from a womb, creatures born of moisture, and creatures born through incar- nation (e.g., gods, ghosts, etc.).
(11) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of application of mental awareness. First, when a bhikṣu observes his inner body (sense faculties) in concentration he should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations to keep them in

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memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and worries. Second, observing his outer body (outer sense stimuli) he should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations to keep them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and worries. Third, while observing both the inner and outer body he should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations to keep them in mem- ory, and thereby remove worldly desires and worries. It is the same with the second application, observing one’s sense perceptions; with the third application, observing one’s mind (intellect); and with the fourth application, observing one’s psychophysical elements.
(12) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of vigorous effort: a bhikṣu applies vigorous effort to prevent unfavor- able mental elements from arising, vigorous effort to terminate unfa- vorable mental elements that already have arisen, vigorous effort to help favorable mental elements to arise, and vigorous effort to con- template favorable mental elements that have arisen so as to help sustain and increase them.
(13) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of supernormal powers: ﬁrst, a bhikṣu realizes supernormal power derived from dispositional forces bearing the effort of concentration motivated by desire. It is the same with the other three cases: through concentration motivated by mind, motivated by endeavor, and motivated by investigation.
(14) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of meditative absorption (dhyāna-samādhi): ﬁrst, a bhikṣu con- templates the eradication of deﬁlements, such as desire, evil, and unfa- vorable things, and realizes the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption, in which there is awareness of objects and the act of examining while the sense of joy and bliss increases. Second, he eliminates awareness of objects and the subjective act of examination, with increasing tran- quility or self-conﬁdence, continually applying concentration of the mind, and proceeds to the second meditative state of absorption in which there is neither the awareness of an object nor subjective acts but a sense of joy and bliss predominate in the arising state of con- centration. Third, he distances himself from a sense of joy but dwells

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in a sense of equanimity, fully aware of subtler bliss, reaching the third meditative state of absorption in which one experiences the mindfulness, equanimity, and bliss sought by a wise and holy practitioner. Fourth, he transcends both pain and pleasure and removes sorrow and joy, thus realizing the fourth meditative state of absorption in which there is neither pain nor pleasure but an increase in the state of equanimity that consolidates pure and genuine mindfulness.
(15) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of immeasurable mind: the immeasurable mind of friendly love and benevolence (maitrī), the immeasurable mind of compassion (karuṇā), the immeasurable mind of sympathetic joy (muditā), and the immeas- urable mind of equanimity (upekṣā).
(16) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of formless concentration. First, a bhikṣu transcends all thoughts of forms [in the objective sphere], totally exhausts all malicious thoughts [in the subjective sphere], and thus is freed from any other thought in the sphere of inﬁnite space. Second, coming out of [this concentration] he then enters the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness. Third, coming out of [this concentration] he then enters the sphere of nothingness or nonu- tility. Fourth, coming out of [this concentration] he then enters the sphere of neither ideation nor nonideation.
(17) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of foundations of religious consciousness: the absence of cov- etousness and malice and the presence of right mindfulness and right concentration.
(18) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of noble genealogy. First, a bhikṣu knows how to be content with [sim- ple] robes or garments; he is neither delighted by obtaining good mate- rial nor dspleased by obtaining poor material, neither affected by nor attached to the kind of cloth [for a robe] he obtains, knowing the reg- ulation about the prohibition and restriction [of cloth for robes]. He knows the essential path of deliverance and exerts himself in the practice of the path without slackening, and he is able to equip himself with the robe as required, neither slackening nor falling short of the regulation,

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as well as helping others to be outﬁtted with the requisite robe. This is the ﬁrst kind of self-contentment with the robe requisite, qualifying a bhikṣu to be a member of the noble genealogy. He is neither disturbed in his mind from the beginning until the present, nor can any fault be found in him by gods, evil ones, Brahmā, śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, [those of] the heavenly as well human worlds. H also knows how to be content with the remaining three requisites of food, lodging, and medicine for use in illness.
(19) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of characteristics of sympathy: liberality, kind speech, skill in helping others, and the sagacious conduct of equality.
(20) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of the saintly state of stream-enterer: serenity based on trust and faith in the Buddha, serenity based on trust and faith in the Dharma, serenity based on trust and faith in the Sangha, and serenity based on trust and faith in the precepts.
(21) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of direct experience for oneself: the sense perception of forms expe- rienced directly by one’s own eyes, the cessation of bodily sense per- ception experienced directly in one’s own body, the [recollection of one’s] previous lives experienced directly in one’s own memory, and the exhaustion of inﬂuences caused by deﬁlement experienced directly through one’s own insight.
(22) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of the mode of progress: painful practice resulting in knowledge slowly acquired, painful practice resulting in knowledge quickly acquired, pleasant practice resulting in knowledge slowly acquired, and pleasant practice resulting in knowledge quickly acquired.
(23) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains the Four Noble Truths: the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the cessation of suffering, and the truth of the path of ces- sation of suffering.
(24) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four results of the mendicant life: the result of the saintly state of stream-enterer

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(srotaāpanna), the result of the saintly state of once-returner (sakṛdā- gāmin), the result of the saintly state of nonreturner (anāgāmin) and the result of the saintly state of arhatship.
(25) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains the four ﬁrm bases [of religious life]: upholding the truth as one’s ﬁrm basis, upholding the norm of renunciation as one’s ﬁrm basis, upholding ana- lytical insight as one’s ﬁrm basis, and upholding the state of quiescence as one’s ﬁrm basis;
(26) Again there is another fourfold doctrine of the four kinds of knowledge: knowledge of the Dharma, knowledge of what follows, knowledge of the general agreement or tradition, and knowledge of the minds of others.
(27) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of rhetorical skill and knowledge: rhetorical skill in religious teaching, rhetorical skill in the meaning [of the teaching], skill and knowledge of different regional dialects, and skill and knowledge of using the foregoing three types [of rhetorical skill].
(28) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of regions where cognition abides: the cognitive faculty that relies on an external form as its indirect cause and grows stronger together with the form and the subjective mental force of craving attachment as its direct cause; it is the same with the remaining three: immediate sensation or impression, symbolic signs or ideations, and dispositional forces of conﬁguration.
(29) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of fetters: desire as a fetter, volitional acts of existence as a fetter, wrong view as a fetter, and ignorance as a fetter.
(30) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of severance from fetters: severance from desire, from volition toward existence, from wrong views, and from ignorance.
(31) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of purity: upholding one’s purity with the precepts, upholding one’s purity with the mind, upholding one’s purity with right views, and upholding one’s purity through transcending doubt.25

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(32) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of discernment: one discerns what he can or should accept, how he can or should act, what he can or should enjoy, and what he can or should forsake.
(33) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of discerning propriety or deportment: a bhikṣu discerns what deportment or mode of walking, standing, sitting, or lying down he should adopt.26
(34) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four kinds of thought: thought with a focus on a limited scope, thought with a range expanded over a wider scope, thought with an inﬁnitely wide and expansive range, and thought without a speciﬁc focus or object.27
(35) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains four dialec- tical disciplines in questions and answers: a type of dialectical discipline to answer categorically, a type of dialectical discipline to explain ana- lytically, a type of dialectical discipline to respond with a counter-ques- tion, and a type of dialectical discipline to set aside a question.
(36) Again there is another fourfold doctrine that explains the four points of the Tathāgata that do not need to be guarded for purity and genuineness: his physical conduct is completely and automatically pure so that he does not need to be on guard with it, and it is the same with his verbal and mental conduct and his livelihood.
O bhikṣus, these are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines in memory to prevent dispute and con- troversy, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby will help increase the well-being of gods and humans.
Also again, all of the bhikṣus, the Tathāgata has taught the ﬁvefold doctrines of his right Dharma:
(1) A ﬁvefold doctrine explains ﬁve bases of cognition: form as the objective basis of the eyes, sound as the objective basis of the ears, smell as the objective basis of the nose, taste as the objective basis of the tongue, and tactile contact as the objective basis of the body.
(2) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains the ﬁve aggregates that are the basis of clinging to existence: the aggregate of

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material elements, the aggregate of sensation, the aggregate of ideation, the aggregate of dispositional forces, and the aggregate of consciousness.
(3) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of moral and spiritual hindrances: sexual desire, malice, sloth and torpor, agitation and anxiety,28 and doubt.
(4) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of deﬁlement that bind sentient beings to the lower sphere of desire: the heretical belief in a real personality, attachment to practices and observances other than those approved by Buddha, doubt, sexual desire, and malice.
(5) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of deﬁlement that bind sentient beings to the upper spheres, the realms of form (rūpadhātu) and formlessness (ārūpyadhātu): attachment to form, attachment to the formless, and attachment to ignorance, self- conceit, and agitation.
(6) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine of the ﬁve kinds of spir- itual faculties: the faculties of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and insight.
(7) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of spiritual power: the power of faith, the power of effort, the power of mindfulness, the power of concentration, and the power of insight.
(8) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of vigorous effort toward ultimate cessation. First, a bhikṣu should believe that the Buddha Tathāgata is perfectly endowed with the ten supreme titles, such as “One Liberated from Attachment” and “Fully Enlightened One.” Second, he should be free from illness and always maintain his physical safety and well-being. Third, he should be honest and direct, without ﬂattery toward those whom the Tathāgata has taught the path to nirvana. Fourth, he should control his mind, upholding it ﬁrmly and not allowing it to become disrupted, and keep in memory whatever scripture has been recited, even long ago. Fifth, he should be capable of skillfully investigating the rising and falling of the psycho- physical elements and thus terminate the root of suffering through the same practices as those accomplished by wise and saintly disciples.

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(9) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine of ﬁve kinds of accusa- tions: untimely accusation, baseless accuasation, meaningless accusa- tion, accusation through harsh words, and accusation derived from enmity with no compassion.
(10) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of good imputations: those that are timely, based in fact, meaningful, made with kind, helpful words, and derived from compassion.
(11) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of envious resentment: envy toward another bhikṣu’s residence, toward lay patrons, toward material goods, toward pleasing appearance, and toward access to instruction.
(12) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of liberation according to ﬁve thoughts: contemplation on the impurity of the body, contemplation on the impurity of food, contemplation on the impermanence of all things, contemplation on the human world as not enjoyable, and contemplation on the necessary end of death.29
(13) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve essen- tial elements for liberation: a bhikṣu should be neither pleased nor dis- turbed by desire nor intimated by it but, mindful of the essential elements of salvation, he should instead be content in distancing himself from it. Even when he happens to be close to desire, he should exert himself in controlling his mind without slackening and dissociate himself from it by distancing from it. When he has completely discarded and termi- nated the deﬁlements that were under evil inﬂuences caused by desire, he will be able to realize deliverance. This is the ﬁrst element of lib- eration from desire. It is the same with the remaining four: liberation from malice, from jealous vexation, from external forms, and from the heretical belief in a real personality.
(14) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve bases of liberation. First, if a bhikṣu does not slacken exertion, is content to stay in a secluded place, and concentrates his mind, he will be able to understand what has not yet been understood, complete what has not yet been completed, and settle in himself what has not yet been settled. What are these ﬁve bases? When a bhikṣu listens to the teaching of the

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Tathāgata, that of a practitioner of austerity, or that of an elder bhikṣu, contemplates and examines it, and analyzes its meaning, then he becomes aware of inner joy. Having experienced such inner joy he acquires predilection toward the Dharma, and with this predilection he realizes physical and mental peace and comfort. Once he realizes physical and mental peace and comfort he is ready to accomplish the state of absorp- tion and concentration in the practice of meditation, through which he acquires insight into the nature of things as they really are. This acqui- sition is the ﬁrst basis of deliverance. At this point, having listened to the teaching and experienced inner joy, the bhikṣu retains the teaching in memory and by reciting it by heart, thus also enhancing his inner joy. When he teaches what he has learned to other bhikṣus or other people he is bound to experience a further increase of inner joy. When he con- templates and analyzes the teaching he again experiences the reinforce- ment of inner joy. It is the same [progression] as when he realizes the state of concentration.
(15) Again there is another ﬁvefold doctrine that explains ﬁve kinds of saints who enter ﬁnal nirvana without remainder: an anāgāmin (non- returner) who passes away in the middle of his lifetime in a particular heaven; an anāgāmin who passes away in the realm of desire (kāma- dhatu), is reborn in the realm of form (rūpadhatu), and enters nirvana from there; an anāgāmin who enters nirvana after proper mental prepa- ration; an anāgāmin who enters nirvana without any mental preparation; and an anāgāmin who is born in the highest Akaniṣṭha Heaven and enters nirvana from there.
O bhikṣus, these are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines in memory to prevent disputes and con- troversies, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby will increase the well-being of gods and humans.
Also again, O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata has taught the sixfold doctrines of his right Dharma:
(1) There is a sixfold doctrine that explains the six internal bases of cognition: the sense faculty of sight, the sense faculty of hearing,

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the sense faculty of smell, the sense faculty of taste, the sense faculty of touch, and the mental sense faculty of consciousness.
(2) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six exter- nal bases of cognition: material form, sounds, smells, tastes, tactile sensations, and mental objects.
(3) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six kinds of consciousness: visual consciousness derived from the sense faculty of seeing, auditory consciousness derived from the sense faculty of hearing, olfactory consciousness derived from the sense faculty of smell, gustatory consciousness derived from the sense faculty of taste, tactile consciousness derived from the sense faculty of touch, and mental con- sciousness derived from the mental faculty of thought.
(4) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six kinds of contact between sense faculties and their objects: contact of the visual faculty with its object (form), contact of the auditory faculty with its object (sound), contact of the olfactory faculty with its object (odor), contact of the gustatory faculty with its object (taste), contact of tactile faculty with its tangible object, and contact of the mental fac- ulty with its mental object (thought).
(5) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six kinds of sense perception (or sensation): the visual sense perception arising from contact [with the object]; likewise, auditory sense perception, olfactory sense perception, gustatory sense perception, tactile sense perception, and mental sense perception.
(6) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that comprises six kinds of ideation: ideation of the object of seeing, ideation of the object of hearing, ideation of the object of smelling, ideation of the object of taste, ideation of the object of touch, and ideation of the mental object.
(7) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six kinds of thought: thought of the object of seeing, thought of the object of hearing, thought of the object of smelling, thought of the object of taste, thought of the object of touch, and thought of the mental object.
(8) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six kinds of craving for the objects of faculties: craving for the object of seeing,

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craving for the object of hearing, craving for the object of smelling, craving for the object of taste, craving for the object of touch, and sixth, craving for the mental object.
(9) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six roots of disputes or controversies. First, suppose that a bhikṣu tends to hold animosity [against others] and reveres neither the Tathāgata (the Buddha), nor the Dharma, nor the Sangha. He is careless and negligent in his practice of the precepts, resulting in gaps and weaknesses [in his practice]. Morally corrupted and impure, he frequently causes dis- putes or controversies within the sangha. Disliked by everyone, he dis- turbs other sangha members who are genuinely motivated, and he is unable to contribute to the well-being of gods and humans.
O bhikṣus, you should examine your inner selves. If there is anyone like the bhikṣu in this example, someone who is vindictive and disrup- tive, you should call for an assembly of the sangha with harmonious unity and establish various measures (expedients) to eradicate the root cause of the dispute or controversy. You also should apply introspection to yourselves. When the cause of enmity has been eradicated, you should set forth some expedient means to prevent the reoccurrence of similar mental agitation or discontent. Do not let a similar dispute or controversy recur.
O bhikṣus, the remaining ﬁve cases should be treated in a similar manner: when a bhikṣu is hypocritical and merciless, when he is spiteful and jealous, when he is deceptive and untruthful, when he is arrogant and will not forsake his wrong view despite the fact that it has been disproved, and when he is deluded by a heretical view and upholds that view along with other one-sided views.
(10) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six ele- ments of external reality: earth, ﬁre, water, wind, space, and consciousness.
(11) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six kinds of correlation sought by the six internal faculties respectively for the six external objects: the visual faculty examines and ﬁnds form as its proper object. In like manner, the auditory faculty does the same with its proper object, sound; the olfactory faculty with its object, odor;

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the gustatory faculty with its object, taste; the tactile faculty with its object, touch; and the mental faculty with its mental object.30
(12) Again there is another sixfold doctrine that explains the six essential elements of liberation. Suppose a bhikṣu says, “I have practiced the immeasurable mind of friendly love (maitrī) for the sake of liberation yet I still experience malice.” Other bhikṣus warn him, “You should not say this. Your statement slanders the Tathāgata, because the Tathāgata has not taught us the way you have experienced. It is utterly impossible that if he wishes us to learn the practice of the mind of friendly love as an essential element for liberation, we would still experience a thought of malice. According to the Buddha, when one eradicates the mind of malice, only then he is ready to acquire the mind of benevolence.” The remaining ﬁve essential elements of liberation should be shown by similar responses if a bhikṣu says “I have practiced the immeasurable mind of compassion (karuṇā) for the sake of liberation yet I still expe- rience a mind of jealousy,” “I have practiced the immeasurable mind of sympathetic joy (muditā) for the sake of liberation yet I still expe- rience anxiety,” “I have practiced the immeasurable mind of equanimity (upekṣā) for the sake of liberation yet I still experience mental states of attachment and aversion,” “I have practiced the mind of nonself, yet I still experience doubt,” and “I have practiced the concentration of signlessness for the sake of liberation (i.e., nonapplication of symbols) yet I still experience multiple thoughts due to the use of symbols.”
(13) Again there is a sixfold doctrine that explains the six kinds of highest excellence: highest philosophical thought, highest listening to teachings, highest material attainment, highest discipline, highest serv- ice, and highest mindfulness and recollection.
(14) Again there is a sixfold doctrine that explains the six objects of mindfulness or recollection: being mindful of the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha and being mindful of the precepts, charity, and divinity. O bhikṣus, these are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines in memory to prevent disputes and con- troversy, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby increase the well-being
of gods and humans.

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Also again, O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata has taught the sevenfold doc- trines of his right Dharma:
(1) There is a sevenfold doctrine that explains the seven kinds of detrimental conditions for the practice of religion: the absence of faith, shamelessness in self-reﬂection, shamelessness before others, having little learning, lack of zeal, forgetfulness, and having no insight.
(2) Again there is another sevenfold doctrine that explains the seven kinds of good conditions for the practice of religion: the presence of faith, shamefulness in self-reﬂection, shamefulness before others, being well learned, being well endowed with energy and zeal, having a well- sustained memory, and having full insight.
(3) Again there is another sevenfold doctrine that explains the seven places where consciousness abides. When sentient beings are in pos- session of different bodies and different ideations, these are humans and heavenly beings. This is the ﬁrst abode of consciousness. When some sentient beings possess individual bodies but one and the same ideation, this is the time when the god Brahmā was initially born in Ābhāsvara Heaven, where communication is accomplished by trans- mitted light instead of sound. This is the second abode of consciousness. When some sentient beings possess one and the same body but different ideations, this is the aforementioned Ābhāsvara Heaven. This is the third abode of consciousness. When some sentient beings possess one and the same body and ideation, this is Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. This is the fourth abode of consciousness. The remaining three abodes are the sphere of inﬁnite space, the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness, and the sphere of nothingness or nonutility, respectively.
(4) Again there is another sevenfold doctrine that explains the seven kinds of effort: a bhikṣu exerts himself to practice the precepts, to exhaust avarice in preparation for the discipline of charity, to break any wrong view in preparation for the right view, to learn as much as he can, to maintain the discipline of effort, to uphold right mindfulness, and to practice meditation and concentration.
(5) Again there is another sevenfold doctrine that explains the seven kinds of thought: the thought of the impurity of the human body, the thought that food is impure [in order to eradicate desire], the thought

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that there is nothing that can be enjoyed in the world, the thought of death, the thought of impermanence, the thought of suffering due to impermanence, the thought of suffering due to nonself.
(6) Again there is another sevenfold doctrine that explains the seven auxiliary disciplines of concentration: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, and right mindfulness.
(7) Again there is another sevenfold doctrine that explains the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment: mindfulness, discernment of the psychophysical elements, effort, delight, freedom from bodily and mental disturbance, the practice of concentration, and the mind of equanimity.
O bhikṣus, these are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines [in memory] to prevent disputes and controversies, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby increase the well-being of gods and humans.
O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata taught the eightfold doctrines of his right Dharma:
(1) There is an eightfold doctrine that explains the eight worldly concerns: gain and loss, pleasure and pain, fame and disgrace, and praise and blame.
(2) Again there is another eightfold doctrine that explains the eight kinds of liberation: the liberation realized when one, with an internal ideation of form, perceives external forms; the liberation realized when one, without any internal form ideation, perceives external forms; the liberation realized when one has thus terminated all deﬁlements; the liberation realized when one, having transcended all form ideations and annihilated sensory reaction, abides in the ﬁrst formless state of con- centration, the sphere of inﬁnite space; the deliverance realized when one, having transcended the sphere of inﬁnite space, abides in the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness; the liberation realized when one, having tran- scended the previous sphere, abides in the sphere of nothing or nonutility; the liberation realized when one, having transcended the previous sphere, abides in the sphere of neither ideation nor nonideation; and the liberation realized when one, having transcended the previous sphere, abides in

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the ﬁnal state of cessation free from the senses and ideation (i.e., the third saintly state of anāgāmin).
(3) Again there is another doctrine that explains the eightfold noble path: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
(4) Again there is another eightfold doctrine that explains the eight saintly personalities: a bhikṣu who is ready for the state of stream-enterer and one who has realized the state of stream-enterer; one who is ready for the state of once-returner and one who has realized the state of once-returner; one who is ready for the state of nonreturner and one who has realized the state of nonreturner; and one who is ready for the state of arhat and one who has realized arhatship.
These are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines [in memory] to prevent disputes and controver- sies, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby will increase the well- being of gods and humans.
O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata taught the ninefold doctrines of his right Dharma:
(1) There is a ninefold doctrine that explains the nine places of sen- tient beings. Sentient beings who are in possession of different bodies and different ideations are humans and heavenly beings. This is the ﬁrst abode of sentient beings. When some sentient beings possess dif- ferent bodies but one and the same ideation, this is the time when the god Brahmā was initially born in Ābhāsvara Heaven, where commu- nication is accomplished by transmitted light instead of sound. This is the second abode of sentient beings. When some sentient beings possess one and the same body but different ideations, this is the aforementioned Ābhāsvara Heaven. This is the third abode of sentient beings. When some sentient beings possess one and the same body and ideation, this is Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. This is the fourth abode of sentient beings. When some sentient beings reside in the sphere of neither ideation nor external awareness, this is Āsaṃjñika Heaven. This is the ﬁfth abode of sentient beings. When some sentient beings reside in the sphere of

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inﬁnite space, this is the sixth abode of sentient beings. When some sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness, this is the seventh abode of sentient beings. When some sentient beings reside in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility, this is the eighth abode of sentient beings. When some sentient beings reside in the sphere of nei- ther ideation nor nonideation, this is the ninth abode of sentient beings. These are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines [in memory] to prevent disputes and controver- sies, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby increase the well-being
of gods and humans.
O bhikṣus, the Tathāgata taught a tenfold doctrine of his right Dharma, namely, the ten norms for the arhat who does not require fur- ther training: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right mindfulness, right effort, right concentration, right wisdom, and right liberation.
These are the right doctrines taught by the Tathāgata. We should collect these doctrines [in memory] to prevent disputes and controver- sies, to consolidate the practice of austerity for a long time to come, and so that the various beneﬁts derived thereby increase the well-being of gods and humans.
At that time, the World-honored One veriﬁed what Śāriputra had exhorted, and all the bhikṣus who had listened to his lecture experienced joy, respectfully received the teaching, and carried out what was taught by Śāriputra.
[End of Sutra 9: Numerically Assembled Doctrines]

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Sutra 10
Ten Progressively Classified Doctrines
(Dīgha Nikāya 34: Dasuttara-Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha sojourned in the country of Aṅga accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. He arrived at the city of Campā and stayed overnight on the shore of Queen Gaggarā’s lotus pond. As it was the full-moon night on the ﬁfteenth day, the World- honored One sat in an open area surrounded by the assembly of bhikṣus and taught the Dharma throughout the night. The World-honored One said to Śāriputra:
Now many bhikṣus have assembled from all quarters. They have all been diligently listening to the teaching, disregarding the hours of their sleep. I have pain in my back and wish to rest for awhile. Please teach the Dharma for the sake of these bhikṣus.
Having thus instructed Śāriputra, the World-honored One folded his outer robe into four layers, spread it on the ground, and lay down on his right side, placing one foot on top of the other, like a lion.
Thereupon, the elder disciple Śāriputra said to the bhikṣus:
Whatever doctrine I exhort, whether at the beginning, the middle, or the end, is true and genuine. Each doctrine is endowed with its meaning and essence. It is well balanced with the practice of pure and genuine austerity. All of you, listen attentively, and think about and remember what I say. I will begin my discourse to you.
The bhikṣus were attentive and ready to listen. Śāriputra said to the bhikṣus:
There are ten progressively classiﬁed doctrines arranged from one to ten, all of which can help you remove varieties of moral and spiritual fetters, and thereby help you reach the goal of nirvana and bring an end to all suffering. These ten groups altogether comprise ﬁve hundred

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and ﬁfty doctrinal items. Now, I am going to enumerate the ten classiﬁed groups individually.
Listen attentively, all of you. O bhikṣus, the ﬁrst group comprises the doctrinal items that are very useful for religious salvation; the second group comprises the doctrinal items that should be practiced; the third group comprises the doctrinal items that should be compre- hensively understood; the fourth group comprises the doctrinal items that should be abandoned; the ﬁfth group comprises the doctrinal items conducive to lessening perversity and ignorance; the sixth group com- prises the doctrinal items conducive to increasing distinction; the seventh group comprises the doctrinal items that are difﬁcult to fathom; the eighth group comprises the doctrinal items that should be brought into being; the ninth group comprises the doctrinal items that are known as supernormal powers; and the tenth group comprises the doctrinal items that should be directly experienced by oneself.
(1) What is the singular useful item? It is the discipline of nonheed- lessness with regard to all good [psychophysical] elements. (2) What is the singular item to be practiced? It is the discipline of mindfulness in contemplation of the body. (3) What is the singular item to be exactly known? It is the fact of contact of the faculties with their respective objects under the inﬂuence of deﬁlement. (4) What is the singular item to be abandoned? It is the sense of self-conceit. (5) What is the singular item that is conducive to lessening perversity and ignorance? It is the way of superﬁcial thought or observation, e.g., contrary to the thought of impermanence. (6) What is the singular item conducive to increasing distinction? It is the way of fundamental thought or observation. (7) What is a singular item that is difﬁcult to realize? It is the state of con- tinuous concentration without lapse. (8) What is the singular item to be brought into existence? It is deliverance or the unshakable knowledge of the transcendent in the realm that is under the inﬂuence of deﬁlement.
(9) What is the singular item of supernormal knowledge? It is the truth that all sentient beings continue to subsist on food. (10) What is the sin- gular item to be directly experienced? It is the deliverance of the mind that is unshakable or undisturbed toward the realm that is beyond the inﬂuence of deﬁlement.

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Again, there is a second group of ten: (1) the double doctrinal item that is very useful to religious salvation, (2) the double doctrinal item that should be practiced, (3) the double doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, (4) the double doctrinal item that should be abandoned, (5) the double doctrinal item that is conducive to declin- ing into perversity and ignorance, (6) the double doctrinal item that is conducive to increasing distinction, (7) the double doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate, (8) the double doctrinal item that should be brought to existence, (9) the double doctrinal item that should be known as supernormal power, and (10) the double doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself.
(1) What is the double item that is very useful to religious salvation? It means knowing shame upon self-reﬂection and knowing shame before others. (2) What is the double item to be practiced? It means the [med- itative] practice of calming the mind (śamatha) and that of analytical insight (vipaśyanā). (3) What is the double item to be comprehensively understood? It means the (noetic) category of name, i.e., the four mental aggregates, and the (corporeal) category of form, i.e., the material aggre- gate. (4) What is the double item to be abandoned? It means ignorance of the Four Noble Truths and desirous craving for existence. (5) What is the double item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance? It means transgression of the precepts, association with the wicked, and breaking away from right views. (6) What is the double item that is conducive to increasing distinction? It means adherence to the precepts and right views. (7) What is the double item that is difﬁcult to fathom? It means the way in which sentient beings are deﬁled due to direct and indirect causes, and the way in which they are puriﬁed from deﬁlement due to direct and indirect causes. (8) What is the double item to be brought into existence? It means knowledge of total eradication of deﬁlement and knowledge of non-origination of states of being. (9) What is the double item to be known as supernormal power? It means the sphere of conditioned elements and the sphere of transcendent or unconditioned elements. (10) What is the double item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means acquisition of knowledge of the Four Noble Truths and the realization of liberation.

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Again there is a third group of ten: (1) the triple doctrinal item that is very useful to religious salvation, (2) the triple doctrinal item that should be practiced, (3) the triple doctrinal item that should be com- prehensively understood, (4) the triple doctrinal item that should be abandoned, (5) the triple item that is conducive to declining into per- versity and ignorance, (6) the triple doctrinal item that is conducive to increasing distinction, (7) the triple doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom, (8) the triple doctrinal item that should be brought into exis- tence, (9) the triple doctrinal item that should be known as supernormal power, and (10) the triple doctrinal item that should be directly expe- rienced by oneself.
(1) What is the triple item that is very useful to religious salvation? It means ﬁrst, associating with good friends; second, attending teachings on the Dharma; and third, realizing the truth of the Dharma. (2) What is the triple item to be practiced? It means the practice of the threefold concentration: concentration on the emptiness of the self and things attributed to it, concentration on signlessness or the nondifferentiation of things, and concentration on the objectless or goal-free state of exis- tence. (3) What is the triple item to be comprehensively understood? It means three kinds of sensation or feeling: feeling pain, feeling pleas- ure, and feeling neither pain nor pleasure. (4) What is the triple item to be abandoned? It means three kinds of attachment: craving for desire, craving for existence, and craving for nonexistence. (5) What is the triple item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance? It means the three kinds of morally unfavorable roots: greed, hatred, and delusion. (6) What is the triple item that is conducive to increasing distinction? It means the three kinds of morally good roots: the absence of greed, the absence of hatred, and the absence of delusion. (7) What is the triple item that is difﬁcult to fathom? It means the three kinds of attainment: the state of saintly disciples, the doctrinal teaching, and the state of tathāgata. (8) What is the triple item to be brought into existence? It means three characteristics: quiescence, exertion, and the neutral indifferent state. (9) What is the triple item to be known as supernormal powers? It means the three essential kinds of transcendence: escape from the realm of desire leading to the realm of form, escape

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from the realm of form leading to the realm of formlessness, and escape from the realm of formlessness leading to cessation. (10) What is the triple item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the three kinds of supernormal knowledge: knowledge of the recollection of past lives, knowledge derived from the supernormal power of vision, and knowledge of the total eradication of the inﬂuence of deﬁlements. O bhikṣus, the foregoing group comprises thirty doctrinal items.
Having realized them by himself, the Tathāgata has taught us these doc- trinal items with equal emphasis as they really are and not otherwise. Again there is a fourth group of ten: (1) the fourfold doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, (2) the fourfold doctrinal item that should be practiced, (3) the fourfold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, (4) the fourfold doctrinal item that should be abandoned, (5) the fourfold doctrinal item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance, (6) the fourfold doctrinal item that is conducive to increasing distinction, (7) the fourfold doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom, (8) the fourfold doctrinal item that should be brought into existence, (9) the fourfold doctrinal item that should be known as supernormal power, (10) and the fourfold doctrinal
item that should be directly experienced by oneself.
(1) What is the fourfold item that is very useful for religious salva- tion? It means the four kinds of blessings: residing in the proper place (i.e., the middle region of India, the Gangetic basin), association with and support from good friends, perfect effort motivated by oneself, and having planted good roots in one’s past lives.
(2) What is the fourfold item to be practiced? It means the practice of four kinds of application of mental awareness. First, when a bhikṣu observes his inner body (i.e., internal senses) in concentration, he should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his obser- vations to keep them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and anxiety. Second, when observing his outer body (i.e., external senses), he should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations to keep them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and anxiety, Third, when observing both the inner and outer body, he should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his

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observations to keep them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and anxiety. It is the same with the second application: observing one’s sense perceptions; the third application, observing one’s mind (intellect); and the fourth application, observing one’s aggregate of psychophysical elements.
(3) What is the fourfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means four kinds of food: edible, material food that is either nutri- tious or exquisite; nutriment received through contact; nutriment received through volition or thought; and nutriment received through consciousness.
(4) What is the fourfold item to be abandoned? It means four kinds of grasping or attachment: attachment to desires, to the self, to precepts belonging to other schools, and to wrong views.
(5) What is the fourfold item that is conducive to declining into per- versity and ignorance? It means the four kinds of fetters: the fetters of desire, the volitional act of existence, wrong view, and ignorance.
(6) What is the fourfold item that is conducive to increasing dis- tinction? It means the four kinds of severance from fetters: severance from the fetters of desire, volition toward existence, wrong view, and ignorance.
(7) What is the fourfold item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate? It means the Four Noble Truths: the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the cessation of suffering, and the truth of the path of cessation of suffering.
(8) What is the fourfold item to be brought into existence? It means four kinds of knowledge: knowledge of the Dharma, knowledge of what follows, knowledge of the general agreement or tradition, and knowledge of the minds of others.
(9) What is the fourfold item to be known as supernormal power? It means the four kinds of rhetorical skill and knowledge: rhetorical skill in religious teaching and its meaning, skill and knowledge of different regional dialects, and skill and knowledge in using the foregoing three.
(10) What is the fourfold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the four results of the mendicant life: the four states of spiritual development of stream-enterer, once-returner, nonreturner, and arhatship.

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O bhikṣus, the foregoing group comprises forty doctrinal items. Hav- ing realized them by himself, the Tathāgata has taught us these doctrinal items with equal emphasis as they really are and not otherwise.
Again there is a ﬁfth group of ten: (1) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, (2) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be practiced, (3) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be com- prehensively understood, (4) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be abandoned, (5) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance, (6) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that is con- ducive to increasing distinction, (7) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate, (8) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be brought into existence, (9) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be known as supernormal power, and (10) the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself.
(1) What is the ﬁvefold item that is very useful for religious salva- tion? It means the ﬁve kinds of effort toward ultimate cessation: striving to establish belief that the Buddha Tathāgata is perfectly endowed with the ten supreme titles, such as One Liberated from Attachment and Fully Enlightened One; second, striving to be free from illness and thus always maintain one’s physical health and well-being; third, striving to be honest and direct, without the vice of ﬂattery, toward those to whom the Tathāgata has taught the path to nirvana; fourth, striving to control one’s mind, upholding it ﬁrmly and not being dis- rupted, and keeping in one’s memory whatever scripture was once recited, even long ago; and ﬁfth, striving to be capable of investigating the rising and falling of the psychophysical elements skillfully, and thus terminate the root of suffering through the same practice as that accomplished by wise and saintly disciples.
(2) What is the ﬁvefold item to be practiced? It means the practice of ﬁve spiritual faculties: the faculty of faith, the faculty of effort, the faculty of mindfulness, the faculty of concentration, and the faculty of insight.31
(3) What is the ﬁvefold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the ﬁve aggregates that are the basis of clinging to existence: the aggregates of material elements, sensation, ideation, dispositional forces, and consciousness.

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(4) What is the ﬁvefold item to be abandoned? It means ﬁve kinds of moral and spiritual hindrances: sexual desire, malice, sloth and torpor, agitation and anxiety, and doubt.
(5) What is the ﬁvefold item that is conducive to declining into per- versity and ignorance? It means the ﬁve kinds of barren mind arising from doubt. First, a bhikṣu cherishes a doubt against the Buddha. Because of his doubt he does not approach the Buddha, and because of this alien- ation he does not pay reverence and respect toward the Buddha. This is the initial kind of barren mind arising from doubt. Again, in this con- text, the bhikṣu [naturally] creates blemishes in his practice of the pre- cepts as the second kind of barren mind; does dishonest actions in relation to the sangha as the third kind of barren mind; and develops impure conduct [contrary to the teaching] inﬂuenced by deﬁlement as the fourth kind of barren mind in neglecting the practice of the precepts and disrespecting adherence to them. These are four kinds of a barren mind respectively arising from doubt. Also, again the bhikṣu [inevitably] harbors malice or antagonism toward the other members of the sangha, and with a joyless and unhappy mind he accuses them in abusive lan- guage. This is the ﬁfth kind of barren mind arising from doubt.
(6) What is the ﬁvefold item that is conducive to increasing distinc- tion? It means the ﬁve modes of right concentration: inner joy, mental recollection, self-contentment or self-reliance, a sense of pleasant ease, and mental focus.32
(7) What is the ﬁvefold item that is difﬁcult to fathom? It means the ﬁve bases of liberation. If a bhikṣu does not slacken from his effort, is content to live in a secluded place, and concentrates his mind, he will be able to understand what has not yet been understood, to complete what has not yet completed, and to settle in himself what has not yet been settled. What are these ﬁve bases? When a bhikṣu listens to the teaching of the Tathāgata, that of a practitioner of austerities, or that of an elder bhikṣu, contemplates and examines it, and analyzes its meaning, he becomes aware of inner joy; having experienced this inner joy he acquires a predilection for the Dharma; with this predilection he realizes physical and mental peace and comfort. Once he has realized physical and mental peace and comfort he is ready to accomplish the state of

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absorption and concentration in the practice of meditation, through which he acquires insight into the nature of things as they really are. This is the ﬁrst basis of liberation. Second, having listened to the teach- ing and experienced inner joy the bhikṣu retains the teaching in memory and by reciting it by heart, thus also enhancing his inner joy; third, when he teaches what he has learned to other bhikṣus or people he is bound to feel a further increase of inner joy; fourth, when he contem- plates and analyzes the teaching his experience of inner joy is again reinforced; ﬁnally, it is the same when he realizes the state of concen- tration as regards the teaching.
(8) What is the ﬁvefold item to be brought into existence? It means ﬁve kinds of knowledge, especially that derived from the practice of concentration. First, through the practice of concentration one acquires insight into the inner and outer cognitive interaction in blissful absorp- tion in the present moment as well as a subsequent effect of the future; second, one acquires insight into the inner and outer corporeal faculties as a transcendent saintly state of nonattachment; third, one acquires insight into the inner and outer cognitive interaction as a state that is [always] pursued by the buddhas and saintly disciples; fourth, one acquires insight into the inner and outer cognitive interaction as a state characteristic of total quiescence and solitude; and ﬁfth, through the state of concentration one acquires insight into the inner and outer cog- nitive interaction as a state into which the mind enters and from which it reemerges.
(9) What is the ﬁvefold item to be known as supernormal powers? It means the ﬁve essential elements for liberation. First, a bhikṣu should be neither pleased with nor disturbed by [the object of] desires nor intimidated by it but, mindful of the essential elements of liberation, he is content to distance himself from it. Even if he happens to be closely bound up with desire he should exert himself to control his mind without slackening and dissociate himself from it by distancing from it. When he has completely abandoned and terminated those deﬁlements that were under the evil inﬂuences caused by desires he will be able to realize liberation. This is the ﬁrst element of liberation from desire. It is the same with the remaining four: liberation from

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malice, from jealous vexation, from external form, and from the heretical belief in a self.
(10) What is the ﬁvefold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the ﬁve kinds of religious doctrines for one who has realized the state of arhat and requires no further levels of training: the doctrine of moral precepts and disciplines, the doctrine of meditative concen- tration, the doctrine of analytical insight, the doctrine of spiritual libertion, and the doctrine of the insight acknowledging liberation.
The foregoing group comprises ﬁfty doctrinal items. Having realized them by himself, the Tathāgata has taught us these doctrinal items with equal emphasis as they really are and not otherwise.
Again there is a sixth group of ten: (1) the sixfold doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, (2) the sixfold doctrinal item that should be practiced, (3) the sixfold doctrinal item that should be com- prehensively understood, (4) the sixfold doctrinal item that should be abandoned, (5) the sixfold doctrinal item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance, (6) the sixfold doctrinal item that is con- ducive to increasing distinction, (7) the sixfold doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate, (8) the sixfold doctrinal item that should be brought into existence, (9) the sixfold doctrinal item that should be known as supernormal power, and (10) the sixfold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself.
(1) What is the sixfold item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means the six principles of fraternity: whe a bhikṣu adheres to the six principles of fraternity in practice his conduct is worthy of respect and reverence and creates harmony within the sangha, without any dispute or controversy, enabling him to act independently without the admixture of confusion. What are these six principles of fraternity? First, if a monk always acts in benevolence, pays respect toward those who uphold the practice of austerity, and abides with a mind of benevolence and love, his benevolence is regarded as “the principle of fraternity,” worthy of respect, reverence, creating harmony within the sangha, without any dispute or controversy, and he can independently proceed without the admixture of confusion. Second, through adherence to benevolent and friendly speech and, third, through adherence to benevolent and friendly

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thought, a bhikṣu may obtain material support on the basis of the doctrinal teaching. Fourth, he should share whatever he receives in his almsbowl with his colleagues without keeping it all for himself. Fifth, when a bhikṣu upholds the practice of precepts belonging to the practitioners of saintly status that should not be violated or altered but kept free from immoral contamination, he equips himself well with the foregoing prin- ciples that the learned elders praise and realizes the state of mental con- centration. Sixth, the bhikṣu realizes the deliverance of those of saintly status, terminates the state of suffering together with others (i.e., equally), and continues to adhere to right views and various practices of austerity. These principles are worthy of respect and reverence, and they create harmony within the sangha, without any dispute or controversy, enabling one to act independently without the admixture of confusion.
(2) What is the sixfold item to be practiced? It means the six kinds of mindfulness: being mindful of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, and mindfulness of the precepts, charity, and heavenly beings.
(3) What is the sixfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the six internal bases of cognition: the sense faculties of seeing, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, and the mental faculty of consciousness.
(4) What are the sixfold items to be abandoned? It means the six kinds of craving desire that are respectively directed to the external bases of cognition, i.e., the objects of the faculties: craving for the object of seeing, craving for the object of hearing, craving for the object of smell, craving for the object of taste, craving for the object of touch, and craving for the mental object.
(5) What is the sixfold item that is conducive to declining into per- versity and ignorance? It means the six kinds of disrespect: disrespect toward the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; and disrespect toward the precepts, concentration, and one’s parents.
(6) What is the sixfold item that is conducive to increasing distinc- tion? It means the six kinds of respect: respect for Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; respect for the precepts and concentration, and respect for one’s parents.
(7) What is the sixfold item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate? It means the six kinds of highest excellence: highest philosophical

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thought, highest comprehension in listening to discourses, greatest material attainment, highest discipline and service, and greatest mind- fulness and recollection.
(8) What is the sixfold item to be brought into existence? It means the six kinds of long life. Fiirst, a bhikṣu concentrates his mind to abide in the state of equanimity, neither distressed nor delighted when with his visual faculty he sees its object, form; likewise, when in a state of equanimity, he hears with his auditory faculty its object, sound; [and likewise] when with his olfactory faculty he smells its object, odor, his gustatory faculty tastes its object, taste; his bodily faculty touches its object, tactile contact; and when his mental faculty conceives its object, an idea or conception—[in all cases] he concentrates his mind to abide in the state of equanimity, neither distressed nor delighted.
(9) What is the sixfold item to be known as supernormal power? It means the six essential elements of liberation. Suppose a bhikṣu says, “I have practiced the immeasurable mind of friendly love for the sake of liberation yet I still experience malice.” Other bhikṣus warn him, “You shuld not say this. Your statement constitutes slander against the Tathāgata, because the Tathāgata has not taught us the way you have experienced. It is utterly impossible that when he teaches us to learn the practice of the mind of friendly love as an essential element for liberation he also causes us to experience a malicious thought. According to the Buddha, when one eradicates the mind of malice, only then is he ready to acquire the mind of benevolence.” The remaining ﬁve essential elements of lib- eration are found in similar responses when a bhikṣu says “I have practiced the immeasurable mind of compassion for the sake of liberation yet I still experience jealousy,” “I have practiced the immeasurable mind of sympathetic joy for the sake of liberation yet I still experience anxiety,” “I have practiced the immeasurable mind of equanimity for the sake of liberation yet I still experience attraction and aversion,” “I have practiced the mind of nonself yet I still experience doubt,” and “I have practiced the concentration of signlessness (i.e., nonapplication of symbols) for the sake of liberation yet I still experience multiple thoughts arising due to the application of symbols.”

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(10) What is the sixfold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the six kinds of supernormal powers: supernormal psychic power, supernormal hearing, the supernormal power of knowing the minds of others, the supernormal power of recollecting and knowing one’s past lives, supernormal vision, and the supernormal power of eradicating deﬁlements.
The foregoing group comprises sixty doctrinal items. Having realized them by himself, the Tathāgata taught us these doctrinal items with equal emphasis as they really are and not otherwise.
Again there is a seventh group of ten: (1) the sevenfold doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, (2) the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be practiced, (3) the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, (4) the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be abandoned, (5) the sevenfold doctrinal item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance, (6) the sevenfold doctrinal item that is conducive to increasing distinction, (7) the sevenfold doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate, (8) the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be brought into existence, (9) the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be known as supernormal power, and (10) the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself.
(1) What is the sevenfold item that is very useful for religious sal- vation? It means the seven kinds of possessions (or wealth, treasure, etc.): ﬁrst, possessing faith; second, possessing precepts; third, pos- sessing a sense of shame in self-reﬂection; fourth, possessing shame before others; ﬁfth, possessing learning; sixth, possessing charity; and seventh, possessing insight.
(2) What is the sevenfold item to be practiced? It means the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment. A bhikṣu practices the discipline of mindfulness on the basis of nondesire, quiescence, and distancing [himself from worldly matters]. In like manner, he practices the dis- cipline of discernment of the psychophysical elements, the discipline of effort, the discipline of delight [in the practice], the discipline of freedom from physical and mental disturbances; the discipline of the practice of concentration; and the discipline of the mind of equanimity

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on the basis of nondesire, quiescence, and distancing [oneself from worldly matters].
(3) What is the sevenfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the seven places where consciousness abides. Sentient beings that possess different bodies and different ideations are humans and heavenly beings. This is the initial abode of consciousness. When some sentient beings possess individual bodies but one and the same ideation, this is when the god Brahmā was initially born in Ābhāsvara Heaven, where communication is accomplished by transmitted light instead of sound. This is the second abode of consciousness. When sentient beings possess one and the same body but different ideations, this is the afore- mentioned Ābhāsvara Heaven. This is the third abode of consciousness. When some sentient beings possess one and the same body and ideation, this is Śubhakṛtsna Heaven, the fourth abode of consciousness. When some sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite space, this is the ﬁfth abode of consciousness. When some sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness, this is the sixth abode of consciousness. When some [sentient beings] reside in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility, this is the seventh abode of consciousness.
(4) What is the sevenfold item to be abandoned? It means the seven kinds of deﬁlement: craving for sexual desire, craving for existence, wrong view, self-conceit, malice, ignorance, and doubt.
(5) What is the sevenfold item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance? It means the seven detrimental conditions counter to the practice of religion: the absence of faith, shamelessness in self-reﬂection, shamelessness before others, having little learning, lacking zeal, forgetfulness, and lacking insight.
(6) What is the sevenfold item that is conducive to increasing dis- tinction? It means the seven good conditions for the practice of religion: a bhikṣu possesses faith, a sense of of shame in self-reﬂection, and a sense of shame before others; he is well learned, endowed with effort and zeal, possesses a well-sustained memory, and is full of insight.
(7) What is the sevenfold item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate? It means the seven qualities of a good person: a bhikṣu is endowed with good purpose, with good teachings, with good judgment as to

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proper timing, with good judgment as to proper degrees of satisfaction, with a good capacity of self-restraint, with good organizational skill to assemble others, and with good judgment about human character.
(8) What is the sevenfold item to be brought into existence? It means the seven kinds of ideation or thought: the thought of the impurity of the human body, the thought of food as distasteful, the thought that there is nothing that can be enjoyed in the world, the thought of death, the thought of impermanence, the thought of suffering due to imper- manence, and the thought of suffering due to nonself.
(9) What is the sevenfold item to be known as supernormal power? It means the seven kinds of effort: a bhikṣu exerts himself to practice precepts, to exhaust avarice in preparation for the discipline of charity, to break any wrong view in preparation for right view, to learn as much as he can, to maintain the discipline of endeavor, to uphold right mind- fulness, and to practice meditation and concentration.
(10) What is the sevenfold item to be directly experienced by one- self? It means the seven kinds of power that exhaust the inﬂuence of deﬁlement. A bhikṣu who has terminated the inﬂuence of deﬁlement sees all the elements of existence as suffering, originated from causal concatenation, and which can be brought to cessation as they really are in reference to the essential method of liberation. He sees desires as a ﬁery pit or as a weapon, like a knife or sword. Though he knows the arising of desire and sees it, he is not attached to it nor does he abide in it. The bhikṣu who has terminated the inﬂuence of deﬁlement practices introspection of the causal chain in the order of cessation as well as in the order of origination, and thus understands the origin of desire and its cessation as it really is. The worldly vices of avarice and parsimony and evil and bad psychophysical elements—these do not exercise any inﬂuence on his existence nor do they arise in his existence. He practices the four disciplines of applying mental awareness, and is thus engaged with many items to be practiced and carried out. He is also engaged in cultivating the ﬁve spiritual faculties and their correl- ative forces and practicing the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlight- enment as well as the eightfold noble path of cessation.

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The foregoing group comprises seventy doctrinal items. Having realized them by himself, the Tathāgata has taught us these doctrinal items with equal emphasis as they really are and not otherwise. Again there is an eighth group of ten: (1) the eightfold doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, (2) the eightfold item that should be practiced, (3) the eightfold item that should be compre- hensively understood, (4) the eightfold item that should be abandoned,
(5) the eightfold item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance, (6) the eightfold doctrinal item that is conducive to increasing distinction, (7) the eightfold doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate, (8) the eightfold doctrinal item that is to be brought into existence, (9) the eightfold doctrinal item that is to be known as super- normal power, and (10) the eightfold doctrinal item that is to be directly experienced by oneself.
(1) What is the eightfold item that is very useful for religious sal- vation? It means the eight kinds of causal factors that enable one to acquire knowledge when the practice of austerity has not been fully perfected, and to broaden and strengthen it when the practice of austerity has been perfected. What are these eight items? First, when a bhikṣu abides in reliance on the World-honored One, his elder teacher, or a practitioner of austerity endowed with knowledge, he becomes aware of a sense of shame in his self-reﬂection and shame before his teacher, and he cherishes a sense of adoration and reverence toward the teacher. This is the ﬁrst kind of causal factor that enables a bhikṣu to acquire knowledge when the practice of austerity has not yet been fully per- fected, and to broaden and strengthen it when the practice of austerity has been perfected. Second, a bhikṣu who abides in reliance on the World-honored One closely questions him whenever possible, asking, “What is the meaning of this doctrine, sir?” and “What is intended by it, sir?” At that time, any honorable senior [monk] should explain the profound meaning of each doctrine referred to or asked about for the sake of the junior [monk]. This is the second kind of causal factor. Third, having thus listened to the meaning of the doctrine, the junior bhikṣu realizes well-established settlement within his body and mind. This is

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the third causal factor. Fourth, having thus realized well-established settlement within his body and mind, the junior bhikṣu does not engage in nonreligious or trivial speech and when he joins his colleagues he either talks about the doctrine or invites others to talk about it; otherwise, he does not forsake the discipline of noble silence. This is the fourth causal factor. Fifth, he attends many discourses for learning, widens his knowledge, and upholds it without forgetting it. He intuits the depth of the various doctrines, the various degrees of higher, middle, and lower goods, the truth of meanings and essences, and, endowed with the practice of austerity, he abides ﬁrmly unswayed in his mind upon reviewing what he has learned. This is the ﬁfth causal factor. Sixth, engaged in the practice of terminating evil while increasing good with- out slackening, he strives hard, sustains the doctrine, and does not for- sake it. This is the sixth causal factor. Seventh, he comes to acquire the insight of origin and cessation, know the goal of saintly realization, and thus reaches the end of suffering. This is the seventh causal factor. Eighth, he analytically intuits the ﬁve aggregates of existence as to their origination and cessation by specifying, “This is the aggregate of material form, its causal context, and its cessation. This is the aggre- gate of feeling (sensation), that of ideation, that of dispositional forces, that of consciousness, the causal context of consciousness, and the ces- sation of it.” This is the eighth causal factor that enables a bhikṣu to acquire knowledge when the practice of austerity has not yet been fully perfected, and to broaden and strengthen it when the practice of austerity has been perfected.
(2) What is the eightfold item to be practiced? It means the noble
eightfold path: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
(3) What is the eightfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the eight concerns of the secular world: gain and loss, disgrace and fame, praise and blame, and suffering and happiness.
(4) What is the eightfold item to be abandoned? It means the eight kinds of wrong conduct [counter to the eightfold noble path]: wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong concentration.

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(5) What is the eightfold item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance? It means the eight kinds of indolence. What are the eight items of indolence? First, if a bhikṣu does not obtain alms and thinks to himself, “Today I went down to the village for alms but could not get any. Because of this I am so exhausted that I cannot sustain myself to conduct the practice of meditation and meditative walking. Now I should lie down and rest.” This inactive bhikṣu at once lies down and does not exert himself to acquire what he has not acquired, realize what he has not realized, and experience what he has not experienced directly by himself. This is the ﬁrst kind of indolence. Second, the inactive bhikṣu, having obtained alms and satisﬁed with [the meal], thinks to himself, “This morning I went down to the village and received more [food than was] than necessary. Since I have eaten too much, I feel too dull in my body and cannot sustain myself in the conduct of the practice of meditation and meditative walking. Now I should lie down and take a short rest.” The inactive bhikṣu at once lies down and does not exert himself to acquire what he has not acquired, realize what he has not realized, and experience what he has not expe- rienced directly by himself. Third, when the inactive bhikṣu does a little work he thinks to himself, “Because I have handled this small matter today I am extremely tired and cannot sustain myself to conduct the practice of meditation and meditative walking. Now I should lie down and take a short rest.” The inactive bhikṣu at once lies down for a rest. Fourth, if the inactive bhikṣu, wishing to do some minor work, thinks to himself, “Tomorrow, I have to deal with such-and-such thing and there will necessarily be some physical exertion. I should not engage now in practicing meditation and meditative walking but instead get enough rest beforehand for tomorrow’s [activity].” The inactive bhikṣu at once lies down for a rest. Fifth, when the inactive bhikṣu goes out for an errand in the morning he thinks to himself, “Since I went out this morning for the errand I am extremely tired and cannot sustain myself to practice meditation and meditative walking. Now I should lie down and rest.” The inactive bhikṣu at once lies down for a rest. Sixth, when the inactive bhikṣu wishes to go out for some minor errand he thinks to himself, “Since I must go out for an errand tomorrow I

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will necessarily be exhausted then. I cannot now practice meditation and meditative walking but should instead take enough rest beforehand for tomorrow.” The inactive bhikṣu at once lies down and [thus, just as in the preceding cases,] he does not exert himself to acquire what he has not acquired, realize what he has not realized, and experience what he has not experienced directly by himself. This is the sixth kind of indolence. Seventh, again, when such an inactive bhikṣu suffers from a minor illness he thinks to himself, “Since I am extremely ill and feel unwell and feeble I cannot sustain myself to practice meditation and meditative walking. I must rest [instead].” The inactive bhikṣu continues to lie around idly and does not exert himself to acquire what he has not acquired, realize what he has not realized, and experience what he has not experienced directly by himself. Eighth, when the inactive bhikṣu recovers from his minor illness but again thinks to him- self, “I was ill and it has not been long since I recovered from it. Since I am still feeble I cannot sustain myself to practice meditation and meditative walking and should lay down to rest.” He at once lies down and does not exert himself to acquire what he has not acquired, realize what he has not realized, and experience what he has not experienced directly by himself.
(6) What is the eightfold item that is conducive to increasing dis- tinction? It means the eight kinds of indefatigable effort. What are the eight kinds of indefatigable effort? First, if a bhikṣu does not obtain alms and thinks to himself, “I am physically slight and do not need much sleep. I should exert myself in the practice of meditation and med- itative walking so as to acquire what I have not acquired, realize what I have not realized, and experience what I have not yet experienced directly by myself.” Thus he at once continues to exert himself. He is regarded as a bhikṣu who is endowed with the virtue of effort. Second, having obtained alms enough to sustain himself, the aspiring bhikṣu thinks to himself, “Now I went into the village, obtained enough alms, and feel vigorous in my mental and physical energies. I should exert myself in the practice of meditation and meditative walking so as to acquire what I have not acquired, realize what I have not realized, and experience what I have not yet experienced directly by myself.” Here

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the bhikṣu at once continues to exert himself. Third, when the aspiring bhikṣu does a little work and thinks to himself, “Since I have engaged in some work and could not conduct my regular practice today, I should now exert myself in the practice of meditation and meditative walking so as to acquire what I have not acquired, realize what I have not real- ized, and experience what I have not yet experienced directly by myself.” Here the bhikṣu at once continues to exert himself. Fourth, if the aspiring bhikṣu wants to do some work [other than his daily practice] he thinks to himself, “Tomorrow I have to deal with such-and-such thing, and so I am not going to be able to conduct my regular practice. I should now exert myself in the practice of meditation and meditative walking so as to acquire what I have not acquired, realize what I have not realized, and experience what I have not yet experienced directly by myself.” Here he exerts himself. Fifth, when the aspiring bhikṣu makes an excursion he thinks to himself, “Since I went out this morning for an errand and could not conduct my regular practice, I should now exert myself in the practice of meditation and meditative walking so as to acquire what I have not acquired, realize what I have not realized, and experience what I have not yet experienced directly by myself.” Here he continues to exert himself. Sixth, when the aspiring bhikṣu wants to make an excursion, he thinks to himself, “Since I have to go out for an errand tomorrow I will miss my regular practice. I should now exert myself in the practice of meditation and meditative walking so as to acquire what I have not acquired, realize what I have not real- ized, and experience what I have not yet experienced directly by myself.” Seventh, when the aspiring bhikṣu suffers from an illness he thinks to himself, “Since I am extremely unwell and my life might come to an end, I should now exert myself in the practice of meditation and meditative walking so as to acquire what I have not acquired, realize what I have not realized, and experience what I have not yet experienced directly by myself.” Eighth, when the aspiring bhikṣu recovers from the illness and has made a temporary recovery he thinks to himself, “Because I was ill I was obliged to forsake my regular practice a little in the beginning but now increasingly more during my illness. I should now exert myself in the practice of meditation

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and meditative walking so as to acquire what I have not acquired, realize what I have not realized, and experience what I have not yet experienced directly by myself.” Here he rallies to exert himself in the practice of meditation and meditative walking. These are the eight kinds of indefatigable exertion.
(7) What is the eightfold item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate? It means the eight kinds of places where the practice of austerity is obstructed. What are these eight places? First, despite the fact that the Tathāgata, who has realized the state of arhatship, has appeared in this world, exhorting the supreme Dharma, quiescent and transcendent, and proceeded on the path of enlightenment, some sentient beings are born in the world of hells. This is the ﬁrst place where the practice of austerity is obstructed. Second, despite the fact that the Tathāgata, who has realized the state of arhatship, has appeared in this world, exhorting the supreme Dharma, quiescent and transcendent, and proceeded on the path of enlightenment, some sentient beings are born among animals; third, among hungry ghosts (pretas); fourth, among the gods of extraor- dinary longevity; and ﬁfth, among the nonreligious in the remote frontier regions where there are no believers. These are places where the practice of austerity is obstructed. Sixth, despite the fact that the Tathāgata, who has realized the state of arhatship, has appeared in this world, exhorting the supreme Dharma, quiescent and transcendent, and pro- ceeded on the path of enlightenment, some people who are born in the central country (i.e., India) still adhere to wrong views and perverted thoughts, and thus, having done evil deeds, they are bound to fall into hell. This is the place where the practice of austerity is obstructed. Sev- enth, despite the fact that the Tathāgata, who has realized the state of arhatship, has appeared in this world, exhorting the supreme Dharma, quiescent and transcendent, and proceeded on the path of enlightenment, some people who are born in the middle country (i.e., China) are deaf, blind, and dumb and cannot listen to the exhortation of the Dharma, nor can they engage in the practice of austerity. This is the seventh place where the practice of austerity is obstructed. Eighth, when the Tathāgata, who has realized the state of arhatship, has neither appeared in this world nor does he exhort the supreme Dharma, quiescent and

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transcendent, nor does he proceed on the path of enlightenment, some people are born in the middle country and are perfectly endowed with various faculties, and are thus capable of receiving the noble teaching. But because they do not encounter the Buddha they have lost the oppor- tunity to be introduced to the practice of austerity. This is the eighth place where the practice of austerity is obstructed.
(8) What is the eightfold item to be brought into existence? It means the eight kinds of established mind upheld by great persons. The [right] path consists of having less desire, whereas greater desire means the wrong path. The [right] path consists of being content with little, whereas insatiable need is the wrong path. The [right] path consists of an environment of leisurely quietude, whereas interaction with a mul- titude is the wrong path. The [right] path consists of self-restraint, whereas a [frivolous] attitude of joking and laughing is the wrong path. The [right] path consists of indefatigable effort, whereas idle slackening is the wrong path. The [right] path consists of concentration and mind- fulness, whereas forgetfulness is the wrong path. The [right] path con- sists of the state of concentration, whereas a state of scattered confusion is the wrong path. The [right] path consists of wisdom or insight, whereas delusion or mental dullness is the wrong path.
(9) What is the eightfold item to be known as supernormal power? It means the eight kinds of mastery over the senses. An inner ideation of form perceives a part of external material form, always judging it and being reminded of it either as good or ugly. This is the ﬁrst sense base over which one should have mastery. Second, an inner ideation of form perceives the immeasurably [vast number of ] external material forms, always judging them and reminded of them as either good or ugly. This is the second sense base [over which one should have] mas- tery. Third, an inner immaterial ideation in possession of a consciousness perceives a part of external material form, always judging it and reminded of it either as good or ugly. This is the third sense base [over which one should have] mastery. Fourth, an inner immaterial ideation (e.g., consciousness) perceives the immeasurably [vast umbers of] external material forms, always judging them and reminded of them either as good or ugly. This is the fourth sense base [over which one

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should have] mastery. Fifth, an inner immaterial ideation perceives the blue color of an external material form, for instance, like perceiving a blue lotus ﬂower with blue color, blue luminescence, and bluish effect, or like perceiving a blue Vārāṇasī garment with pure blue color, blue luminescence, and bluish effect; and, having formulated an ideation like this, always judges it and is reminded of it. This is the ﬁfth sense base [over which one should have] mastery. Sixth, an inner immaterial ideation perceives the yellow color of an external material form, for instance, like perceiving a yellow lotus ﬂower with yellow color, yellow luminescence, and yellowish effect, or perceiving a yellow Vārāṇasī garment with pure yellow color, yellow luminescence, and yellowish effect; and, having always judged it and been reminded of it, formulates an ideation like this. [This is the sixth sense base over which one should have mastery.] Seventh, an inner immaterial ideation perceives the red color of an external material form, for instance, like perceiving a red lotus ﬂower with red color, red luminescence, and reddish effect, or perceiving a red Vārāṇasī garment with pure red color, red luminescence, and reddish effect; and, having always judged it and been reminded of it, formulates an ideation like this. This is the seventh sense base [over which one should have] mastery. Eighth, an inner immaterial ideation perceives the white color of an external material form, for instance, like perceiving a white lotus ﬂower with white color, white lumines- cence, and whitish effect, or perceiving a white Vārāṇasī garment with pure white, white luminescence, and whitish effect; and, having always judged it and been reminded of it, formulates an ideation like this. This is the eighth sense base [over which one should have] mastery.
(10) What is the eightfold item to be directly experienced by oneself?
It means the eight kinds of liberation. First, the liberation that is realized when one, with an internal ideation of form, perceives external forms; second, the liberation that is realized when one, without any internal ideation of form, perceives external forms; third, the liberation that is realized when one thus has terminated all deﬁlements; fourth, the lib- eration that is realized when one, having transcended all ideations of form and annihilated sensory reaction, abides in the ﬁrst formless state of concentration, the sphere of inﬁnite space; ﬁfth, the liberation that

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is realized when one, having transcended the sphere of inﬁnite space, abides in the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness; sixth, the liberation that is realized when one, transcending the previous sphere, abides in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility; seventh, the liberation that is real- ized when one, having transcended the previous sphere, abides in the sphere of neither ideation nor nonideation; and eighth, the liberation that is realized when one, having transcending this sphere, abides in the ﬁnal state of cessation transcendent from senses and ideation, equiv- alent to the third saintly state of anāgāmin (nonreturner).
O bhikṣus, the foregoing group comprises eighty doctrinal items. Having realized them by himself, the Tathāgata has taught us these doc- trinal items with equal emphasis as they really are and not otherwise. Again there is the ninth group of ten: the ninefold doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, the ninefold doctrinal item that should be practiced, the ninefold item that should be comprehen- sively understood, the ninefold doctrinal item that should be abandoned, the ninefold item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance, the ninefold doctrinal item that is conducive to increasing distinction, the ninefold doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate, the ninefold doctrinal item that should be brought into exis- tence, the ninefold doctrinal item that should be known as supernormal power, and the ninefold doctrinal item that should be directly experi-
enced by oneself.
(1) What is the ninefold item that is very useful for religious salva- tion? It means the nine qualities for which to strive: moral purity in upholding precepts, purity of mind, purity of views, purity of over- coming doubt, purity of analytical excellence, knowing the right path from wrong ones, purity of knowing the method for reaching the goal, purity of the absence of desire, and purity of liberation.
(2) What is the ninefold item to be practiced? It means the nine roots of proper mental attention: delight, devotion, joy, comfort, concentration, absolute knowledge, eradication [of deﬁlement], equa- nimity or nondifferentiation, absence of desire, and liberation.
(3) What is the ninefold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the nine places of sentient beings. When sentient beings are

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in possession of different bodies and different ideations, these are humans and heavenly beings. This is the ﬁrst abode of sentient beings; second, when some sentient beings possess different bodies but one and the same ideation, this is the time when the god Brahmā was initially born in Ābhāsvara Heaven, where communication is accomplished by transmitted light instead of sound. This is the second abode of sentient beings. Third, when some sentient beings possess one and the same body but different ideations, this is the aforementioned Ābhāsvara Heaven. This is the third abode of sentient beings. Fourth, when some sentient beings possess one and the same body and ideation, this is Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. This is the fourth abode of sentient beings. Fifth, again when some sentient beings reside in the sphere where one has neither ideation nor external awareness, this is Āsaṃjñika Heaven. This is the ﬁfth abode of sentient beings. Sixth, when some sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite space, this is the sixth abode of sentient beings. Seventh, when some sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness, this is the seventh abode of sentient beings. Eighth, when some sentient beings reside in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility, this is the eighth abode of sentient beings. Ninth, when some sentient beings reside in the sphere of neither ideation nor non- ideation, this is the ninth abode of sentient beings.
(4) What is the ninefold item to be abandoned? It means the nine roots of craving. First, there is craving; second, because of craving the act of seeking arises; third, because of seeking a gain arises; fourth, because of gain there arises a thought of its utility; ﬁfth, because of the thought of utility there arises desire; sixth, because of desire strong attachment arises; seventh, because of attachment an act of grasping arises; eighth, because of grasping a parsimonious act arises; and ninth, because of parsimony an act of guarding arises.
(5) What is the ninefold item that is conducive to declining into per- versity and ignorance? It means the nine kinds of hatred. First, hatred arises when someone thinks about another person, “He abused me in the past.” Second, hatred arises when he thinks, “He abuses me now.” Third, hatred arises when he thinks, “He will surely abuse me in the future.” Fourth, a person again hates someone when he thinks, “He

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abused someone I love.” Fifth, hatred arises when he thinks, “He is now abusing someone I love.” Seventh, hatred arises when he thinks, “He will surely abuse someone I love in the future.” Seventh, a person again hates someone when he thinks, “He associated with someone whom I hate.” Eighth, hatred arises when he thinks, “He is now asso- ciating with someone whom I hate.” Ninth, hatred arsises when he thinks, “He will associate with someone whom I hate in the future.”
(6) What is the ninefold item that is conducive to increasing dis- tinction? It means the nine kinds of subduing hatred. First, a person subdues his hatred toward someone, thinking, “This person abused me in the past but what beneﬁt is there in my holding hatred against him? I have already subdued my hatred.” Second, he thinks, “Now I am sub- duing my hatred.” Third, he thinks, “I will subdue my hatred in the future.” Fourth, a person subdues his hatred toward someone, thinking, “This person abused someone I love but what beneﬁt is there in my holding hatred against him? I have already subdued my hatred.” Fifth, he thinks, “Now I am subduing my hatred.” Sixth, he thinks, “I will certainly subdue my hatred in the future.” Seventh, a person subdues his hatred toward someone, thinking, “Though this person has befriended someone I hate, what beneﬁt is there in holding hatred against him? I have already subdued my hatred.” Eighth, he also thinks, “Now I am subduing my hatred.” Ninth, he also thinks, “I will subdue my hatred in the future.”
(7) What is the ninefold item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate? It means nine kinds of the practice of austerity. [First, if a bhikṣu does not have sincere faith he is not regarded as having accomplished the practice of austerity. When he acquires sincere faith he will be endowed with the ﬁrst step of the practice of austerity.33 Second, if a bhikṣu has sincere faith but not moral precepts he is not regarded as having accom- plished the practice of austerity. When he acquires adherence to the precepts in addition to faith, he will be endowed with the practice of austerity. Third, if a bhikṣu has sincere faith and adheres to the moral precepts but is not well learned, he is not regarded as having accom- plished the practice of austerity. When he is well learned in addition to having sincere faith and [upholding] moral precepts, he will be

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endowed with the practice of austerity. Fourth, if a bhikṣu is endowed with sincere faith, moral precepts, and learnedness but has little expe- rience with preaching, he is not regarded as having accomplished the practice of austerity. When he is well experienced with preaching in addition to the preceding excellences he will be endowed with the prac- tice of austerity. Fifth, if [a bhikṣu] is well endowed with sincere faith, moral precepts, learnedness, and [skilled in] doctrinal preaching but is not capable of supporting the sangha, he is not regarded as having accomplished the practice of austerity. When he becomes capable of supporting the sangha in addition to the preceding excellences, he will be endowed with the practice of austerity. Sixth, if a bhikṣu is endowed with sincere faith, moral precepts, learnedness, [skilled in preaching,] and [capable of] supporting the sangha but is not capable of discoursing on the doctrines before the assembly of the bhikṣus, he is not regarded as having accomplished the practice of austerity. When he becomes capable of discoursing on the doctrines before the assembly of the bhikṣus in addition to the preceding excellences, he will be endowed with the practice of austerity. Seventh, if a bhikṣu is endowed with sin- cere faith, moral precepts, learnedness, [skill in preaching, and is capable of] supporting the sangha and [discoursing] on the doctrines before the assembly of bhikṣus but has not acquired freedom with the four levels of meditative concentration, he is not regarded as having accomplished the practice of austerity. When he acquires the excellence of freedom with the four levels of meditative concentration in addition to the preceding excellences, he will be endowed with the practice of austerity. Eighth, if a bhikṣu is endowed with sincere faith, moral precepts, learnedness, [skill in preaching, is capable of] supporting the sangha and discoursing on doctrines before the assembly of bhikṣus, and [has attained] freedom with the four levels of meditative concentration but has not attained freedom with the eight levels of liberation, traversing them in successive order as well as returning in reverse order, he is not regarded as having accomplished the practice of austerity. When he acquires the excellence of freedom with the eight kinds of liberation in addition to the preceding excellences he will be endowed with the practice of aus- terity. Ninth, if a bhikṣu is endowed with sincere faith, moral precepts,

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learnedness, [and skill in preaching; is capable of] supporting the sangha and discoursing on doctrines before the assembly of bhikṣus, and has attained freedom in the four levels of meditative concentration and freedom in the eight levels of liberation, traversing them in successive order as well as returning in reverse order, but has not accomplished ultimate realization, he is not regarded as having accomplished the practice of austerity, namely: “terminating the inﬂuences of deﬁlement and realizing freedom from worldly inﬂuences, realizing the liberation of the mind and liberation through analytical insight, directly experi- encing in one’s present life that the cause of birth and death has been exhausted, the practice of austerity has been accomplished, what should be done [for religious salvation] has thus been accomplished, and that there will be no more birth to him again.” When in addition to the pre- ceding excellences of being endowed with sincere faith, moral precepts, learnedness, [skill in preaching,] supporting the sangha, discoursing on doctrines before the assembly of bhikṣus, freedom in the four levels of meditative concentration, and freedom in the eight levels of liberation, traversing them in successive order as well as returning in reverse order, he acquires ultimate realization, namely: “terminating the inﬂu- ences of deﬁlement and realizing freedom from worldly inﬂuences, realizing the liberation of the mind, liberation through the analytical insight, having directly experienced in the present life that the cause of birth and death have been exhausted, the practice of austerity has been accomplished, what should be done [for religious salvation] has been accomplished, and will not again be reborn,” he will be endowed with the practice of austerity thus perfected.
(8) What is the ninefold item to be brought into existence? It means
the nine kinds of ideation or thought: ﬁrst, the thought of the impurity of the human body; second, the thought of food as distasteful; third, the thought that there is nothing that can be enjoyed in the world; fourth, the thought of death; ﬁfth, the thought of impermanence; sixth, the thought of suffering due to impermanence; seventh, the thought of suf- fering due to nonself; eighth, the thought of the cessation of suffering; and ninth, the thought of freedom from desire.

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(9) What is the ninefold item to be known as supernormal power? It means the nine kinds of causal interaction to be intuited as manifold: ﬁrst, because the causal (external) domain is manifold the (internal) effectual domain that arises in correspondence with the former is man- ifold (different); second, because of these manifold external and internal domains there arises the manifold domain of contacts between the senses and objects; third, because of this manifold contact there arise manifold sense perceptions; fourth, because of these manifold sensations (or feelings) there arise manifold ideations; ﬁfth, because of these man- ifold ideations there arise manifold conceptions;34 sixth, because of manifold conceptions there arise manifold desires; seventh, because of manifold desires there arise manifold passions;35 eighth, because of manifold passions there arise manifold yearning or seeking; ninth, because of manifold yearning there arise manifold gains.36
(10) What is the ninefold item to be directly experienced oneself? It means the nine stages of the successive process of cessation. First, when a bhikṣu enters the ﬁrst meditative absorption there ceases to be the ideation of desire.37 Second, in the second meditative state of absorp- tion, the mental activity of thinking and deliberation ceases. Third, in the third meditative state of absorption the awareness of delight ceases. Fourth, in the fourth meditative state of absorption the signs of inhalation or exhalation cease. Fifth, in the sphere of inﬁnite space, the ﬁrst form- less state of concentration, the ideation of external form ceases. Sixth, in the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness the ideation of empty space ceases. Seventh in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility the ideation of consciousness ceases. Eighth, in the sphere of neither ideation nor nonideation the ideation of nonutility or nothingness ceases. Ninth, in the ﬁnal state of cessation, in which the senses and ideation equivalent to third saintly state of anāgāmin have been transcended, both ideation and sensation cease.
O bhikṣus, the foregoing group comprises eighty doctrinal items. Having realized them by himself, the Tathāgata has taught us these doctrinal items with equal emphasis as they really are and not otherwise. Again there is a tenth group of ten doctrinal items: the tenfold doc- trinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, the tenfold doctrinal

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item to be practiced, the tenfold doctrinal item that should be com- prehensively understood, the tenfold doctrinal item that should be abandoned, the tenfold doctrinal item that is conducive to declining into perversity and ignorance, the tenfold doctrinal item that is con- ducive to increasing distinction, the tenfold doctrinal item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate, the tenfold doctrinal item that should be brought into existence, the tenfold doctrinal item that should be known as super- normal power, and the tenfold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself.
(1) What is the tenfold item that is very useful for religious salva- tion? It means the ten kinds of refuge for religious salvation. First, a bhikṣu is endowed with the two hundred and ﬁfty disciplines as well as with digniﬁed deportment, is careful not to commit even a minor offense, and trains in all the disciplines with meticulous evenness, hav- ing no detrimental imbalance. Second, he befriends good associates. Third, he adequately uses words, neither in excess nor insufﬁciently, and is able to understand meanings beyond words. Fourth, he willingly seeks opportunities to listen to discourses on the Dharma and liberally disseminates whatever doctrine he has thereby received to others without hesitation. Fifth, he goes out to visit various practitioners of austerity, openhandedly offers his assistance to help them, accomplishes whatever is difﬁcult to accomplish, and also teaches others how to do the same. Sixth, he attends as many lectures as possible to acquire knowledge and retains whatever he has learned in memory without losing anything in forgetfulness. Seventh, he exerts himself to eradicate unfavorable mental obstacles and promote favorable mental elements. Eighth, with self-motivation he always focuses his mind with vigilant mindfulness on essentially good conduct as if he has visualized it before his own eyes. Ninth, he realizes transcendental insight and knowledge, intuitively perceives the origination and cessation of the psychophysical elements, and, on the basis of the disciplines upheld by wise and saintly disciples, he eradicates the root of all suffering. Tenth, he is content with leisurely seclusion, engaged in mental contemplation, and never wastes time on worldly pastimes during sessions of meditation.

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(2) What is the tenfold item to be practiced? It means the ten right practices: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, right liberation, and right wisdom.
(3) What is the tenfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the ten bases of cognition, namely the ﬁve senses and their respective objects: the visual organ, the eye; the auditory organ, the ears; the olfactory organ, the nose; the gustatory organ, the tongue; the tactile organ, the body; the visual object, form; the auditory object, sound; the olfactory object, smell; the gustatory object, taste; and the tactile object, touch.
(4) What is the tenfold item to be abandoned? It means the ten kinds of wrong paths: wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, wrong concentration, wrong deliverance, and wrong knowledge.
(5) What is the tenfold item that is conducive to declining into per- versity and ignorance? It means the ten kinds of wrongful deeds: ﬁrst, taking life; second, theft, taking what is not given; third, sexual mis- conduct; fourth, [speaking] falsehoods; ﬁfth, [deceptive speech]; sixth, harsh [speech]; seventh, ﬂattery; eighth, covetousness; ninth, malicious intent; and tenth, [holding] wrong views.
(6) What is the tenfold item conducive to increasing distinction? It means the ten kinds of good deeds: ﬁrst, not taking life; second, not [committing] theft; third, [not committing] sexual misconduct; fourth, [not speaking] falsehoods; ﬁfth, [not engaging in deceptive speech]; sixth, not speaking harshly; seventh, [not engaging in] ﬂattery; eighth, not being covetous; ninth, [not harboring] malicious intent; and tenth, [not holding] wrong views.
(7) What is the tenfold item that is difﬁcult to fathom or penetrate? It means the ten abodes of the saintly disciple. First, the ﬁve items of striving toward ultimate cessation (i.e., examination of the ﬁvefold cog- nition). Second, examination of the six faculties including mental cog- nition: if a bhikṣu adheres to the six principles of community in practice, his conduct is worthy of respect and reverence and is harmonious with

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the sangha, without creating any disputes or controversy, enabling him to act independently without the admixture of confusion. Third, the singular item to be abandoned, namely, the sense of self-conceit. Fourth, the four kinds of reliance: ﬁrst, contentment with the robe requisite (simple robes or garments that qualify a bhikṣu as a member of the noble genealogy), and also with the remaining three requisites of food, lodging, and medicine for use in illness. Fifth, the sixfold alternative or the different truth of cessation. Sixth, the search for the supreme and subtle for religious salvation, namely, transcendental insight and knowledge, intuitively perceiving the origination and cessation of the psychophysical elements, and eradicating the root of suffering on the basis of the disciplines upheld by wise and saintly disciples. Seventh, the thought of nondeﬁlement. Eighth, accomplishment of the practice of austerity and completion of what should be done [for religious sal- vation]. Ninth, liberation of the mind. Tenth, liberation through insight.
(8) What is the tenfold item to be brought into existence? It means the ten kinds of reverence for praise. First, when a bhikṣu has ﬁrmly acquired faith and explains it to others, he should praise those [other than himself] who have acquired faith. Second, when a bhikṣu has ﬁrmly adhered to the precepts and explains them to others, he should praise those who have adhered to the precepts. Third, when a bhikṣu has disciplined himself to desire less and when he explains [this dis- cipline] to others, he should praise those who have disciplined them- selves to desire less. Fourth, when a bhikṣu has trained to know con- tentment and explains this to others, he should praise those who have also trained to know contentment. Fifth, when a bhikṣu is content with leisurely seclusion and explains it to others, he should praise those who are also content with such leisurely seclusion. Sixth, when a bhikṣu is well learned [in listening] and explains it to others, he should praise those who are also well learned [in listening]. Seventh, when a bhikṣu exerts himself in the practice of the path and explains it to others, he should praise those who have also exerted themselves in the practice of the path. Eighth, when a bhikṣu has show self-discipline in the prac- tice of concentration and explains it to others, he should praise those who have also shown self-discipline in the practice of concentration;

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Ninth, when a bhikṣu has realized meditative concentration and explains it to others, he should praise those who have also realized meditative concentration. Tenth, when a bhikṣu has realized ultimate insight and explains it to others, he should praise those who have also realized ultimate insight.
(9) What is the tenfold item to be known as supernormal power? It means the ten kinds of things to be destroyed: ﬁrst, he who holds right views can destroy wrong views, remove all derivative evils arising from wrong views, cause innumerable good things to arise through various right views, and thereby accomplish whatever he aspires toward. It is the same with the remaining nine items: right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right con- centration, right liberation, and right knowledge, just as one who has realized right knowledge can destroy wrong knowledge, remove all derivative evils arising from wrong knowledge, cause innumerable good things to arise through varieties of right knowledge, and thereby accomplish whatever one aspires toward.
(10) What is the tenfold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the ten norms of the arhat who requires no further training: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right mindfulness, right effort, right concentration, right wisdom, and right liberation.
O bhikṣus, the foregoing group comprises one hundred doctrinal items. Having realized them by himself, the Tathāgata has taught us these doctrinal items with equal emphasis as they really are and not otherwise.
At that time, the World-honored One coﬁrmed what Śāriputra had exhorted, and all the bhikṣus who had listened to his discourse experienced joy, respect- fully received the teaching, and carried out what Śāriputra had taught.
[End of Sutra 10: Ten Progressively Classiﬁed Doctrines]

339

Notes

1 Étienne Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era, trans. Sara Webb-Bohn (Louvain-la-Neue: Institut Orientaliste, 1988), p. 272.
2 The ninefold or twelvefold categories of scriptures by which the words of the Buddha’s discourses were grouped for the sake of memorizing them. The Tripiṭaka categories of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma were a later development.
3 Cf. Dīpavaṃsa VII, 34–43; Mahāvaṃsa V, 267–282.
4 The Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāśtra; the Sanskrit original is lost, and there is no Tibetan translation of this text. There is a Chinese translation by Xuanzang, the Api- damo da pibosha lun (200 fascicles, Taishō 1545). Xuanzang concludes his epilogue: “Four hundred years after [the Buddha’s] nirvana, King Kaniṣka called an assembly of ﬁve hundred arhats and Kāśmīri Tripiṭaka masters to discuss the analyses of Abhi- dharma study.” Canonical revision was accomplished on all three divisions in chapter 3 of Xuanzang’s Xi you ji (Record of the Western Regions, Taishō 2087; English trans- lation in Li Rongxi, The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions [Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1996]); Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, p. 586.
5 According to Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana, in his renowned work A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Schools (Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1931), pp. 49–50; p. 49, n. 2, the Hindu literature, the Purāṇas and Śāstras, were compiled by the brāhmaṇa assemblies in the region of Vidarbha under the leadership of Jātūkarṇya Vyāsa. This movement was inspired by the Fourth Buddhist Council that had been held in Kāśmīra half a century earlier.
6 Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953), esp. Ch. 1, Introduction.
7 Chizen Akanuma, Kanpashibushi agon shōroku (The Comparative Catalogue of Chi- nese Āgamas and Pāli Nikāyas) (Nagoya: Hajinkaku-shobō, 1929), pp. 3–6.
8 The missing seven texts are: DN 6, Mahalī Suttanta; DN 7, Jāliya Suttanta; DN 10, Subha Suttanta; DN 22, Mahā-Satīpaṭṭhāna Suttanta; DN 30, Lakkhaṇa Suttanta; and DN 32, Āṭānāṭiya Suttanta; and “The Sutra on Buddhist Cosmology,” not found in DN.

341

9 Kaijō Ishikawa, Agon-kyō seiritsu no kenkyū (A Study on the Establishment of Āgama Sūtras (Tokyo: Shakōsha, 1989), especially the Conclusion, pp. 246–247.
10 Kumārajva had been the king’s counselor in his native land, Kuccha. General Lüguang destroyed the state in 383 C.E. and brought Kumārajīva as a captive to the neighboring city of Liangzhou. In 401 Kumārajīva was invited to Chang’an to serve as the religious counselor to Yaoxing.
11 Genmyō Ono, et al., eds., Bussho kaisetsu daijiten (The Expositional Dictionary of Buddhist Texts in the Chinese Tripiṭaka Collection) (Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1933), Fascicle 6, pp. 45–46.
12 Faxian started with a few co-travelers from Chang’an in 399 and returned alone by the sea route in 413, transporting the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya, the Samyukta Āgama, and the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, among other texts.
13 The section of doctrinal commentaries: vols. 33–39; the section of Vinaya commentaries, vol. 40; the section of treatise commentaries, partially sectarian: vols. 41–44; the section of Chinese and Japanese sectarian schools, vols. 45–48; the section of historical traditions, vols. 49–52; the section of incidental and non-Buddhist texts, vols. 53–54 (which comprises both); and the section of textual catalogues, vol. 55.
14 T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols. (London: Pali Text Society, 1899, 1910, 1921).
15 This passage is not found in the Pāli text.
16 This set of seven principles is not found in the Pāli text.
17 This is given as the Four Noble Truths in the Pāli text.
18 The following passage in the Pāli text gives different names and the story differs.
19 In the Pāli text, the meal offered to the Buddha by Cunda is described as “tender boar’s meat.”
20 The text gives this incorrectly as “arhat.”
21 “Boiling star” (feixing), i.e., a comet.
22 There is no clear difference between this item and item no. 3 above. The Pāli text does not list this item.
23 The Chinese translation has the second and third items, moral precepts (samatā-kriyā) and repeated practice (cetanā-kriyā), but these two do not go along with the first item, charity (dāna-kriyā) as a triple doctrine.
24 Lit., “thorns”; this item is not found in the Pāli text.
25 This set of items not found in the Pāli text.
26 This set of items not found in the Pāli text.
342
Notes

27 This set of items is not found in the Pāli text.
28 The item “anxiety” in this list is found only in the Pāli text.
29 This set of items is not found in the Pāli text.
30 This set of items is not found in the Pāli text.
31 The Pāli text has the same question but gives a different answer: “the five modes of right concentration: first, inner joy; second, mental recollection; third, self-contentment or self-reliance; fourth, pleasant ease; and fifth, mental fixation.”
32 The Pāli text has the same question but gives a different answer: “the five spiritual faculties: first, faculty of faith; second, faculty of endeavor; third, faculty of mind- fulness; fourth, faculty of concentration; and fifth, faculty of insight.”
33 The Pāli text does not have the first item; it has been added here.
34 The Chinese text has “causal assemblages.”
35 The Chinese text has “manifold gains.”
36 The Chinese text has “manifold defilements.”
37 The Chinese text has “ceases to be the object of sound of the auditory faculty.”

343

Bibliography

Primary Sources
Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāstra (nonextant Sanskrit original; no Tibetan translation);
Apidamo dapibosha lun (T. 1545), in two hundred fascicles. Translated by Xuanzang.
Chu sanzang ji ji (Collection of the Tripiṭaka Textual Records) (T. 405) by Sengyou (445–518). An expanded version of Dao’an’s Zhongjing mulu.
Dharmaguptaka-vinaya; Sifen lü (Vinaya in Four Divisions) (T. 1428), in sixty fascicles.
Translated by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian.
Dīrgha Āgama (Pāli: Dīgha Nikāya); Chang ahan jing (Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses) (T. 1), in twenty-two fascicles. Translated by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian. English translation in T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols. (London: Pali Text Society, 1899, 1910, 1921).
Dīpavaṃsa (Chronicle of the Island). English translation in B. C. Law, “Chronicle of the Island of Ceylon or the Dīpavaṃsa,” Ceylon Historical Journal 7 (1958): 1–266.
Dvādaśamukha-śāstra; Shiermun lun (T. 1568), in one fascicle. Translated by Kumārajīva in 409.
Fochui ban lüeshuo jiaojie jing (T. 389), in one fascicle. Translated by Kumārajīva in 402–412.
Gaoseng faxian zhuan (Biography of Faxian) (T. 2085), in one fascicle. English translatiion in Li Rongxi, The Journey of the Eminent Monk Faxian, in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2002), pp. 155–214.
Gezhong qinding zhongjing mulu (Buddhist Canonical Textual Catalogues) compiled by four northern dynasties: (1) Liang in 519, (2) Northern Wei in 532; (3) Northern
Qi in 570–578, and (4) Northern Chou in 563.
Kaiyuan shijiao mulu (Kaiyuan Record of Buddhist Textual Catalogues) (T. 2154). Com- piled in 731.
Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa-śāstra; Dazhidu lun (T. 1509), in one hundred fascicles, by Nāgārjuna (ca. 50–150). Translated by Kumārajīva.
Mahāvaṃsa (Great Chronicle). English translation in Wilhelm Geiger and Mabel Haynes Bode, The Mahāvaṃsa, Or, the Great Chronicle of Ceylon (London: Published for the Pali Text Society by Luzac & Co, 1964).
Mūlamadhyamakākarikā-śāstra; Zhong lun (T. 1564), in four fascicles. By Nāgārjuna with commentary by Piṅgala. Translated by Kumārajīva in 409.

345

Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra; Mohe banruo boluomi jing (Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-ﬁve Thousand Verses) (T. 221), in twenty-seven fascicles. Translated by Kumārajīva in 404. Generally known in China as the Dapin banruo jing (Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra) together with its voluminous com- mentary.
Renshou zhongjing mulu (Renshou Record of Textual Catalogues), revised upon the
Kaiyuan shijiao mulu in 602.
Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra; Miaofa lianhuajing (Sutra of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma) (T. 262), in seven fascicles. Translated by Kumārajīva in 408–409. Com- monly known as the Lotus Sutra; English translation in Tsugunari Kubo and Akira Yuyama, The Lotus Sutra (Berkeley: Numata Center For Buddhist Translation and Research, 2007, rev. second ed.)
Sui Kaihuang lidai sanbao ji (Sui Kaiyuan Record of the Threefold Buddhist Treasures of the Successive Dynasties) (T. 2034), 598.
Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra; Weimojie suoshuo jing (T. 475), in three fascicles. Translated by Kumārajīva. English translation in John R. McRae in The Sutra of Queen Srimala of the Lion’s Roar/The Vimalakirti Sutra (Berkeley: Numata Center For Buddhist Translation and Research, 2004), pp. 63–199.
Xiaopin banruo boluomi jing (Smaller Prajñāpāramitā-sutra) (T. 227), in ten fascicles.
Translated by Kumārajīva in 406.
Xi you ji (T. 2087). Translated by Xuanzang. English translation in Li Rongxi, The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1996).
Zhaolun (T. 1858), by Sengzhao (374–414), comprising four essays and two epistles.
Zhongjing mulu (Comprehensive Record of the Textual Catalogues) (T. 2146) by Dao’an (314–385).
Secondary Sources
Akanuma, Chizen. Kanpa shibushiagon shōroku (Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Āgamas and Pāli Nikāyas). Nagoya: Hajinkaku shobō, 1929.
Edgerton, Franklin. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953.
Ichimura, Shohei. “Revisiting the Times of Śākyamuni Buddha,” in Radhavallabh Tripathi ed., Srutimahati Glory of Sanskrit Tradition: Prof. Ram Karan Sharma Felicitation Volume, vol. 2, pp. XX–XX. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan, 2008
—. “The Chinese Mādhyamika Sengzhao’s Paradoxical Method of Argument,” in Shohei Ichimura, Buddhist Critical Spirituality: Prajñā and Śūnyatā, pp. XX–XX. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
Ishikawa, Kaijō. Agon-kyō seiritsu no kenkyū (A Study on How Sutras were Assembled into the Āgama Collections). Tokyo: Shakōsha, 1989.
Lamotte, Étienne. History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era. Sara Webb-Bohn, trans. Louvain-la-Neue: Institut Orientaliste, 1988.

Bibliography

Malalasekera, G. P. Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names, 2 vols. London and Boston: Pali Text Society, 1974.
Mettanando Bhikkhu. After the Buddha. Unpublished monograph.
Ono, Gemmyō, et al., eds. Bussho kaisetsu daijiten (Expositional Dictionary of Buddhist Texts in the Chinese Tripiṭaka Collection). Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1933. Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra. A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern
Schools. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1931.

347

Index

A
Abhidharma, xiv, xviii, xxi, xxiii, 3 categorized in the Tripiṭaka, xiv, xx,
xxi–xxiii, 341n2 Mahayana and Hinayana, xxii See also Tripiṭaka
Abhibhū, 14, 15
See also Sikhin Abhidharmamahāvibhāśā-śāśtra, 341n4 Āgama(s), xiii, xv
four/fourfold, xiv, xv, xxiii, 3 Hinayana, xxiv
See also Aṅguttara Āgama; Dīrgha Āgama; Ekottarikā Āgama; Ma- dhyama Āgama; Saṃyukta Āgama
Agnidatta, 17
See also Krakucchanda Ajātaśatru, 63, 166, 169, 170
Ajitakeśa-kambalin, 142
Ākāśagarbha-sūtra. See Xukongyun pusa jing
alms/almsfood, 86, 87, 272, 324, 325
almsbowl(s), 37, 38, 54, 57, 70, 71, 75,
78, 79, 81, 83, 85, 86, 89, 100, 101,
104, 105, 163, 199, 222, 228, 317
almsround(s), 7, 199, 200, 222, 228
Ambapālī, 78–81, 83–85 Ambaṭṭha, xvii
anāgāmin, 77, 151, 194, 294, 298, 304,
330, 355
See also nonreturner
Ānanda, 15, 64–66, 70, 72–73, 75–79,

85, 86–90, 91–93, 94–95, 99–104,
107–108, 110, 112–113, 115–122,
129, 133, 137–141, 143–149, 151,
153, 157, 160–161, 163, 197–200,
208–209
Aṅga, King, 81
See also Bimbisāra
Aṅguttara Āgama (Discourses Increasing Each by One Doctrine), 3
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold
Aṅguttara Nikāya (Increasing Each by a Doctrine), xv
See also Aṅguttara Āgama; Nikāyas, ﬁvefold
anuttara samyaksaṃbodhi. See enlighten- ment, highest, perfect, supreme
Anupiya, xvii
Anuruddha, 151–152, 156–159, 161
Apidamo da pibosha lun. See Abhidhar- mamahāvibhāśā-śāśtra
Apramāṇa, 15
See also Sikhin
arhat(s), 77, 143, 215, 304, 341n4, 342n20
who require no further training, 304, 316, 339
arhatship, 67, 82, 144, 224, 245, 294, 304,
312, 327
Aruṇa, 16
ārūpyadhātu. See realm, of formlessness ascetic(s), 93, 109, 140, 143, 144, 162,
272, 273–276, 277–279
mendicants, 94, 165

349

ascetic(s) (continued):
practice, 68, 273, 276, 277, 278, 279,
282
See also austerity/austerities; mendi- cant; śramaṇa
Aśoka, xiv, 15
See also Vipaśyin
asura(s), xvii, 52, 174, 175, 176, 177,
179, 201
Atapā, 59
austerity/austerities, 21, 22, 52, 54, 55,
67, 68, 70, 73, 85, 90, 101, 143, 144,
164, 173, 174, 178, 190, 193, 194,
195, 201, 202, 203, 221, 222, 223,
224, 240, 241, 271, 273, 279, 284,
285, 287, 289, 295, 298, 301, 303,
304, 305, 307, 314, 316, 317, 322,
323, 327–328, 332–334, 336, 338
See also ascetic, practice
B
Bamboo Grove, 70
Bandhumant, 16, 24, 50
See also Vipaśyin Bandhumatī, 16
Bharadvāja, 15
See also Kāśyapa Bhāradvāja, 211, 224
bhikṣu(s), xix, 7, 8, 9, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22,
23, 29, 37, 42, 54, 55, 56–57, 58, 59,
61, 66–72, 75, 78, 80–81, 83, 85, 87,
88, 90, 92, 93, 95–98, 100–107, 114,
117, 121, 122, 139, 143, 145–146,
148–150, 151, 152, 153, 155–157,
162, 163, 176, 197, 199, 209, 211,
225, 229, 241–243, 245–246, 254,
256, 269, 283–285, 289–293, 295–
296, 297–298, 300–305, 307–308,
311, 313–326, 330, 332–339
four kinds of reliance/support, 39, 338
four principles, 101–104

residence, 61, 297
saṃghātī robe, 37
See also disciple; monk; śramaṇa; śrāvaka
bhikṣuṇī(s), 90, 92, 93, 146, 163, 176, 209
Bhiyyosa, 14, 15
See also Kanakamuni Bimbisāra, 81, 198, 199
bird(s), xvi, 31, 46, 212, 228, 274
crane, 57
garuḍa, 57
Himalayan, 31
kalaviṅka, 28, 31, 93
bodhisattva(s), 92, 96, 179
career/ideal of, in the Mahayana, xiii Bodhisattva, 19–24, 28, 31–34, 35, 39,
41–42, 46, 93
See also Buddha; Vipaśyin
Brahmā, xvii, 18, 47–50, 51, 53, 84, 85,
93, 95, 145, 151, 173, 183, 184,
188, 189, 191, 192, 203, 212, 213,
214, 224, 240, 288, 293, 302, 304,
320, 331
in the form of a youth, 177–179, 184, 185–187, 203–205, 207, 208
Brahmadatta, 17
See also Kāśyapa
brāhmaṇa(s), 17–18, 51, 55, 63, 81, 82,
85–86, 92, 117–119, 145, 166–170,
183, 184, 187, 191–193, 206, 211–
214, 222, 228, 232, 240, 241, 245,
246–268, 269–282, 293, 341n5
ascetic(s), xvii, 140, 143, 269
class/family, 11, 17, 94, 176, 204, 211,
212, 213, 214, 215, 222, 223
nonpracticing, 222
Buddha, xiv, xv, 7–8, 9–30, 42, 74–75,
151, 160, 165, 170, 171, 174–178,
189, 192, 202, 266, 293, 296, 301,
313, 314, 318, 328, 341n2
and Ajātaśatru, 63–64

350
and Ambapālī, 78–81, 83–85
and Ānanda, 64–65, 6–70, 73, 75,
76–78, 85, 86–90, 91–95, 99–101,
104, 107–108, 112–117, 120–122,
133, 138–139, 144–149, 160–161,
197–200, 209
ashes/relics, 158, 167, 169
and the bhikṣus/disciples, 7–8, 54–58,
66–70, 97–98, 101–104, 148–150,
225, 229, 241, 243
and Brahmā, 48–50
and the brāhmaṇa of Kuśinagara, 117–119
and Cunda, 104–108, 342n19 and Cundaka, 114-115
demise/nirvana/ parinirvāṇa, xiii, 155–158, 166, 341n4
and the Evil One/Māra, 90–91, 98
funeral, 161–163, 166, 168
and Janavasabha, 199–201, 208 and lay devotees, 71–74
and the Licchavi clanspeople, 83 and the Mallan clanspeople, 140 and Nyagrodha, 270–273, 275–282
and Pañcaśika, 173, 177, 193–195
and Piṅgiyānī, 81–82
and Pishatuoya, 85–86
and Pukkusa, 108–112
and Sandhāna, 269, 271, 282
and Śāriputra, 283, 307
and Subhadra, 141–144
and Śuddhāvāsa, 56–58
and Tiṣya, 50–54
and Upavāna, 121–122
and Varṣākāra, 65–66
and Vāseṭṭha, 211–224
See also Gautama; Śākyamuni; Tathā- gata
buddha(s), 7, 9, 10, 13–16, 18–24, 50, 59,
84, 111, 122, 155, 164, 176–177, 240,
280, 315

future, 145, 240
past, 7, 8, 9, 145, 280
seven, 12, 15, 61, 176
solitary, 117
thirty-two marks, 28
See also pratyekabuddha
Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, 85, 111,
149, 215, 266, 300, 301, 317
See also Three Treasures buddhahood, 24, 25 Buddhayaśas, xviii–xx, xxi, 5 Buddhija, 15, 16
See also Krakucchanda
Buddhist(s), xiv, xv, xviii, xx, xxi, xxiv canon, xiv, xx
Chinese, xviii, xix
communities, xiii, xx–xxi, xxiv, xxv,
Japanese, xx, xxiv
lay householders, 193, 204 literature/scriptures/texts, xiv, xx, xxi,
xxii, xxv monk(s), xiii, 5
path/religion/spirituality, xxvi, 4, 113
shrines/temples, xxii, 65 studies, xviii, xxiv Tripiṭaka, xxii, xxiii, xxv
Buddhist councils, four, xiii–xiv First Council, xiii
Second Council, xiii
Third Council, xiii, xiv, xv Fourth Council, xiv, 341n5 Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, xv
Buli people, 166
See also countries, Allakappa
C
cakravartin, xvi, xvii, 24, 117, 124, 226–
227, 229, 232, 240–241
See also universal ruler
Canonical Collection of Lengthy Dis- courses. See Chang ahan jing

351

Cāpāla shrine, 89, 91, 98
causal/causality, xxiii, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44,
45, 213, 247, 290, 321, 322–323,
335, 343n34
See also dependent origination causation, twelvefold chain, 42
See also causal/causality; dependent origination
Central Asian, xvii, xix
Chang ahan jing, xiii, xv–xvi, xxiv–xxv, 3
categorized in the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, xx–xxi
and the Dharmaguptaka school, xix “Sutra of Cosmology,” xv
sutras, correlated to the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya suttantas, xv–xvii
translation, xviii, xxi, xxv, 5
See also Dīrgha Āgama
Channa, 148
Cheng shi lun. See Satyasiddhi-śāstra China, xiv, xviii, xxi, xxiv, 327 Chinese, xix, xx, xxii, 342n13
Buddhists, xviii, xix
language, xv, xviii, xxiv, xxv, 3, 341n4, 342n21, 343nn 34, 35, 36, 37
Chu sanzang ji ji, xx cities/towns/villages:
Ambala, 100, 101
Anopama, 16, 17
Aruṇavatī, 16
Ātumā, 110
Bandhumatī, 16, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56,
57
Beluva-gāma, 85
Bhāṇḍagrāma, 101
Bhoganagara, 101, 104
Campā/Caṃpā, 122, 188
Chang’an, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, xxiv, 3, 342nn10, 12

Dantapura, 188
Jambugrāma, 101
Kapilavastu, 18, 122, 166, 170x
Kaśi, 188, 198
Koṭigāma, 74, 75, 78
Kṣema, 17
Kuśavatī, 122, 130, 132
Kuśinagara, 91, 98, 108, 109, 113,
117, 118, 120, 121, 133, 136, 138,
139, 140, 141, 162, 163, 166, 167,
168, 170
Liangzhou, xviii xix, xx, 342n10 Louyang, xviii
Lushan, xix
Nādikā/Nādika, 75, 197, 199, 200
Pāṭaliputra (Patna), xiv, 70, 71, 72, 74
Pāvā, 104, 108, 109, 111, 117, 162,
166, 170, 283
Potana, 188
Rājagṛha (Rājgīr), xiii, 58, 63, 66, 70,
122, 173, 269
Roruka, 188
Shomisaluo, 188
Śubha, 17
Śvetavyā, 245, 264, 265, 268
Uruvilvā, 90, 98
Vaiśālī (Vesālī), xiii, 78, 79, 82, 83,
85, 87, 95, 122, 166, 170
Kūṭāgāra hall, 95
Vārāṇasī, 17, 22, 188
garment(s), 329
Xiuo, 188
Collection of the Tripiṭaka Textual Records. See Chu sanzang ji ji
commemorative tower(s), xix, 84, 115,
115, 116, 122, 147, 160, 161, 166,
167, 169–170
Comprehensive Record of the Textual Catalogues. See Zhongjing mulu
Confucian, xviii, xx

352

contemplation/contemplative, 13, 14, 34,
36, 46, 85, 222, 269, 297, 336
of the body, 308 recollection, xxiv, 4
silence/silent, 33, 34, 36
two types, 46 countries/regions:
Allakappa, 166, 170
Aṅga, 188, 198, 307
Aśvaka, 188, 198
Avanti, 188, 198 Burma, xiv Ceḍi, 198 Indochina, xv Kāmboja, 198
Kāśmīra/Kāśmīri, xiv, xviii, xx, 5, 341nn4, 5
Khotan, xviii, xix Kośala, 198, 215, 245
Kuccha, xviii, 342n10 Kuru, 198
Kuṣāṇa, xiv Liang, 5
Magadha/Magadhan, 63, 70, 71, 81,
166, 167, 170, 198, 199, 200, 201,
204, 225
Malla/Mallan, 104, 161, 198, 283
Matsya, 198
Mātulā, 225 Mauryan, xiv Pañcāla, 198
Pippalavana, 170
Rāmagrāma, 166, 170 Southeast Asia, xiv Śrāvastī, 7, 122, 211 Sri Lanka, xiv Sūrasena, 198 Thailand, xiv
Vaṭhadvīpa (Veṭhādīpa), 166
Vatsa, 198 Vidarbha, 341n5

Vṛji, 63, 64, 65, 72, 74, 75, 78, 85, 87,
100, 101, 122, 198
Xia, 5
Cunda, 104–105, 107–108, 283, 342n19
Cundaka, 114–115
D
Daḷhanemi, 226–227, 232 Dao’an, xx–xxi
Daohan, 5
Daoist, xviii, xx, xxi, 5 Daśabhāṇavāra-vinaya, xviii Daśabhūmika-sūtra, xviii
Deer Park, 50, 51, 54, 55, 57, 93
deﬁlement(s), 7, 12, 13, 14, 22, 46, 47,
48, 51, 53, 54, 55, 60, 61, 74, 77,
84, 87, 93, 106, 111, 119, 127, 134,
153, 165, 188, 190, 191, 197, 215,
221, 224, 243, 285, 288, 291, 293,
297, 303, 308, 309, 311, 314, 315,
319, 321, 329, 330, 334, 343n36
ﬁve, 76, 194, 197, 296
moral, 273–274, 275–276
seven, 320
three, 70, 76, 101, 164, 286
dependent origination, 40, 44, 45, 47
See also causal/causality; causation, twelvefold chain
desire, hatred, and ignorance, 49, 53
deva. See god(s) Dhanavatī, 17
See also Kāśyapa
dhāraṇī. See contemplation/contemplative, recollection
dharma(s), 3, 53, 69, 186
adbhuta-, 96
saṃskṛta-, 119
Dharma, xv, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 30, 43,
47–50, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60,
66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 77, 78,
82, 84, 85, 86, 88–89, 95, 96, 97,

353
Dharma (continued):
104, 106, 107, 110, 111, 120, 122,
141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148,
156, 157, 162, 168, 174, 175, 178,
194, 202, 203, 207, 208–209, 211,
212, 214, 215, 216, 225, 226, 227,
232, 240, 283, 293, 294, 298, 307,
310, 312, 314, 327, 336
four branches of, 75 great/highest/supreme, 5, 47, 51, 55,
88, 327
mirror, 76, 77
mystery of, 90, 91, 98
nature of, 51, 55, 85, 111, 141
pond, 131
profound/subtle, 39, 48, 61, 86, 95, 175
right, 25, 48, 51, 55, 78, 82, 90, 125,
144, 208, 212, 221, 227, 230, 232,
240, 266, 284, 285, 289, 295, 298,
302, 303, 304, 305
wheel, 27, 52, 53, 92, 93, 147, 154, 214
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha Dharmaguptaka school, xiii, xiv, xv, xix Dharmaguptaka-vinaya, xix
Dhṛtarāṣṭra, 173, 201
See also four guardians
Dīgha Nikāya (Lengthy Discourses), xix, xxv
and the Dīrgha Āgama, xiv–xvii
suttantas, xv
correlated with Dīrgha Āgama sutras, xv–xvi
seven not found in Dīrgha Āgama/ Chang ahan jing, xv, 341n8
See also Dīrgha Āgama; Nikāyas, ﬁvefold
Dīrgha Āgama, 3
and the Dīgha Nikāya, xiv–xvii translation of, xiii, xix
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold; Chang ahan jing; Dīgha Nikāya

Diśāṃpati, 179, 180–181
disciple(s), xiii, xix, xxi, 7, 8, 9, 12–13,
14–15, 29, 38, 39, 54, 55, 58, 59,
60, 61, 63, 66, 71, 74, 77, 78, 79,
83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 98, 106,
143, 144, 145, 162, 173, 174, 178,
193, 194–195, 198, 200, 202, 204,
214, 225, 240, 269, 270–272, 279,
281, 282, 283
four kinds, 163
holy/noble/saintly, 76–77, 117, 215,
296, 310, 313, 315, 336, 337, 338
lay, 108, 270
See also bhikṣu; śrāvaka
discourses, ninefold or twelvefold cate- gories, xv, 304, 341n2
Droṇa, 167, 169–170
Dutou Grove, 104
See also cities/towns/villages, Pava
E
Eastern Turkestan, xviii
eightfold noble path, 142, 304, 321, 323
Ekottarikā Āgama (Gradually Increased Discourses), xv
emptiness, xxi
of the self, 287, 310
enlightenment, 93, 120, 143, 145, 147,
148, 170, 171, 212, 280
highest, perfect, supreme, 9, 11, 12,
13, 24, 25, 26, 42, 46, 52, 58, 67,
90, 92, 96, 98, 99, 112, 138, 150,
171, 207, 212
initial, 107, 108, 147
path of, 327–328
seven auxiliary disciplines/practices of, 96, 223, 303, 319, 321
eon(s), 4, 7, 9, 10, 89, 99, 100, 122, 216,
278, 279
auspicious (bhadrakalpa), 9

354

immeasurable/innumerable, 8, 48, 278,
279
evil(s), 53, 65, 68, 134, 213, 228, 237,
279, 291, 321, 323, 339
action/deeds, 48, 49, 52, 213
ten, 236
three kinds of, 286 beings/gods/spirits, 19, 92, 262, 263
inﬂuences, 222, 297, 315
intent/thoughts, 22, 69
evil courses of life, 76, 85, 111, 149, 186,
194, 198, 199, 200
three, 53, 76, 77, 221, 279
Evil One, 12, 18, 51, 53, 55, 84, 89, 90–
91, 92, 93, 94, 98, 165, 225, 240,
243, 282
See also evil ones; Māra; Pāpīyan evil ones (deva-māras), 59, 85, 145, 293
See also Evil One
expediency, expedient(s), expedient means, 33, 36, 44, 81, 88, 205, 206,
227, 231, 300
F
Fangying, 15, 16
See also Vipaśyin Faxian, xix, 342n12
ﬁve aggregates, 46, 121, 295–296, 313,
323
ﬁve kinds of beneﬁts, 173–174, 201
ﬁve precepts, 21, 71, 72, 85, 251, 266
ﬁve senses, 33, 36, 179, 182, 189, 190,
191, 204, 250, 337
objects of, 189, 337
ﬁve spiritual faculties, 96, 296, 313, 321
ﬂower(s), 30, 31, 117, 120, 124, 131, 153,
158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 166
atimuktaka, 131
campaka, 131
dhanuṣkari, 131

mandāra, 162
pāṭalī, 131
śāla, 171
sumanā, 131
udumbara, 141, 150
vārṣika, 131
See also lotus ﬂowers; trees
four applications of mental awareness, 205–206, 290–291, 311–312, 321
four classes, 165, 212–213, 214, 216,
222, 224
See also brāhmaṇa; kṣatriya; śūdra; vaiśya
four guardians, xvii, 94, 125, 154, 173,
177, 193, 201, 202, 204, 230
See also Dhṛtarāṣṭra; Vaiśravaṇa;
Virūḍhaka; Virūpākṣa
four immeasurable minds, 135, 183–184,
292
four kinds of blessings, 129, 311
four kinds of knowledge, 294, 312
four kinds of rhetorical excellences/skill, 45, 294, 312
four quarters:
of the continent/earth, 24, 124, 226,
227, 231, 240, 277, 278, 283
of heaven/heavenly, 19, 51
four meditative states of absorption/con- centration, 134–135, 150–151, 242,
291–292, 333–334, 335
Four Noble Truths, 29, 52, 84, 164, 208,
286, 293, 309, 312, 342n17
four oceans, 126, 127, 132, 231
four states of spiritual development, 76, 142, 197, 312
See also arhat; nonreturner; once- returner; stream-enterer
four supernormal powers of concentration, 89, 96, 99, 206, 207, 291
Fujian, xviii, xx, xxi

355
G
Gaggarā, Queen, 307
Gandhāra, 198
Gandharva, 173
Gautama, 11, 12, 74, 85, 118, 141, 142,
212, 216, 270, 271, 272, 280
See also Buddha; Śākyamuni Giñjakāvasatha, 197
god(s), 18, 19, 30, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56,
57, 58, 72–74, 84, 92, 93, 98, 99,
122, 145, 156, 158, 161–162, 177,
178, 179, 183, 185, 189, 193, 198,
201, 203, 250, 265, 284, 285, 288,
289, 290, 293, 295, 298, 300, 301,
303, 304, 305, 327
of Ābhāsvara Heaven, 288 of Brahmā Heaven, 94, 185
ﬁre, 185, 255
of earth, 51
heavenly, 7, 8, 11, 19, 29, 51, 55, 72,
86, 89, 93, 95, 100, 151, 153, 158–
159, 161, 164, 167, 185, 189, 279
of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven/thirty-three, 31, 52, 80, 94, 159, 173, 174, 175,
176, 177, 179, 203, 204, 207, 208
of Tuṣita Heaven, 193
See also four guardians Govinda, 179
Gṛdhrakūṭa. See Vulture Peak
Great Collection Sutra. See Mahāsaṃ- nipāta-sūtra
Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra. See Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra
Great Yüeji. See Kaniṣka, King Guhyaka, 153
H
Han dynasty/period, xviii
See also Late Han dynasty Hastigrāma, 101

heaven(s), 8, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 31,
51, 59, 94, 97, 122, 139, 154, 159,
173–174, 178, 183, 201, 202, 217,
232, 252, 298
Ābhāsvara, 288, 302, 304, 320, 331
Akaniṣṭha, 59, 298
Āsaṃjñika, 304, 331
Avṛha, 59
birth/rebirth in, 50, 54, 70, 84, 86, 107,
111, 116, 147, 161, 178, 186, 197,
202, 251–252, 264
Brahmā, 49, 94, 138, 153, 173, 185,
186, 187, 193, 194
Light-sound, 216
lower, 122
Nirmāṇarataya, 155
of controlling enjoyments magically created by others, 204
of controlling enjoyments magically created by themselves, 204
Paranirmitavaśavartin, 155
of purity, 203, 288
sixth, 51
Subhakṛtsna, 302, 304, 320, 331
Śuddhāvāsa, 59
Sudṛśa, 59
thirty-three, 94, 138, 151, 207
Trāyastriṃśa, xvii, 21, 31, 52, 80, 130,
154, 159, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178,
179, 192, 193, 201, 202, 203, 204,
205, 206, 207, 251, 252, 267
Tuṣita, 18, 19, 20, 21, 92, 154, 193
twenty-eighth, 122
Vimāna, 267
Yāmadeva, 193, 204
See also four guardians; heavenly heavenly, 20, 21, 27, 28, 134, 162, 194,
217, 247, 279, 288
abode/garden/palace/quarters, 14, 19,
48, 56, 80, 152

356
beings, 18, 21, 22, 29, 76, 85, 90, 91,
98, 106, 130, 151, 156, 158, 159,
163, 177, 199, 203, 216, 249, 250,
302, 304, 317, 320, 331
birth, 249, 251
citizens/residents, 174, 176, 177, 178,
202
gods. See god(s), heavenly guardians. See four guardians happiness, 226, 231
longevity, 173, 201
master, 124, 227, 229
mother, 18, 22
music, 123, 159
wheel, 25, 201, 226
world(s), 249, 289, 293
See also heaven(s)
hell(s), xvii, 72, 247, 248, 327
heretic/heretical, 65, 90, 300
See also Hindu; non-Buddhist(s) Himalaya(s)/Himalayan, 31, 82, 113, 114 Hinayana, xiv, xv, xx, xxii, xxiv
Hindu, xiv, xv
literature, Purāṇas and Śāstras, 341n5
See also heretic/heretical; non- Buddhist(s)
householder(s), 94, 124, 128–129, 132,
133, 136, 138, 146, 176, 183, 184,
187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 200,
204, 209, 212, 222, 226, 240, 246,
268, 269, 270, 271, 280, 282
See also household life; lay
household life, 24, 25, 26, 33, 35, 36, 37,
38, 54, 192, 221–222, 227, 232
Huibian, xix Huiyüen, xix
I
ignorance, 12, 39, 40, 41, 44, 48, 264,
276, 284, 294, 296, 312, 320
deﬁlement due to, 70, 101

of the Four Noble Truths, 286, 309 perversity and, doctrinal items con-
ducive to lessening, 308–314, 316–
317, 319–320, 322, 324, 330–331,
336–337
See also desire, hatred, and ignorance impermanence, 68, 140, 153, 154, 155,
297, 303, 308, 321, 334
India/Indian, xviii, xix, 327 Gangetic basin, 311 Northern, xv
Indra, xvii, 18, 19, 36, 52, 53, 84, 85, 93,
152, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179,
201, 202, 207, 240
J
Jain, 162, 283
See also Nirgrantha religion/school Jambudvīpa, xvii, 182, 250
Janavasabha, xvi, 197, 199–201, 208–209 Jātūkarṇya Vyāsa, 341n5
Jetavana Monastery, Kareri-kuṭikā quar- ter, 7
Jin state, 4
Jing period, xxiii Jyotipāla, 179, 180
See also Govinda
K
Kaiyuan shijiao lu (Kaiyuan Record of Buddhist Textual Catalogues), xxii
Kakkaṭa, 75, 76, 197 Kakkudha. See Kakkaṭa Kakuda-katyāyana, 142
Kaliṅga, 75, 188, 197 kalpa. See eon Kalyāṇa-jātika, xvii
kāmadhatu. See realm, of desire Kanakamuni, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
17, 59, 60
Kaniṣka, King, xiv, 341n4

357

Kāśyapa, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17,
59, 60, 162–163
Kauliyan people, 166
See also countries/regions, Rāmagrāma Kauṇḍinya, 10, 11
See also Vipaśyin Kevaddha, xvii
Khaṇḍa, 14, 15, 50, 51, 52, 54, 56
See also Vipaśyin Khema. See Kṣema
Khuddaka Nikāya (Short Discourses), xv
See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold Kikin, 17
Koṇḍañña. See Kauṇḍinya Krakucchanda, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
17, 59, 60
kṣatriya(s), 10, 11, 16, 18, 94, 124, 176,
178,
six, 179–182
See also four classes Kṣema, 17
Kṣemakāra, 15
See also Śikhin
Kumārajīva, xviii, xix–xx, xxi, 342n10 Kumara-Kāśyapa, 245–267
Kumbhīra, 153 Kūṭadanta, xvii
L
lapis lazuli, 20, 26, 27, 123, 130–131,
135, 189, 236, 239
Late Han dynasty/period, xiv, xviii
See also Han dynasty/period Late Qin period, xviiii
See also Qin lay:
devotee(s)/disciple(s)/patrons, 71, 72,
73, 75, 76, 85, 108, 111, 115, 116,
199, 266, 270, 297
householders, 94, 146, 176, 193, 200,
204, 209

laymen, 90
See also upāsaka
laywoman/laywomen, 78, 90
See also upāsikā
Licchavi clanspeople, 79–83, 166
Lishu, 75, 197
Lokanāyaka, 15, 16
See also Kanakamuni Lotus Association, xix
lotus ﬂower(s), 28, 82, 123, 151
blue (utpala), 151, 159, 329
pink (padma), 151, 159
red (kumuda), 151, 159, 329
white (puṇḍarīka), 131, 151, 159, 329
yellow, 329
Lüguang, General, xviii, 342n10 Lumbinī grove, 153
M
Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Dis- courses), xv, 3
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold;
Majjhima Nikāya Madhyamaka, xxii Mahāgovinda, 193
Mahākāśyapa, 162–164, 165
Mahāmāyā, 18
Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, 342n12 Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra, xxiv Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya, 342n12 Mahāsaṃnipāta-sūtra, xxiii Mahāsudarśana, King, 122, 124–126,
129, 230–231
Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra, xiv Mahayana, xvi, xx, xxiii
sutras/texts, xxi, xxii, xxiii, xxiv Tripiṭaka, xv, xix, xxi
Māhīṣmatī, 188
Maitreya, 240
Majjhima Nikāya (Middle-length Dis- courses), xv

358

See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold; Madhyama Āgama
Makuṭabandhana shrine, 159, 160, 161,
163
Mallan clan/clanspeople, 91, 98, 120,
138, 139–140, 157–162, 165–167
Mānava, 267
Māra, 12, 84, 85, 90, 94, 165, 240, 243
See also Pāpīyan
marks, of a buddha, 24, 28, 78
thirty-two, 25, 26–27, 29, 71
eighty, 71
Maskarin-gośālīputra, 142
Maudgalyāyana, 15
Māyā, 153
meditation/meditative, 73, 90, 133, 134,
197, 211, 222, 269, 270, 273, 275,
276, 298, 302, 309, 315, 316, 321,
324–327, 333, 334, 336, 339
absorption, four states of, 134–135, 150–151, 242, 288, 291–292, 335
walking, 110, 211, 324–327
mendicant, 37, 38, 94, 165, 293, 312
See also śramaṇa
mindfulness, 18, 69–70, 134, 135, 242,
292, 296, 301, 303, 308, 313, 318,
319, 323, 328, 343n32
four kinds of, 96
right, 206, 292, 302, 303, 304, 305,
321, 323, 337, 339
six kinds of, 317 six objects of, 301 wrong, 336, 337
Ming period, xxiii
monk(s), xiii, xiv, xix, 5, 7, 8, 58, 121,
162, 225, 316, 322
See also bhikṣu; disciple; śramaṇa; śravaka
N
Nikaṭa, 75, 197

Nikāyas, ﬁvefold, xv, xxv
See also Aṅguttara Nikāya; Dīgha Nikāya; Khuddaka Nikāya; Majjhima Nikāya; Saṃyutta Nikāya
Nirgrantha-jñātiputra, 142
Nirgrantha religion/school, 283, 284
See also Jain
nirvana, 7, 8, 15, 47, 58, 74, 88, 90, 91,
92, 94, 98, 106, 114, 115, 116, 119,
122, 148, 170, 171, 194, 195, 197,
214, 228, 266, 289, 298, 341n4
ﬁnal/ultimate, 8, 76, 90, 91, 94, 96, 98,
99, 100, 107, 108, 112, 114, 138,
139, 147, 151, 152, 154, 155, 157,
160, 162, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171,
194, 195, 266, 281, 298
goal of, 175, 194, 281, 307
path of, 77, 296, 313
non-Buddhist(s), xv, 76, 147, 194, 197, 342n13
nonself, 68, 120, 301, 303, 318, 321, 334
nonreturner, 77, 204, 215, 294, 298, 304,
312, 330
See also anāgāmin Northern Song period, xxii
See also Song period Numata, Dr. Yehan, xxiv nun. See bhikṣuṇī
Nunnery of the Eastern Grove, 211 Mṛgamāta’s lecture hall, 211
Nyagrodha, 269–270, 271–273, 275,
281, 282
O
once-returner, 77, 204, 215, 294, 304, 312
ordination, 54, 55, 56, 57, 144, 147
higher, 54, 55, 214
P
Pāli, xiv, xv, xvi, xix, xxiv, xxv, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 134, 211, 226, 342n15

359

Pali Text Society, xxv Pañcaśika, 173, 177, 193–195 pañcaśīla. See precepts, ﬁve Pāpīyān, 282
See also Evil One; Māra parinirvāṇa. See nirvana, ﬁnal/ultimate Pāyāsi, xiv, 245–268
Piṅgiyānī, 81–82
Pishatuoya, 85
Potoulou, 75, 197
Poyalou, 75, 197
Prabhāvatī, 16
See also Śikhin
practice(s), xvi, xvii, xxiv, 4, 8, 39, 47,
69, 70, 85, 88, 89, 96, 99, 101, 143,
144, 175, 193, 211, 213, 224, 273,
276, 281, 286, 293, 296, 300, 313,
319, 326, 342n23
ascetic, 68, 273, 276, 277, 278, 279, 282
of analytical insight, 58, 309
of austerity, 21, 22, 52, 54, 68, 70, 73,
85, 90, 101, 143, 144, 164, 173, 174,
178, 190, 193, 194, 195, 201, 202,
203, 223, 224, 240, 241, 284, 285,
287, 289, 295, 298, 301, 303, 304,
305, 307, 316, 317, 322, 323, 327,
328, 332–334, 338
of calming the mind, 58, 309
of charity, 70
of concentration/meditation/meditative walking, 68, 77, 211, 241, 269, 273,
274, 275, 276, 287, 298, 303, 310,
315, 319, 324, 325, 326–327, 338
deﬁled/extreme/wrong, 273, 275, 281,
282, 290
of enlightenment, seven auxiliary, 223 of ﬁve spiritual faculties, 313
of the four immeasurable minds, 135, 184, 242, 301, 318
of four kinds of application of mental awareness, 311

of good/good karma/good principles, 134, 237–239, 281, 282, 323
moral/of morality, precepts, xviii, 145, 287, 300, 314, 317
non-Buddhist, 76, 194, 197
of the path/religion/religious, xxv, 8, 37, 38, 48, 105, 106, 142, 149, 188,
199, 212, 227, 231, 232, 241, 292,
302, 320, 338
of quiescence, 164
of recitation, 184, 191
six principles of community in, 316, 337
ten right, 337
prajñā, xxi, 70, 100, 152 Prajñāpāramitā sutras/texts, xxi, xxiii,
xxiv
Prasenajit, King, 215–216, 245
pratyekabuddha, 117, 119
pratītyasamutpāda. See causal/causality; causation, twelvefold chain; dependent origination
precept(s), 7, 21, 22, 65, 68, 69, 70, 72,
73, 75, 77, 86, 97, 100, 215, 225,
229, 241, 243, 265, 274, 276, 286,
287, 290, 293, 294, 300, 301, 302,
309, 312, 314, 316, 317, 319, 321,
330, 332, 333, 334, 338, 342n23
ﬁve, 21, 71, 72, 85, 251, 266
vow of, 143, 144, 147, 290
psychophysical elements, 69, 81, 89,
205, 206, 225, 291, 296, 303, 308,
312, 313, 319, 321, 336, 338
Pukkusa, 108–109, 112
Purāṇa-kāśyapa, 142 Pure Land, xix
Q
Qin, 3
See also Late Qin

360
quiescence, 14, 37, 97, 108, 110, 118,
152, 164, 165, 184, 198, 215, 228,
287, 294, 310, 315, 319, 320
R
Rāhula, 15, 16 realm:
of desire, 51, 298, 310
of form, 296, 298, 310–311
of formlessness, 296, 311
Record of the Western Regions. See Xi you ji
Renshou zhongjing mulu (Renshou Record of Textual Catalogue), xxii
Reṇu, King/Prince, 179–182, 188–189
river(s), 4, 74, 113, 114, 236, 253
Ganges, 74, 167, 175
Hiraṇyavatī, 159, 160, 163
Kakuṭṭhā, 113, 114
Nairañjanā, 90, 98
Yamunā, 175 Yangzi, xviii
robe(s), 27, 39, 46, 57, 70, 75, 78, 79, 81,
84, 85, 86, 99, 100, 101, 104, 112,
114, 121, 122, 146, 150, 154, 163,
187, 200, 222, 223, 228, 267, 283,
292–293, 307, 338
saṃghāṭī, 37, 38, 54, 71, 83, 86, 89,
105, 114, 120, 199
three, 38, 192, 226, 227, 231, 232, 241
rūpadhātu. See realm, of form
S
sakṛdāgāmin. See once-returner Śākya clan/clanspeople/family, 14, 59,
147, 153, 155, 162, 166, 214, 215,
240
Śākyamuni, xiii, xvi, xix, xxiv, xxvi, 3, 10, 12, 15, 59, 61, 192, 193, 284
See also Buddha; Gautama Sāḷha, 75, 197

śamatha. See practice, of calming the mind
Saṃbhava, 14, 15
See also Śikhin
Saṃyukta Āgama (Mixed Discourses), xv, 3, 342n12
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold; Saṃ- yutta Nikāya
Saṃyutta Nikāya (Mixed Discourses), xv
See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold; Saṃyukta Āgama
Sandhāna, 269–282
sangha, xx, 56, 57, 66–67, 68, 83, 84, 86,
88, 97, 102, 105, 106, 146, 147,
149, 176, 214, 215, 266, 267, 281,
300, 314, 316, 317, 333–334, 338
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha Sanghasena, 15, 16
Sañjayin-vairāṭīputra, 142
Sañjīva, 14, 15
See also Krakucchanda Saptaparṇa Cave, 269, 270
Śāriputra, 14, 15, 283, 305, 307, 339
Sarvamitra, 15
See also Kāśyapa
Sarvāstivāda school, xiv, xv, xviii
Satyasiddhi-śāstra, xx Sengyou, xx, xxi Sengzhao, xxi, xxiv, 3
sensation, 40–43, 45, 81, 95
See also sense(s)
sense(s), 19, 35, 37, 48, 53, 60, 78, 81,
112, 151, 188, 193, 200
calm/restrained, 71, 108, 117
contact, 40–45, 47
faculties/operation, six/sixfold, 40–45
ﬁve, 33, 36, 179, 182, 189, 190, 191
inner, 80, 88
outer, 80, 88
perception(s), 40, 89
See also sensation

361

seven treasures, 24, 25–26, 124, 129, 226,
240
seven principles:
that enable the Dharma to ﬂourish, 67– 69, 342n16
of well-being (for monks), 66–67 Shangsheng, 188
Shumisaluo, 188
Sifen lü. See Dharmaguptaka-vinaya
Śikhin, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 59, 60
śīla. See precepts
skandhas. See psychophysical elements solitary buddha. See pratyekabuddha Soṇa, 14, 15
See also Viśvabhū Song period, xxiii
See also Northern Song period Sotthija, 15
See also Kanakamuni Soudalishetu, 75, 197
śramaṇa(s), xvii, xviii, xix, 5, 14, 18, 37,
38, 51, 55, 58, 65, 74, 85, 92, 93,
94, 105, 106, 141, 142, 143, 145,
146, 164, 165, 176, 206, 212, 214,
216, 222, 224, 227, 228, 240, 241,
247, 249, 251, 263, 264, 265, 270,
271, 272, 274, 275, 280, 293
See also ascetic; mendicant; monk
śrāvaka(s), 58, 117, 119, 279
See also bhikṣu; disciple; monk srotaāpanna. See stream-enterer Sthāvira/Sthāvira-Sarvāstivāda school,
xiii, xiv, xv
stream-enterer, 76, 77, 78, 194, 197, 199,
200, 204, 215, 293, 304, 312
stupa. See commemorative tower(s) Śubha, 17
Subhadra, 75, 140–144, 197
Subuddha, 15, 16
See also Viśvabhū Sudarśana, King, 126–138

Śuddhāvāsa, 56–58
Śuddhodana, 18
Sudharma pavilion/Sudharma-sabhā hall, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 138,
173, 177, 202, 227, 229
śūdra(s), 213, 215, 222, 223
See also four classes Sui dynasty, xxi, xxii
Sui Kaihuang lidai sanbao ji (Sui Kai- huang Record of the Threefold Buddhist Treasures of the Successive Dynasties), xxi
Sumatī, Queen, 134–137
Suṃkha, 240
śūnyatā. See emptiness supernormal:
hearing, 7, 8, 270, 319
knowledge, 9, 308, 311
power(s), 7, 8, 12, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60,
89, 93, 147, 152, 165, 177, 203,
206, 207, 241, 243, 271, 272, 288,
308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 315,
316, 318, 319, 321, 322, 328, 330,
333, 336, 339
four, 89, 96, 99, 206, 207, 291
vision, 72, 73, 254, 256, 288, 289,
311, 319
Suppatīta, 17
See also Viśvabhū
Sutra on Ākāśagarbha Bodhisattva. See Xukongyun pusa jing
Sutra on the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva Career. See Daśabhūmika-sūtra
Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma, xiv, xx, xxi, 3, 341n2
See also Tripiṭaka
T
Taishō shinshū daizōkyō (Taishō New Tripiṭaka Edition), xx, xxii–xxiv
Tang dynasty, xviii, xxii

362

Tathāgata, 3, 7, 8, 9, 28, 43, 48, 50, 51,
54–56, 58, 61, 63, 67, 71, 74, 77,
81, 82–84, 88–93, 95, 98–100, 107–
108, 110, 112–117, 120, 121, 138–
139, 141, 143, 145, 150–152, 154,
157, 160, 161, 166–169, 171, 174–
179, 197–200, 202, 204–208, 211,
214–216, 224, 266, 280, 284, 285,
289, 295, 296, 298, 300–305, 311,
313, 314, 316, 318, 319, 322, 327,
330, 335, 339
See also Buddha tathāgata(s), 11, 280, 310
tathāgatahood, 55 Theravāda, xiv, xv
three major trainings, 70, 100, 287
three evil courses of life, 53, 76, 77, 221,
279
Three Treasures, 78, 198
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha Three Vedas, xvii
Tibetan language, xxiv, 341n4 Tipiṭaka. See Tripiṭaka
Tiṣya:
disciple of Kāśyapa 14, 15
disciple of Vipaśyin, 14, 15, 50–51,
52, 54, 56
See also Kāśyapa; Vipaśyin Tuolishetu, 75, 197
Treatise on the Establishment of Truth.
See Satyasiddhi-śāstra
tree(s), 11–12, 22, 74, 78, 89, 90, 93, 95,
107, 108, 109, 114, 123, 128, 139,
152, 156, 162, 199, 200, 201, 236,
239, 245, 266, 276, 277
ajapāla-nyagrodha, 90, 98
banyan, 27
bodhi, 50, 51
nyagrodha, 11, 12, 28
pippala, 11, 12
palm, 123, 131m 135, 136, 138

pārichattaka, 59
paṭala, 11, 12, 71
puṇḍarīka, 11, 12
śāla, 11, 12, 91, 98, 117, 118, 119,
120, 138, 139, 140, 141, 152, 153,
158, 159, 163, 165, 166, 171
sandal (sūkara-maddava), 105, 108,
127
śiṃśapā, 101, 245
śirīsā, 11, 12
spirits, 120
udumbara, 11, 12
Tripiṭaka, xiii, xiv, xv, xx–xxiii, xxiv– xxv, 3, 341n2
master, xix, 5, 341n4
See also Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhi- dharma
U
Udumbarikā, Queen, 269
Udumbarikā Grove, 270
unconditioned, 60, 91, 99, 285, 309
transcendence, 152, 191, 192, 194
universal ruler, xvi, xvii, 24–26, 115–
117, 124, 126–129, 134, 138, 146,
160, 225–226, 229, 231, 243
See also cakravartin
Upananda, 162
upāsaka(s), 90, 146, 163, 176, 193, 209
See also lay, devotees, householders; laymen
upāsikā(s), 78, 90, 146, 163, 176, 193, 209
See also lay, devotees, householders; laywoman/laywomen
Upaśāntā, 15
See also Viśvabhū Upavāna, 121, 152
Uttama, 14, 15
See also Viśvabhū Uttara, 14, 15
See also Kanakamuni

363
Uttarā, 17
See also Kanakamuni Uttarakuru, xvii
V
Vaibhāṣika. See Buddhayaśas Vaiśravaṇa, 152, 173, 199, 200, 201,
204–205, 208
See also four guardians
vaiśya, 212, 213, 215, 222, 223
See also four classes Varṣākāra, 63, 65–66, 72, 74
Vāseṭṭha, 211–217, 222–224
Vibhava, 60
See also Viśvabhū Vidhūra, 14, 15
See also Krakucchanda
Vinaya, xiii, xix, xx, xxi, xxii, xviii, xxiv, 3, 5, 96, 102, 143, 144, 241n2, 342n13
Dharmaguptaka, xix Sārvastivāda, xviii
See also Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhi- dharma; Tripiṭaka
Vinaya in Four Divisions. See Dharma- guptaka-vinaya
vipaśyanā. See practice, of analytical insight
Vipaśyin, 9–16, 18–23, 29, 31, 32, 46–51,
54, 55, 57–60, 122
Virūḍhaka, 173, 201
See also four guardians Virūpākṣa, 173, 201
See also four guardians Viśākhā, 17
See also Krakucchanda Viśvabhū, 9, 10–16, 59, 61
Viśvakarman, 130

Vulture Peak, 58, 63, 173, 192, 269
W
wheel(s), 26–28, 51, 53, 160, 201
Dharma, 26, 51–53, 55, 92, 93, 147,
152, 214
golden/ sacred, 24, 25, 52, 124–129,
132, 136–138, 226, 227, 229–232,
240
X
Xi you ji, 341n4 Xuanzang, xiv Xukongyun pusa jing, xx
Y
Yajñadatta, 17
See also Kanakamuni
yakṣa, 200, 208
Yamaka underworld, 154
Yaoshuang, 4, 5
Yaoxing, xviii, xx, xxi, 342n10 Yaśas, 75, 197
Yaśavatī, 16, 17
See also Viśvabhū Yeshuduolou, 75, 197 Yogācāra, xxiii
Yuan period, xxiii
Z
Za ahan jing. See Saṃyukta Āgama Zengyi ahan jing. See Aṅguttara Āgama Zhao lun, xxi
Zhi Faling, xix
Zhong ahan jing. See Madhyama Āgama Zhongjing mulu, xx
Zhu Fonian, xix, 5

364

BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series)

Abbreviations
Ch.: Chinese Skt.: Sanskrit Jp.: Japanese
Eng.: Published title

Title Taishō No.
Ch. Skt. Eng. Chang ahan jing (長阿含經) Dīrghāgama
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses
(Volume I, 2015) 1
Ch. Skt. Eng. Zhong ahan jing (中阿含經) Madhyamāgama
The Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Discourses)
(Volume I, 2013) 26
Ch. Dasheng bensheng xindi guan jing (大乘本生心地觀經) 159
Ch. Skt. Eng. Fo suoxing zan (佛所行讃) Buddhacarita
Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha’s Acts (2009) 192
Ch. Eng. Zabao zang jing (雜寶藏經)
The Storehouse of Sundry Valuables (1994) 203
Ch. Eng. Faju piyu jing (法句譬喩經)
The Scriptural Text: Verses of the Doctrine, with Parables (1999) 211
Ch. Skt. Xiaopin banruo boluomi jing (小品般若波羅蜜經) Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra 227
Ch. Skt. Jingang banruo boluomi jing (金剛般若波羅蜜經) Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra 235

365

Ch. Daluo jingang bukong zhenshi sanmoye jing 243

(勝鬘師子吼一乘大方便方廣經)

(藥師琉璃光如來本願功徳經)

Ch. Skt. Eng. Shoulengyan sanmei jing (♛楞嚴三昧經) Śūraṅgamasamādhi-sūtra
The Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sutra (1998) 642
Ch. Skt. Jinguang ming zuishengwang jing (金光明最勝王經) Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra 665
Ch. Skt. Dasheng rulengqie jing (大乘入楞伽經) Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra 672
Ch. Skt. Eng. Jie shenmi jing (解深密經) Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra
The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning (2000) 676
Ch. Skt. Eng. Yulanpen jing (盂蘭盆經)
*Ullambana-sūtra
The Ullambana Sutra (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005) 685
Ch. Eng. Sishierzhang jing (四十二章經)
The Sutra of Forty-two Sections (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005) 784
Ch. Dafangguang yuanjue xiuduoluo liaoyi jing
(大方廣圓覺修多羅了義經) 842
Eng. The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment
(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)
Ch. Da Biluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing 848
(大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經)
Skt. Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi-vikurvitādhiṣṭhāna-vaipulyasūtrendra- rājanāma-dharmaparyāya
Eng. The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra (2005)
Ch. Jinggangding yiqie rulai zhenshi she dasheng xianzheng dajiao
wang jing (金剛頂一切如來眞實攝大乘現證大教王經) 865
Skt. Eng. Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṃgraha-mahāyānābhisamaya-mahākalparāja
The Adamantine Pinnacle Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)
Ch. Skt. Eng. Suxidi jieluo jing (蘇悉地羯囉經)
Susiddhikara-mahātantra-sādhanopāyika-paṭala
The Susiddhikara Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001) 893
Ch. Skt. Eng. Modengqie jing (摩登伽經)
*Mātaṅgī-sūtra
The Mātaṅga Sutra (in Esoteric Texts, 2015) 1300

Ch. Skt. Mohe sengqi lü (摩訶僧祇律)
*Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya 1425
Ch. Skt. Sifen lü (四分律)
*Dharmaguptaka-vinaya 1428
Ch. Pāli Shanjianlü piposha (善見律毘婆沙) Samantapāsādikā 1462
Ch. Skt. Fanwang jing (梵網經)
*Brahmajāla-sūtra 1484
Ch. Skt. Eng. Youposaijie jing (優婆塞戒經) Upāsakaśīla-sūtra
The Sutra on Upāsaka Precepts (1994) 1488
Ch. Skt. Eng. Miaofa lianhua jing youbotishe (妙法蓮華經憂波提舍) Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-upadeśa
The Commentary on the Lotus Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013) 1519
Ch. Skt. Shizha biposha lun (十住毘婆沙論)
*Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā 1521
Ch. Skt. Eng. Fodijing lun (佛地經論)
*Buddhabhūmisūtra-śāstra
The Interpretation of the Buddha Land (2002) 1530
Ch. Skt. Apidamojushe lun (阿毘達磨倶舍論) Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya 1558
Ch. Skt. Zhonglun (中論) Madhyamaka-śāstra 1564
Ch. Skt. Yüqie shidilun (瑜伽師地論) Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra 1579
Ch. Eng. Cheng weishi lun (成唯識論)
Demonstration of Consciousness Only
(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999) 1585
Ch. Skt. Eng. Weishi sanshilun song (唯識三十論頌) Triṃśikā
The Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only
(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999) 1586

(金剛頂瑜伽中發阿耨多羅三藐三菩提心論)

Ch. Naxian biqiu jing (那先比丘經) 1670
Pāli Milindapañhā
Ch. Banruo boluomiduo xin jing yuzan (般若波羅蜜多心經幽賛) 1710
Eng. A Comprehensive Commentary on the Heart Sutra
(Prajñāpāramitā-hṛdaya-sūtra) (2001)

Ch. Miaofalianhua jing xuanyi (妙法蓮華經玄義) 1716
Ch. Guan wuliangshou fo jing shu (觀無量壽佛經疏) 1753
Ch. Sanlun xuanyi (三論玄義) 1852
Ch. Dasheng xuan lun (大乘玄論) 1853
Ch. Zhao lun (肇論) 1858
Ch. Huayan yisheng jiaoyi fenqi zhang (華嚴一乘教義分齊章) 1866
Ch. Yuanren lun (原人論) 1886
Ch. Mohe zhiguan (摩訶止觀) 1911
Ch. Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao (修習止觀坐禪法要) 1915
Ch. Eng. Tiantai sijiao yi (天台四教儀)
A Guide to the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings
(in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013) 1931
Ch. Guoqing bai lu (國清百録) 1934
Ch. Eng. Zhenzhou Linji Huizhao chanshi wulu (鎭州臨濟慧照禪師語録)
The Recorded Sayings of Linji (in Three Chan Classics, 1999) 1985
Ch. Eng. Foguo Yuanwu chanshi biyan lu (佛果圜悟禪師碧巖録)
The Blue Cliff Record (1998) 2003
Ch. Eng. Wumen guan (無門關)
Wumen’s Gate (in Three Chan Classics, 1999) 2005
Ch. Eng. Liuzu dashi fabao tan jing (六祖大師法寶壇經)
The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (2000) 2008
Ch. Eng. Xinxin ming (信心銘)
The Faith-Mind Maxim (in Three Chan Classics, 1999) 2010
Ch. Huangboshan Duanji chanshi chuanxin fayao 2012A
(黄檗山斷際禪師傳心法要)
Eng. Essentials of the Transmission of Mind (in Zen Texts, 2005)

Ch. Yongjia Zhengdao ge (永嘉證道歌) 2014
Ch. Chixiu Baizhang qinggui (勅修百丈清規) 2025
Eng. The Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations (2007)
Ch. Yibuzonglun lun (異部宗輪論) 2031
Skt. Samayabhedoparacanacakra
Eng. The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines (2004)
Ch. Ayuwang jing (阿育王經) 2043
Skt. Aśokāvadāna
Eng. The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka (1993)
Ch. Maming pusa zhuan (馬鳴菩薩傳) 2046
Eng. The Life of Aśvaghoṣa Bodhisattva
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Longshu pusa zhuan (龍樹菩薩傳) 2047
Eng. The Life of Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Posoupandou fashi zhuan (婆藪槃豆法師傳) 2049
Eng. Biography of Dharma Master Vasubandhu
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Datang Daciensi Zanzang fashi zhuan (大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳) 2053
Eng. A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (1995)
Ch. Gaoseng zhuan (高僧傳) 2059
Ch. Biqiuni zhuan (比丘尼傳) 2063
Eng. Biographies of Buddhist Nuns
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (高僧法顯傳) 2085
Eng. The Journey of the Eminent Monk Faxian
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Datang xiyu ji (大唐西域記) 2087
Eng. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (1996)
Ch. Youfangjichao: Tangdaheshangdongzheng zhuan 2089-(7) (遊方記抄: 唐大和上東征傳)

Ch. Eng. Hongming ji (弘明集)
The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Volume I, 2015) 2102
Ch. Fayuan zhulin (法苑珠林) 2122
Ch. Eng. Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan (南海寄歸内法傳)
Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia (2000) 2125
Ch. Fanyu zaming (梵語雑名) 2135
Jp. Eng. Shōmangyō gisho (勝鬘經義疏)
Prince Shōtoku’s Commentary on the Śrīmālā Sutra (2011) 2185
Jp. Eng. Yuimakyō gisho (維摩經義疏)
The Expository Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sutra (2012) 2186
Jp. Hokke gisho (法華義疏) 2187
Jp. Hannya shingyō hiken (般若心經秘鍵) 2203
Jp. Daijō hossō kenjin shō (大乘法相研神章) 2309
Jp. Kanjin kakumu shō (觀心覺夢鈔) 2312
Jp. Eng. Risshū kōyō (律宗綱要)
The Essentials of the Vinaya Tradition (1995) 2348
Jp. Eng. Tendai hokke shūgi shū (天台法華宗義集)
The Collected Teachings of the Tendai Lotus School (1995) 2366
Jp. Kenkairon (顯戒論) 2376
Jp. Sange gakushō shiki (山家學生式) 2377
Jp. Eng. Hizōhōyaku (秘藏寶鑰)
The Precious Key to the Secret Treasury (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2426
Jp. Eng. Benkenmitsu nikyō ron (辨顯密二教論)
On the Differences between the Exoteric and Esoteric Teachings (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2427
Jp. Eng. Sokushin jōbutsu gi (即身成佛義)
The Meaning of Becoming a Buddha in This Very Body
(in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2428
Jp. Eng. Shōji jissōgi (聲字實相義)
The Meanings of Sound, Sign, and Reality (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2429

Jp. Eng. Unjigi (吽字義)
The Meanings of the Word Hūṃ (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2430
Jp. Eng. Gorin kuji myōhimitsu shaku (五輪九字明秘密釋)
The Illuminating Secret Commentary on the Five Cakras and the Nine Syllables (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2514
Jp. Eng. Mitsugonin hotsuro sange mon (密嚴院發露懺悔文)
The Mitsugonin Confession (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2527
Jp. Eng. Kōzen gokoku ron (興禪護國論)
A Treatise on Letting Zen Flourish to Protect the State
(in Zen Texts, 2005) 2543
Jp. Eng. Fukan zazengi (普勧坐禪儀)
A Universal Recommendation for True Zazen
(in Zen Texts, 2005) 2580
Jp. Eng. Shōbōgenzō (正法眼藏)
Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume I, 2007) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume II, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume III, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume IV, 2008) 2582
Jp. Eng. Zazen yōjin ki (坐禪用心記)
Advice on the Practice of Zazen (in Zen Texts, 2005) 2586
Jp. Eng. Senchaku hongan nembutsu shū (選擇本願念佛集) Senchaku Hongan Nembutsu Shū: A Collection of Passages on the Nembutsu Chosen in the Original Vow (1997) 2608
Jp. Eng. Kenjōdo shinjitsu kyōgyō shōmon rui (顯淨土眞實教行証文類) Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Enlightenment (2003) 2646
Jp. Eng. Tannishō (歎異抄)
Tannishō: Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith (1996) 2661
Jp. Eng. Rennyo shōnin ofumi (蓮如上人御文)
Rennyo Shōnin Ofumi: The Letters of Rennyo (1996) 2668
Jp. Ōjōyōshū (往生要集) 2682

Jp. Risshō ankoku ron (立正安國論) 2688
Eng. Risshōankokuron or The Treatise on the Establishment of the Orthodox Teaching and the Peace of the Nation (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)
Jp. Kaimokushō (開目抄) 2689
Eng. Kaimokushō or Liberation from Blindness (2000)
Jp. Kanjin honzon shō (觀心本尊抄) 2692
Eng. Kanjinhonzonshō or The Most Venerable One Revealed by Introspecting Our Minds for the First Time at the Beginning of the Fifth of the Five Five Hundred-year Ages (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)
Ch. Fumu enzhong jing (父母恩重經) 2887
Eng. The Sutra on the Profundity of Filial Love
(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)
Jp. Hasshūkōyō (八宗綱要) extracanonical Eng. The Essentials of the Eight Traditions (1994)
Jp. Sangō shīki (三教指帰) extracanonical
Jp. Mappō tōmyō ki (末法燈明記) extracanonical Eng. The Candle of the Latter Dharma (1994)
Jp. Jūshichijō kenpō (十七條憲法) extracanonical

THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES VOLUME II

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BDK English Tripiṭaka Series

THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES VOLUME II

(Taishō Volume 1, Number 1)

Translated from the Chinese by
Shohei Ichimura

BDK America, Inc.
2016

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A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka

NUMATA Yehan Founder of the English
August 7, 1991 Tripiṭaka Project

Editorial Foreword

In January 1982, Dr. NUMATA Yehan, the founder of Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), decided to begin the monumental task of translating the complete Taishō edition of the Chinese Tripiṭaka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year, the Translation Committee of the English Tripiṭaka was ofﬁcially convened.
The initial Committee consisted of the following members: (late) HANAYAMA Shōyū (Chairperson), (late) BANDŌ Shōjun, ISHIGAMI Zennō, (late) KAMATA Shigeo, (late) KANAOKA Shūyū, MAYEDA Sengaku, NARA Yasuaki, (late) SAYEKI Shinkō, (late) SHIOIRI Ryōtatsu, TAMARU Noriyoshi, (late) TAMURA Kwansei, URYŪZU Ryūshin, and YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWA Atsushi, WATANABE Shōgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium.
After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred thirty-nine texts for the First Series of translations, an estimated one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected are not necessarily limited to those originally written in India but also include works written or composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published.
Frankly speaking, it will take perhaps one hundred years or more to accomplish the English translation of the complete Chinese and Japanese texts, for they consist of thousands of works. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue unto completion, even after all its present members have passed away.
Dr. NUMATA passed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven, entrusting his son, Mr. NUMATA Toshihide, with the continuation and completion of the Translation Project. The Committee also lost its able and devoted Chairperson,

Editorial Foreword

Publisher’s Foreword

On behalf of the members of the Publication Committee, I am happy to present this volume as the latest contribution to the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series. The Publication Committee members have worked to ensure that this volume, as all other volumes in the series, has gone through a rigorous process of editorial efforts. The initial translation and editing of the Buddhist scriptures found in this and other BDK English Tripiṭaka volumes are performed under the direction of the Editorial Committee in Tokyo, Japan. Both the Editorial Committee in Tokyo and the Publication Committee, headquartered in Moraga, California, are ded- icated to the production of accurate and readable English translations of the Buddhist canon. In doing so, the members of both committees and associated staff work to honor the deep faith, spirit, and concern of the late Reverend Dr. Yehan Numata, who founded the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series in order to dis-
seminate the Buddhist teachings throughout the world.
The long-term goal of our project is the translation and publication of the texts in the one hundred-volume Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, along with a number of influential extracanonical Japanese Buddhist texts. The list of texts selected for the First Series of this translation project may be found at the end of each volume in the series.
As Chair of the Publication Committee, I am deeply honored to serve as the fifth person in a post previously held by leading figures in the field of Buddhist studies, most recently by my predecessor, John R. McRae.
In conclusion, I wish to thank the members of the Publication Committee for their dedicated and expert work undertaken in the course of preparing this volume for publication: Managing Editor Marianne Dresser, Dr. Hudaya Kandahjaya, Dr. Carl Bielefeldt, Dr. Robert Sharf, and Rev. Brian Kensho Nagata, Director of the BDK English Tripiṭaka Project.
A. Charles Muller Chairperson Publication Committee

Contents

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka
NUMATA Yehan v
Editorial Foreword MAYEDA Sengaku vii
Publisher’s Foreword A. Charles Muller ix
Translator’s Introduction Shohei Ichimura xiii
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses, Volume II
Sutra 11. The Gradual Increase of Doctrines by One 3
Sutra 12. Doctrines in Groups of Three 17
Sutra 13. Greater Causality 23
Sutra 14. Indra’s Questions on Causality 39
Sutra 15. The Episode at Anupiya 59
Sutra 16. Kalyāṇi-jātika 79
Sutra 17. Purity 93
Sutra 18. Happiness Caused by Oneself 117
Sutra 19. A Great Assembly 133
Sutra 20. Ambaṭṭha 141
Notes 179
Bibliography 183
Index 187
A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series) 199

Translator’s Introduction

The Textual Origin and Contents of the
Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses
The complex historical context in which the textual translation of the Dīrgha Āgama took place is beyond the scope of this brief introduction. I attempt to provide here, however, an evaluation of three major features of this canonical tradition: the nature of this sutra collection and its contents, the translators and the times of translation, and the canonical legacy from the point of view of the premodern and modern contemporary Tripiṭaka Buddhist library.
The Chang ahan jing (Skt. Dīrgha Āgama), or the Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses, is one of the four canonical collections that were upheld by the orthodox Dharmaguptaka school. Since this school descended from the Sthāvira orthodoxy that had a prominent position in the few centuries around the Third Buddhist Council, held around 250 to 236 B.C.E.,1 centuries after the Buddha’s demise, the origin of this school’s canonical tradition (Āgamas) may be traced back to some scriptural matrix2 whose contents had been compiled and authenticated by the time of the Third Council.
There were three or four general councils during Buddhism’s early centuries. The First Council was held at Rājagṛha (present-day Rājgīr, Bihar) immediately after Śākyamuni’s passing (485 or 486 B.C.E.) in order to assure the oral preser- vation of the core teachings Śākyamuni Buddha taught directly to his disciples. The Second Council was held at Vaiśālī (Vesālī) a century later to settle some controversies on the Vinaya rules and disciplines set forth by Śākyamuni as the moral and spiritual codes for Buddhist monks and their communities. This council contributed to the ascertainment of legality on the nature of Vinaya codes, despite some challenges and disputes raised by changing historical and social contexts. At that time, it is said that some elder monks still remembered how some of the ﬁrst-generation disciples had upheld the discipline while remain- ing active in daily life.

Though our knowledge of it is conﬁned to Theravāda documents,3 the Third Council was held under the auspices of the Mauryan Buddhist ruler Aśoka in the seventeenth year of his reign (251 B.C.E.) at the capital city Pāṭaliputra (Patna, Bihar). Although this council failed in its intended goal of preventing schism from sectarian movements, the Third Council was pivotal to the subsequent history of the Buddhist canonical tradition for two reasons. First, since the Buddha’s teaching and organization evolved in various forms during the initial two and a half centuries of its development, Buddhist leaders were compelled to reexamine their canonical traditions and establish an authenticated standard to prevent sectarian diversion and doctrinal variation. Second, it was during this council that Buddhist scriptures were formally classiﬁed into the threefold cat- egories of Sutra (teaching), Vinaya (discipline), and Abhidharma (doctrine), i.e., the threefold canonical baskets (Skt. Tripiṭaka; Pāli Tipiṭaka). From that time on, the Tripiṭaka served as the basic categorization of Buddhist literature.
The last general conference was held in Kāśmīra under the auspices of King Kaniṣka, the Kuṣāṇa ruler (known in China as Great Yüeji), toward the end of the ﬁrst century C.E., and it centered on the Hinayana orthodoxy, the Sthāvira- Sarvāstivāda school. Though the historical veracity of this conference is not conclusive, the likelihood of its occurrence can be argued based on the detailed Abhidharma discussions recorded in the Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra,4 and especially in the epilogue left by its translator Xuanzang, as well as the historical fact of the massive Hindu reaction which spurred efforts to compile their literary legacy in the early second century C.E.5 In any case, after the Fourth Council meeting in Kāśmīra, Kuṣāṇa monks began to reach the continent of China during the Late Han period.
The Synopsis between the Sanskrit Dīrgha Āgama and the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya
The Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses was one of the four Āgamas essential to the Sutra-piṭaka that was preserved by the Dharmaguptaka school. To explain the nature of this Āgama, it is best to show the synopsis between the content of the Dīrgha Āgama and that of the Dīgha Nikāya (DN), upheld by the Theravāda school as part of the ﬁvefold sutta-piṭaka. The Theravāda school pros- pered in Sri Lanka, and its descendants in Southeast Asia (Burma, Thailand, and Indochina) preserved the ﬁvefold Nikāyas through the Pāli canonical language.

The Dharmaguptaka school, one of the descendants of the Sthāvira-Sarvāstivāda school that prospered in Northern India, inherited the Dīrgha Āgama as part of their Sutra-piṭaka through the canonical language of Sanskrit or, more precisely, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.6
The fourfold Āgamas that constitute the Sutra-piṭaka of the Hinayana ortho- doxy were preserved throughout the medieval period as part of the Mahayana Tripiṭaka corpus through the Chinese versions since the ﬁfth century C.E. The following is a chart of the synopsis between the four Dharmaguptaka Āgamas originally in Sanskrit and the ﬁve Nikāyas (Pāli sutta collections) preserved by the Theravāda school.
Four Sanskrit Āgamas Five Pāli Nikāyas
(Dharmaguptaka) (Theravāda)
1. Dīrgha Āgama (Lengthy 1. Dīgha Nikāya (Lengthy Discourses) Discourses)
2. Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length 2. Majjhima Nikāya (Middle-length Discourses) Discourses)
3. Saṃyukta Āgama (Mixed 3. Saṃyutta Nikāya (Mixed Discourses) Discourses)
4. Ekottarika Āgama (Gradually 4. Aṅguttara Nikāya (Increasing Each Increased Discourses) by a Doctrine)
5. Khuddaka Nikāya (Short Discourses)
As can be inferred from this table, the Sanskrit Dīrgha Āgama and the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya have many synoptic parallels in their respective content, namely, between the thirty sutras of the Chang ahan jing and the thirty-four suttantas of the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya.7 There are twenty-seven sutras that are identiﬁed with the twenty- seven suttantas, but differences in their respective ordering and arrangement of scriptures must be recognized. Seven suttantas8 are omitted in the Chang ahan jing, but this includes a sutra that is not found in the Dīgha Nikāya. Because of this close synoptic correlations, it is reasonable to assume that the Sanskrit Dīrgha Āgama and the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya had a common canonical matrix that could have been determined as standard during the Third Buddhist Council. The Chang ahan jing is unique in two ways. First, the editors of the Āgama in organizing the sutras set forth four major sections, reﬂecting their major concerns:

(1) the centrality of Śākyamuni Buddha as the primary subject, (2) the importance of the Dharma and doctrine, (3) the resultant practice, discipline, and advanced spiritual states, and (4) a record of the cosmological origins of the world. Second, the “Sutra on Buddhist Cosmology,” which is totally absent in the Dīgha Nikāya of the Pāli canon, was added as the last text in the collection in order to present the Buddha’s teaching more effectively and attractively to a non-Buddhist Hindu audience. According to some scholars, the underlying principle of the Chang ahan jing reﬂects a conciliatory impulse that was intended to bridge the original Buddha’s teaching (the ninefold or twelvefold categories of discourses) on the one hand, and early Mahayana Buddhist teaching and scriptures on the other.9 The correlations between the two scriptural traditions, the sutras of the Chang ahan jing and the suttantas of the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya, are presented below. In addition, the corresponding texts are noted at the beginning of each sutra in this
translation.
Four Sutras on the Subject of Śakyamuni Buddha
1. The Great Origin (Daban jing) DN 14: Mahāpadāna Suttanta
2. Last Journey and Sojourns, DN 16: Mahāpariṇibbāna Suttanta
Parts 1, 2, 3
3. A Great Treasury Councilor DN 19: Mahāgovinda Suttanta
4. Janavasabha’s Exhortation DN 18: Janavasabha Suttanta
Fifteen Sutras on the Subject of Dharma and Doctrine
5. Lesser Causality DN 27: Aggañña Suttanta
6. Universal Ruler (Cakravartin)’s DN 26: Cakkavatti-sīhanāda Suttanta
Practice
7. Pāyāsi[’s Dialogue] DN 23: Pāyāsi Suttanta
8. Sandhāna DN 25: Udumbarika-sīhanāda Suttanta
9. Numerically Assembled Doctrines DN 33: Saṅgīti Suttanta
10. Ten Progressively Classiﬁed DN 34: Dasuttara-Suttanta
Doctrines
11. Gradual Increase of Doctrines No Parallel in DN by One
12. Doctrines in Groups of Three No Parallel in DN
13. Greater Causality DN 15: Mahānidāna Suttanta
14. Indra’s Question on Causality DN 21: Sakkapañha Suttanta

15. Anupiya Episode DN 24: Pāṭika Suttanta
16. Kalyāṇa-jātika DN 31: Sīṇgālovāda Suttanta
17. Purity DN 29: Pāsādika Suttanta
18. Happiness Caused by Oneself DN 28: Saṃpasānīya Suttanta
19. Great Assembly DN 20: Mahāsamaya Suttanta
Ten Sutras on the Subject of Practice and Resulting Spiritual States
20. Ambaṭṭha DN 3: Ambaṭṭha Suttanta
21. Brahmā’s [Net] DN 1: Brahmajāla Suttanta
22. One Who Cultivates Virtues DN 4: Soṇadaṇḍa Suttanta
23. Brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta DN 5: Kūṭadanta Suttanta
24. Kevaddha DN 11: Kevaṭṭa Suttanta
25. A Naked Brāhmaṇa Ascetic DN 8: Kassapa-sīhanāda Suttanta
26. Knowledge of Three Vedas DN 13: Tevijja Suttanta
27. The Rewards of the Life of a DN 2: Sāmañña-phala Suttanta Śramaṇa
28. Poṭṭhapāda DN 9: Poṭṭhapāda Suttanta
29. Lohitya DN 12: Lohicca Suttanta
Sutra 30 on the Subject of Cosmology (No Parallel in DN)
A 1. The Land of Jambudvīpa
2. The Land of Uttarakuru
3. The Universal Ruler (Cakravartin) B 4. The Worlds of the Hells
5. Dragons and Birds
C 6. The Asura Demigods
7. The Four Guardian Gods of Heaven
8. The Trāyastriṃśa Heavens D 9. Three Kinds of Disasters
10. The Asura Demigods
11. Three Kinds of Intermediate Eons (Kalpas)
Translators and Historical Times
The translator of the Chang ahan jing was the śramaṇa Buddhayaśas, a native of Kāśmīra who moved to Khotan in Central Asia, where he resided for some

time before he was invited to Chang’an speciﬁcally to engage in scriptural trans- lation. There are two stories of how Buddhayaśas was invited to Chang’an and what contribution his translation was to accomplish.
Fifth-century China was divided into northern and southern political regions separated by the Yangzi River. In the north were Louyang and Chang’an, which were the two major government seats of the Han and Tang dynasties, as well as several other political and cultural centers. Since the north was dominated by the descendants of the ﬁve racially foreign regimes, resulting in the short-lived Sixteen States period, Buddhism had a fair chance to develop its inﬂuence despite competition from indigenous Confucian and Daoist traditions. Two centuries from the initial introduction of Buddhism to China during the Late Han period, Chinese Buddhists began to be aware that they needed more scriptural sources for deeper understanding as well as for consolidating their communities through Buddhist ethical and moral practice.
According to one story, Buddhayaśas was invited to the capital by the ruler of the Late Qin, Yaoxing (r. 394–415 C.E.), with the assistance of Kumārajīva, his religious counselor. Kumārajīva (344–413) was a scholar-monk from the country of Kuccha in Eastern Turkestan. Born to Indian and Central Asian parents, he excelled in training in Buddhist studies in Kāśmīra and acquired lin- guistic skill in Chinese. He had been brought to Liangzhou as the captive of Fujian’s general, Lüguang, and was subsequently invited to Chang’an in 401 to serve as Yaoxing’s religious counselor and lead the government’s Buddhist trans- lation project. Buddhayaśas had been Kumārajīva’s teacher on the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya (the Daśabhāṇavāra-vinaya, the subject of Abhidharma treatises) more than two decades previously.10 Because he had once been Kumārajīva’s teacher, Buddhayaśas was reverentially nicknamed the “red-bearded professor” or the “senior doctrinal professor” (Vaibhāṣika) in Chang’an.
It is said that, in part, Kumārajīva needed Buddhayaśas’ help in collaborating on completing the translation of the Daśabhūmika-sutra (Sutra on the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva Career), and that the ruler Yaoxing also requested the śramaṇa in 410 C.E. to translate both the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (Dharmaguptaka-vinaya; Sifen lü; Vinaya in Four Divisions) and the Dīrgha Āgama of the same school. The Vinaya translation was completed 412 C.E. The next year, 413, Buddha- yaśas began to translate the Dīrgha Āgama with Zhu Fonian, a śramaṇa of Liangzhou, as co-translator, and the translation was completed that same year.

As for the reasons the Chang ahan jing originally belonged to the Dharma- guptaka school, we have four indirect proofs. First, the editorial point of view of the Chang ahan jing itself coincides with the Dharmaguptaka tradition in which the principle of the centrality of the Buddha is emphasized in terms of veneration for Śākyamuni as founder of the religion. Second, the text displays a great emphasis on the merit to be accrued by the cult worship of the sacred relics enshrined in stupas (commemorative towers). Third, the text’s translator, Buddhayaśas, who also translated the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya, was a bhikṣu afﬁliated with the Dharma- guptaka school. Finally, the Vinaya text, especially its ﬁfty-fourth chapter, refers to seven sutras that were included in the Chang ahan jing, including the “Sutra on Buddhist Cosmology” that is not found in the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya.11
The second story comes from the introduction to the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya, which gives a somewhat different version. Zhi Faling, a Chinese śramaṇa, trav- eled to the Central Asia on the instructions of his master, Huiyüen, to search for Vinaya texts, and happened to meet Buddhayaśas in Khotan, where he was already renowned as a Mahayana Tripiṭaka master. With due respect, Faling requested him to visit Chang’an and accompanied him there, transporting Uighur textual sources. Faling’s master Huiyüen was a close friend of Kumarajīva, and is known to have organized the Lotus Association at Lushan in the Pure Land sectarian faith, whose adherents devoted their lives to the ideal of rebirth in the Pure Land. There was a growing concern among Chinese Buddhists at the time to consolidate their growing communities and regulate the conduct of their fol- lowers, and so there was a need for the Vinaya-piṭaka. As requested, Buddhayaśas immediately began to translate the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya with the assistance of three hundred monks and scholars involved in the project. Zhi Faling is said to have had his own disciple, Huibian, participate in the sessions as he had excel- lent knowledge of Central Asian languages. The fact that active pursuit of Vinaya texts was the major trend of the time can be attested by the independent case of the monk Faxian’s (339–420) risky journey to India in search of Vinaya texts.12 Buddhayaśas did not extend his stay in Chang’an upon completion of the translation project and soon returned to Kāśmīra. Kumārajīva likely suffered an illness (Huangshi, thirteenth year) soon after completing the translation of the Satyasiddhi-śāstra (Cheng shi lun; Treatise on the Establishment of Truth) and passed away in 413 (Huangshi, ﬁfteenth year). Yaoxing abdicated his rule in the seventeenth year of Huangshi (415 C.E.). Buddhayaśas is said to have sent the

Xukongyun pusa jing (Ākāśagarbha-sūtra; Sutra on Ākāśagarbha Bodhisattva) as a gift to the sangha of Liangzhou through a traveling messenger. In fact, the translation of this text ascribed to him is recorded in the Chu sanzang ji ji (Col- lection of the Tripiṭaka Textual Records) (Taishō vol. 13, no. 405) compiled by Sengyou (445–518).
The Significance of the Text in the New Taishō Tripitaka Edition
The Chang ahan jing is placed at the very beginning of the ﬁrst volume of the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō (Taishō New Tripiṭaka Edition) compiled by Japanese Buddhists from 1924–1934 (Taishō 13 to Shōwa 9). This may represent an entirely different reorganization of the Buddhist canon from all of the preceding Tripiṭaka editions. The format of the preceding editions were based on the clas- siﬁcation order of Mahayana ﬁrst, Hinayana second, each of which was again divided into the order of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma texts. The historical legacy of the Chang ahan jing should be examined as to what the text is meant to represent in the modern Taishō edition.
The earliest reliable catalogue of Buddhist texts was due to the work of Dao’an (314–385), author of the Zhongjing mulu (Comprehensive Record of the Textual Catalogues), and Sengyou, author of the Chu sanzang ji ji. Of the two, Dao’an’s catalogues formed the core foundation of Sengyou’s enlarged record of textual catalogues. These two sets of catalogues thus mark the reliable beginning of all subsequent Chinese Tripiṭaka editions.
By the turn of the ﬁfth century, Buddhist communities in Chang’an began to exercise their own choices in the history of Buddhist affairs. This change was a natural development, because Buddhist leaders were more or less trained in Confucian academism or Daoist philosophical training. Dao’an was invited to Chang’an to serve as the religious counselor of Fujian (Yaoxing’s predecessor) from the capital of a southern state. Dao’an profoundly regretted that the Buddhist communities in China had not been properly equipped with the Tripiṭaka divisions of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma. He actively promoted study on the Mahayana Wisdom sutras, especially the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, and he recruited talented young Buddhist converts to engage in exploration of their philosophical and spiritual meaning. It is within this historical circumstance that Kumārajīva was

invited to Chang’an in 401 by Yaoxing (Fujian’s successor) as his religious coun- selor. Sengzhao (374–414), a young Buddhist convert from a Daoist background, became Kumārajīva’s dedicated disciple and quickly proved himself to be an excellent scholar-monk among the Chang’an academic community. His monograph, the Zhao lun, was praised as exhibiting superb comprehension of prajñā insight and the philosophy of emptiness (śūnyatā),second only to that of his master. Sengzhao’s introduction to the Chang ahan jing reﬂects Dao’an’s cherished objective. At the outset he calls attention to the Tripiṭaka canonical tradition:
The great teaching consisted of three [basic] divisions. For regulating phys- ical and verbal behavior there is the collection of injunctive disciplines (Vinaya). For guiding human conduct by distinguishing good and bad there is the collection of doctrinal scriptures (Sutra). For differentiating subtle and delicate subject matter, there is the collection of analytical characteristics of the mental and conscious elements (Abhidharma). Thus, there came to be the three baskets of scriptures (Tripiṭaka).
Buddhayaśas’ translation of the Chang ahan jing was perhaps partial fulﬁll- ment of the goal sought by Dao’an.
Following Dao’an’s and Sengyou’s catalogues, a series of records of Buddhist textual catalogues was compiled in the Gezhong qinding zhongjing mulu (Buddhist Canonical Textual Catalogues or Complete Buddhist Tripiṭaka Library, literally, “Great Textual Storehouse”). During the sixth century, the four catalogues came to exist under the auspices of four different regimes. Unlike Dao’an’s and Seng- you’s catalogues, which placed the texts by the translators’ names in chronological order, these state-supported enterprises adopted the new order of classiﬁcation by placing the Mahayana Tripiṭaka catalogues ﬁrst, followed by those of the Hinayana Tripiṭaka. The short-lived Sui dynasty (which dissolved at the uniﬁcation of north and south into an empire in 589), twice supported the compilation of the entire inclusive catalogues of the Tripiṭaka library: ﬁrst, the Sui Kaihuang lidai sanbao ji (Sui Kaihuang Record of the Threefold Buddhist Treasures of the Successive Dynasties) in 598, followed by its revised edition, the Renshou zhongjing mulu (Renshou Record of Textual Catalogues) in 602, which streamlined the preexistent catalogues and scrutinized the authenticity of each text. The Renshou zhongjing mulu became the basic model of all subsequent Buddhist Tripiṭaka libraries.

The ﬁling of the catalogues of the Tripiṭaka library reached its apex during the Tang period. The dynastic enterprises successfully compiled seven major editions together with their respective records of catalogues. Any record of cat- alogues is supposed to provide not only the basic principles of textual classiﬁ- cation and those texts already catalogued as authentic, but also include new translations and new discoveries as well as exclude suspicious and fraudulent texts. For instance, the Kaiyuan shijiao lu (Kaiyuan Record of Buddhist Textual Catalogues), compiled in 731, is said to have represented the best model format, so that all subsequent editions followed it in recording catalogues of hand-copied texts as well as printed texts. The classiﬁcation order, however, was unchanged from the Sui-era Renshou zhongjing mulu of 602, following the format of: (1) Mahayana sutras, (2) Mahayana Vinaya texts, (3) Mahayana Abhidharma texts,
(4) Hinayana sutras, (5) Hinayana Vinaya texts, (6) Hinayana Abhidharma texts, and (7) works written by the “wise and saints.” We know, therefore, that the Renshou zhongjing mulu model and that of Kaiyuan shijiao lu together became the standard format of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka library as a whole, of which very little had changed until the modern Taishō Tripiṭaka edition.
This extremely conservative nature developed due to two reasons. First, toward the end of Tang dynasty the dissemination of the complete Tripiṭaka library was based on hand-copied texts made under government supervision. Second, from the Northern Song period on, the dissemination of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka was based on printed texts, for which printing blocks had to be carved, a laborious and expensive process. In the Northern Song, for instance, a 972 decree stipulated the production of the entire set of textual woodcut prints and the carving of one hundred and thirty thousand woodblocks by the year 983. The dissemination of the Buddhist scriptures was under government supervision for centuries but grad- ually transferred to a number of Buddhist temples. While the main task of carving woodblocks was still carried out by dynastic enterprises, private temple versions began to appear and the distribution of texts was soon widely localized and even spread beyond the Chinese border. This was roughly the history of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka library through the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Jing periods.
The Taishō Tripiṭaka edition shows a striking innovation, especially in the change of classiﬁcation order that follows the general historical development of Buddhism. The method of detailed examination of textual contents for the

sake of new classiﬁcations also developed more precision due to modern schol- arship. First, the Taishō Tripiṭaka editors changed the order by placing the Hina- yana Sutra-piṭaka before the Mahayana texts. They set the Hinayana canon of the four Āgamas and individual texts bearing their strains in the ﬁrst two volumes, under the Āgama section. Second, they created a new classiﬁcation under the name of “original causality” to collect those texts in which the bodhisattva ideal and career is germinated in reference to early Mahayana history. Third, the remaining Mahayana sutras are classiﬁed, more or less, similarly to those of preceding editions, but each is assigned to different volumes by specifying type or class:
1. Prajñā section: Taishō Tripiṭaka vols. 5–8;
2. Lotus and Huayan section: vol. 9 (both groups) and vol. 10 (Huayan only);
3. Ratnakūṭa and Nirvana section: vol. 11 (Ratnakūṭa only) and vol. 12 (both groups);
4. Mahāsaṃnipāta-sutra (Great Collection Sutra) section: vol. 13;
5. Sutra collection (Hinayana and Mahayana) section: vols. 14–17;
6. Esoteric sutras section: vols. 18–21.
Fourth, the Taishō Tripiṭaka editors also placed the Vinaya- and Abhidharma- piṭakas after the Sutra-piṭaka in the order of Hinayana ﬁrst, then Mahayana:
1. Vinaya section: vols. 22–23 (all Hinayana) and vol. 24 (both Hinayana and Mahayana);
2. Sutra expository treatise section: vols. 25–26 (partial Abhidharma);
3. Abhidharma section: vols. 27–29;
4. Madhyamaka-Yōgācāra section: vol. 30 (Madhyamaka only), vol. 31 (par- tially Yogācāra), and vol. 32 (Yogācāra only);
5. Collected logical treatises section: vol. 32.
From here, the Taishō Tripiṭaka places texts written as commentaries on sutras and treatises (śāstras),13 sectarian documents and writings, and so forth up to the one-hundredth volume, but for the purpose of evaluating the legacy of the Chang ahan jing, these can be excluded from consideration.
Modern scholarship focuses on the fundamental spirituality of Śākyamuni Buddha, because his spiritual insight and evangelical life were the foundation of all the doctrines and practices that developed in the later history of Buddhism.

In medieval China, every Tripiṭaka library started with the class of Wisdom texts (Prajñāpāramitā sutras) under the Mahayana category, beginning with the massive, six hundred-fascicle Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sutra (Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra) translated by Xuanzang. In contrast, the Hinayana Āgamas, which are supposed to comprise the original, earliest sources and present Śākyamuni’s life and teaching as closely as possible to his original time and social context, were all buried amid thousands of ﬁles of textual catalogues or among the books and fascicles in the Hinayana section. Finally, after many centuries, the Taishō edition restored the proper place for the Hinayana Āgamas by moving this text to the very beginning of the collection.
In his preface to the Chang ahan jing, Sengzhao deﬁnes Ahan (Āgama) as “the authority to which the laws return” (fa-gui). The “authority to which laws return” means, in all probability, the profound collection of all that is good upheld by the secluded cloister of contemplative recollection (dhāraṇī). These are made into the collection of sutras as the source of authority. It was in this sense that Chang’an’s Buddhist communities, by the turn of the ﬁfth century, were motivated to have the Prajñāparāmitā texts translated rapidly, within a decade, and to also have the earliest canonical Sutra-piṭaka translated along with the Vinaya texts. Most of all, this active motivation arose from the critical study of textual records of translation and visually corroborated reliable textual collections.
Modern Buddhist studies began in the mid-nineteenth century, based on the method of text criticism and aided by scholars’ knowledge of Pāli, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan, and it has successfully promoted Buddhist studies through- out the world. It beneﬁted contemporary Japanese Buddhists in publishing the Taishō Tripiṭaka library and its catalogue, with some success in reforming and improving the longstanding Tripiṭaka traditions. Nearly three quarters of a century after publication of the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, Dr. Yehan Numata and his associates established the project to put the entire corpus of texts collected in the Taishō Tripiṭaka into English translation, with the global cooperation of Buddhist scholars. When this massive project is completed, there will be a new demand to build another ediﬁce of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka library for the sake of Buddhist and human communities worldwide. Once again, the Chang ahan jing will be highlighted as representing the earliest phase of Buddhism that marked its beginning.

Epilogue
I would like to make a few points regarding the way in which this translation has been accomplished. First, since the original Sanskrit text is no longer extant, I relied almost exclusively on the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya and its English translation, especially that rendered by the founding members of the Pali Text Society, as the sole corroborative references for the Chinese text.14 For instance, it is extremely difﬁcult to identify from Chinese transliteration what a given proper name or proper noun might be in the Sanskrit original. Second, I preferred a straightforward style of narration to the Chinese idiomatic deﬁnitive style. As a cognate language of Sanskrit, though to a lesser degree, Pāli has an intricate case system to specify the contextual relationships between things that are referred to by words through case indicatives, whereas Chinese expression often relies on word order alone, without case indicative changes. Hence, in my English presentation of the Chang ahan jing, I have relied on the English version of the Dīgha Nikāya presented in scholarly translations of the text. This English version of the Chang ahan jing may thus appear to be more like a translation made from the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya than a directly rendered English version vis-à-vis the Chinese original. As English is not my native language, I did not consider that presenting the textual contents only through a grammatically learned second language would be successful. Due to the length of the original text, this translation will be presented in three volumes. This is Volume II of the translation, containing sutras 11–21. Volume I (published in 2015) includes the Preface by Shi Sengzhao and contains sutras 1–10; Volume III will contain the remaining sutras, 21–30.
I looked for a model narrative format to translate foundational Buddhist texts,
such as the Chang ahan jing. After searching for a feasible format among various samples of translations of Buddhist texts, I ﬁnally decided that it was best to follow the traditions established by the Pali Text Society in dealing with ancient Buddhist literature by means of modern languages. I am, however, obliged to assert that this translation has been produced totally based on my own understanding of Buddhism accrued through my lifelong study and practice of the religion.
Śākyamuni’s religion began with a dialectical insight underling the fourfold truths of the life process. While engaged in ﬁnal revision of this translation, I personally encountered the messengers of old age, illness, and death, and my attention was drawn to these messagers more acutely because of my engagement

in rereading the draft translation. It is my hope that readers of this text will realize the fundamental wisdom of Buddhist spirituality in regard to these serious matters. May the reader discover from this text his or her successful pathway toward liberation.

THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES
VOLUME II

Sutra 11

The Gradual Increase of Doctrines by One

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha sojourned at the monastery built by Anāthapiṇḍika in the Jetavana Forest accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. At that time, the World-honored One spoke to the bhikṣus:
I shall exhort on the subject of the subtle (supreme) Dharma. Whatever I explain to you, whether it is at the beginning, the middle, or the end, is true and genuine. It is endowed with meaning and essence and is well balanced with the practice of pure and genuine austerity. This is called the “teaching comprising ten ﬁvefold groups of doctrines.” You should listen to me attentively and think about and remember what I explain to you. The following is the teaching.
The bhikṣus were then attentive and ready to listen. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
This teaching of ten ﬁvefold groups of doctrines comprises the following: the group of doctrinal items that are very useful for religious salvation, the group of doctrinal items that should be practiced, the group of doc- trinal items that should be comprehensively understood, the group of doctrinal items that should be relinquished, and the group of doctrinal items that should be directly experienced by oneself.
What is the singular useful item? It is the discipline of not forsaking whatever is good. What is the singular item to be practiced? It is the dis- cipline of mindfulness in contemplation of one’s body. What is the sin- gular item to be exactly known? It is the fact of contact of the [sense] faculties with their respective objects under the inﬂuence of deﬁlement. What is the singular item to be relinquished? It is the sense of self- conceit. What is a singular item to be directly experienced? It is the

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deliverance of the mind that is unshakable or undisturbed toward the realm beyond the inﬂuence of deﬁlement.
Again, there is the double doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, the double item that should be practiced, the double item that should be comprehensively understood, the double item that should be relinquished, and the double item that should be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the double item that is very useful for religious salvation? It consists of knowing shame upon self-reﬂection and knowing shame before others. (2) What is the double item to be practiced? It con- sists of the practice of calming the mind (śamatha) and that of analytical introspection (vipaśyana). (3) What is the double item to be understood comprehensively? It consists of the (noetic) category of name, i.e. the four mental skandhas, and the (corporeal) category of form, i.e., the one material skandha. (4) What is the double item to be relinquished? It con- sists of ignorance of the Four Noble Truths and craving and desire for existence. (5) What is the double item to be directly experienced by one- self? It is the acquisition of insight on the Four Noble Truths and the realization of deliverance.
Again, there is the triple doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, the triple doctrinal item that should be practiced, the triple doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, the triple doctrinal item that should be relinquished, and the triple doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the triple item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means ﬁrst, associating with good friends; second, attending discourses on the Dharma, and third, realizing the truth of the Dharma. (2) What is the triple item to be practiced? It means the practice of the threefold concentration: ﬁrst, the concentration on the emptiness of the self and things attributed to it; second, the concentration on signlessness or the nondifferentiation of things; and third, the concentration on the objectless or goal-free state of existence. (3) What is the triple item to be comprehensively under- stood? It means three kinds of sensation or feeling: ﬁrst, the feeling of pain; second, the feeling of pleasure; and third, feeling neither pain or pleasure. (4) What is the triple item to be relinquished? It means three kinds of attachment: ﬁrst, craving for desire; second, craving for existence;

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and third, craving for nonexistence. (5) What is the triple item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the three kinds of supernormal knowledge: ﬁrst, the knowledge of recollection of past lives; second, the knowledge derived from the supernormal power of vision; and third, the knowledge of the total eradication of the inﬂuence of deﬁlements. Again, there is the fourfold doctrinal item that is very useful for reli- gious salvation, the fourfold doctrinal item that should be practiced, the fourfold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, the fourfold doctrinal item that should be relinquished, and the fourfold doc- trinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the fourfold item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means the four kinds of blessings: ﬁrst, residing in the proper region;15 second, associating with and receiving support from good friends; third, perfect effort that is self-motivated; and fourth, having planted good roots in one’s past lives. (2) What is the fourfold item to be practiced? It means the practice of four kinds of application of mental awareness. First, while observing his inner body or inner senses in concentration, a bhikṣu should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations and keeping them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and wor- ries. Second, while observing his outer body or outer senses, a bhikṣu should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations to keeping them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and worries. Third, while observing both the inner and outer body, a bhikṣu should exert himself with no slackening, being mindful of his observations and keeping them in memory, and thereby remove worldly desires and worries. It is the same with the second application: observing one’s sense perceptions; the third application, observing one’s mind or intellect; and the fourth application, observing one’s psychophysical elements (skan- dhas). (3) What is the fourfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the four kinds of food: ﬁrst, edible, material food that is either nutritious or exquisite; second, nutrition ingested by contact through touch; third, volitional and mental nutrition; and fourth, consciousness nutrition. (4) What is the fourfold item to be relinquished? It means four kinds of grasping or attachment: ﬁrst, attachment to desires; second, attachment to the self; third, attachment to the vow of precepts belonging

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to other schools; and fourth, attachment to views. (5) What is the fourfold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the four results of the mendicant life: ﬁrst, attaining the result of the saintly state of stream- winner (srotaāpanna); second, attaining the result of the saintly state of once-returner (sakṛdāgāmin); third, attaining the result of the saintly state of nonreturner (anāgāmin); and fourth, attaining the result of the saintly state of arhatship.
Again there is the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that is very useful for reli- gious salvation, the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be practiced, the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, the ﬁvefold doctrinal item that should be relinquished, and the ﬁvefold doc- trinal item to be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the ﬁvefold item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means the ﬁve kinds of effort toward ultimate cessation: ﬁrst, striving to believe that the Buddha Tathāgata is perfectly endowed with the ten supreme titles, such as One Liberated from Attachment and Fully Enlightened One; second, striving to be free from illness and thus always maintaining physical well-being and peace; third, striving to be honest and direct without the vice of ﬂattery, for whom the Tathāgata has taught the path to nirvana; fourth, striving to control the mind, upholding it intact and not disrupted and keeping in memory whatever scripture was once recited, even long ago; and ﬁfth, striving to be capable of skillfully investigating the rising and falling of the psychophysical elements and thus terminate the root of suffering through the same practice that is accomplished by wise and saintly disciples. (2) What is the ﬁvefold item to be practiced? It means the practice of ﬁve spiritual faculties: the faculty of faith, the faculty of endeavor, the faculty of mindfulness, the faculty of concentration, and the faculty of insight. (3) What is the ﬁvefold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the ﬁve aggregates that are the basis of clinging to existence: ﬁrst, the aggregate of material elements (rūpa), second, the aggregate of sensation (vedanā), third, the aggregate of perception (saṃjñā), fourth, the aggregate of dispositional forces (saṃskāra), and the aggregate of consciousness (vijñāna). (4) What is the ﬁvefold item to be relinquished? It means ﬁve kinds of moral and spiritual hindrances: sexual desire, malice, sloth

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and drowsiness, agitation and worry, and doubt. (5) What is the ﬁvefold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the ﬁve kinds of religious doctrines for one who has realized the state of arhat and has no further stage of training: ﬁrst, the doctrine of moral precepts and disciplines; second, the doctrine of meditative concentration; third, the doctrine of analytical insight; fourth, the doctrine of religious salvation; and ﬁfth, the doctrine of the insight acknowledging liberation.
Again there is the sixfold doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, the sixfold doctrinal item that should be practiced, the sixfold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, the sixfold doctrinal item that should be relinquished, and the sixfold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the sixfold item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means the six principles of harmony: if a bhikṣu adheres to the six principles of harmony in prac- tice, his conduct is worthy of respect and reverence and can harmonize the sangha, without creating any dispute or controversy, enabling him to act independently without the admixture of confusion. What are these six principles of harmony? First, if a monk always acts benevolently, pays respect toward those who uphold the practice of austerity, and abides with the mind of benevolence and love, his benevolence is regarded as “the principle of harmony, worthy of respect and reverence, capable of harmonizing the sangha, without creating any dispute or con- troversy, and he can independently proceed without the admixture of confusion.” Second, through adherence to benevolent and friendly speech, and third, through adherence to benevolent and friendly thought, a bhikṣu may obtain material support on the basis of the doctrinal teaching; fourth, he shares whatever he receives in his almsbowl with his colleagues with- out keeping it all for himself. Fifth, a bhikṣu upholds the practice of the precepts belonging to those practitioners of saintly status, which should not be violated or altered but kept free from immoral contamination, and equips himself well with the foregoing principles that the learned elders praise and realizes the state of mental concentration. Sixth, a bhikṣu realizes the liberation of those of saintly status, terminates the state of suffering together with others (i.e., equally), and continues to adhere to right views and various practices of austerity. These principles

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are worthy of respect and reverence, and can harmonize the sangha, without creating any dispute or controversy, enabling one to act inde- pendently without the admixture of confusion. (2) What is the sixfold item to be practiced? It means the six kinds of mindfulness: being mindful of the Buddha, being mindful of the Dharma, being mindful of the Sangha, being mindful of the precepts, being mindful of charity, and being mindful of heavenly beings. (3) What is the sixfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the six internal bases of cognition: ﬁrst, the sense faculty of seeing; second, the sense faculty of hearing; third, the sense faculty of smell; fourth, the sense faculty of taste; ﬁfth, the sense faculty of touch; and sixth, the intellectual faculty of con- sciousness. (4) What is the sixfold item to be relinquished? It means the six kinds of craving desire that are directed to external bases of cognition respectively, i.e., the objects of the sense faculties: craving for the object of seeing, for the object of hearing, for the object of smell, for the object of taste, ﬁfth, for the object of touch, and for the object of the intellect.
(5) What is the sixfold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the six kinds of supernormal powers: supernormal psychic power, supernormal hearing, the supernormal power of knowing the minds of others, the supernormal power of recollecting and knowing past lives, supernormal vision, and the supernormal power of eradicating deﬁlements. Again there is the sevenfold doctrinal item that is very useful for reli- gious salvation, the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be practiced, the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be relinquished, and the sevenfold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the sevenfold item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means the seven kinds of possessions (or wealth, treasure, etc.): ﬁrst, the pos- session of faith; second, the possession of precepts; third, the possession of “shame upon self-reﬂection”; fourth, the possession of “shame before others”; ﬁfth, the possession of learning; sixth, the possession of charity; and seventh, the possession of insight. (2) What is the sevenfold item to be practiced? It means the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment: ﬁrst, a bhikṣu practices the discipline of mindfulness on the basis of non- desire and quiescence, distancing [himself from worldly matters]. In

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like manner, he practices the discipline of discernment of the psycho- physical elements; third, he practices the discipline of effort; fourth, he practices the discipline of delight; ﬁfth, he practices the discipline of freedom from bodily and mental disturbance; sixth, he practices the dis- cipline of the practice of concentration; and seventh, he practices the discipline of mental equanimity on the basis of nondesire and quiescence, distancing [himself from worldly matters]. (3) What is the sevenfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the seven places where consciousness abides: when sentient beings are in possession of different bodies and different ideations, these are humans and heavenly beings. This is the initial abode of consciousness. Second, when sentient beings possess individual bodies but one and the same ideation, this is the time when the god Brahmā was initially born in Ābhāsvara Heaven, where communication is transmitted by light instead of sound. This is the second abode of consciousness. Third, when sentient beings possess one and the same body but different ideations, this is Ābhāsvara Heaven. This is the third abode of consciousness. Fourth, when sentient beings possess one and the same body and ideation, this is Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. This is the fourth abode of consciousness. Fifth, when sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite space, this is the ﬁfth abode of conscious- ness. Sixth, when sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite con- sciousness, this is the sixth abode of consciousness. Seventh, when sen- tient beings reside in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility, this is the seventh abode of consciousness. (4) What is the sevenfold item to be relinquished? It means the seven kinds of deﬁlement: craving for sexual desire, craving for existence, wrong view, self-conceit, craving for malice, ignorance, and doubt. (5) What is the sevenfold item to be directly expe- rienced by oneself. It means the seven kinds of power to exhaust the inﬂuence of deﬁlement: ﬁrst, a bhikṣu who has terminated the inﬂuence of deﬁlement sees all the elements of existence as suffering, having orig- inated from causal concatenation, which can be brought to cessation as they really are. He sees desire as a ﬁery pit, also as a weapon, like a knife or sword. Though he knows the arising of desire and sees it, he is not attached to it nor does he abide in it. He engages in thorough intro- spection into the causal chain in the order of cessation as well as in the

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order of origination, and thus understands the origin of desire and its cessation as it really is. The bhikṣu who has thus terminated the inﬂuence of deﬁlement through the practice of introspection is free from the inﬂu- ence of the worldly vices of avarice and stinginess, and evil and bad psychophysical elements do not arise in his existence. He practices the four disciplines of applying mental awareness, and hence he is engaged with many items to be practiced and carried out. He is also engaged in cultivating ﬁve spiritual faculties and correlative forces and practicing the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment, as well as the eightfold noble path of cessation.
Again there is the eightfold doctrinal item that is very useful for reli- gious salvation, the eightfold doctrinal item that should be practiced, the eightfold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, the eightfold doctrinal item that should be relinquished, and the eightfold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the eightfold item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means the eight kinds of causal factors that enable one to acquire knowledge when the practice of austerity has not been fully perfected, and to broaden and strengthen that knowledge when the practice of austerity has been perfected. What are these eight items? Here, when a bhikṣu abides in reliance on the World-honored One, or abides in reliance on his teaching elder or a practitioner of austerity who is endowed with knowledge, he becomes aware of shame upon self-reﬂection and shame before his teacher, and cherishes a sense of adoration and reverence toward the teacher. This is the ﬁrst kind of causal factor that enables a bhikṣu to acquire knowledge when the practice of austerity has not been fully per- fected and to broaden and strengthen that knowledge when the practice of austerity has been perfected. Second, a bhikṣu abides in reliance to the World-honored One and closely questions him whenever possible, saying, “What is the meaning of this doctrine, sir?” “What is intended, sir?” At that moment, any honorable senior monk should explain the profound meaning of the doctrine referred to for the sake of the junior monk. This is the second kind of causal factor. Third, having thus listened to the meaning of the doctrine, the junior bhikṣu becomes settled in body and mind. This is the third causal factor. Fourth, having thus become

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settled in body and mind, the junior bhikṣu does not engage in nonreli- gious and idle speech, but when he joins his colleagues he either speaks about the doctrine or invites others to talk about it; otherwise, he does not forsake the discipline of noble silence. This is the fourth causal factor. Fifth, he attends many discourses for learning, broadens his knowledge, and upholds it without forgetting it. He intuits the depth of the various doctrines, the various degrees of good, higher, middle, and lower, the truth of meanings and essences, and, endowed with the practice of aus- terity, he abides ﬁrmly, his mind unswayed when reviewing what he has learned. This is the ﬁfth causal factor. Sixth, engaged in the practice of terminating evil but increasing good without slackening, a bhikṣu strives hard, sustains the doctrine, and does not forsake it. This is the sixth causal factor. Seventh, he comes to acquire the insight into origin and cessation, knows the goal of saintly realization, and thus reaches the end of suffering. This is the seventh causal factor. Eighth, he analytically intuits the origination and cessation of the ﬁve aggregates of existence, specifying that “This is the aggregate of material form, its causal context, and its cessation. This is the aggregate of feeling, that of ideation, that of dispositional forces, that of consciousness, the causal context of con- sciousness, and the cessation of it.” This is the eighth causal factor that enables a bhikṣu to acquire knowledge when the practice of austerity has not been fully perfected and to broaden and strengthen that knowledge when the practice of austerity has been perfected. (2) What is the eightfold item to be practiced? It means the eightfold noble path: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. (3) What is the eightfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the eight criteria of the secular world: gain and loss, infamy and fame, praise and blame, and suffering and happiness. (4) What is the eightfold item to be relinquished? It means the eight kinds of wrong conduct (i.e., conduct counter to the eightfold noble path): wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong concen- tration. (5) What is the eightfold item to be directly experienced by one- self? It means the eight kinds of liberation: ﬁrst, the liberation realized when one, with an ideation of internal form, perceives external forms;

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second, the liberation realized when, without any ideation of internal form, he perceives external forms; third, the liberation realized when he has thus terminated all deﬁlements; fourth, the liberation realized when, having transcended all ideations of form and annihilated sensory reaction, he abides in the ﬁrst formless state of concentration, the sphere of inﬁnite space; ﬁfth, the liberation realized when, having transcended the sphere of inﬁnite space, he abides in the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness; sixth, the liberation realized when, having transcended the previous sphere, he abides in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility; seventh, the liberation realized when, having transcending the previous sphere, he abides in the sphere of neither ideation nor nonideation; and eighth, the liberation realized when, having transcending this sphere, he abides in the ﬁnal state of cessation, having transcended the senses and ideation, which is equivalent to the third saintly state of anāgāmin.
Again there is the ninefold doctrinal item that is very useful for reli- gious salvation, the ninefold doctrinal item that should be practiced, the ninefold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, the ninefold doctrinal item that should be relinquished, and the ninefold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the ninefold item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means the nine qualities for which to strive: moral purity in upholding the pre- cepts, purity of mind, purity of views, the purity of overcoming doubt, the purity of analytical excellence, knowing the right path from wrong ones, the purity of knowing the method of reaching the goal, the purity of the absence of desire, and the purity of deliverance. (2) What is the ninefold item to be practiced? It means the nine roots of proper mental attention: delight, devotion, joy, well-adjusted happiness, concentration, absolute knowledge, the eradication of deﬁlement, equanimity, the absence of desire, and liberation. (3) What is the ninefold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the nine places of sentient beings. First, when sentient beings are in possession of different bodies and dif- ferent ideations, these are humans and heavenly beings. This is the initial abode of sentient beings. Second, when sentient beings possess different bodies but one and the same ideation, this is the time when the god Brahmā was initially born in Ābhāsvara Heaven, where communication

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is transmitted by light instead of sound. This is the second abode of sen- tient beings. Third, when sentient beings possess one and the same body but different ideations, this is Ābhāsvara Heaven. This is the third abode of sentient beings. Fourth, when sentient beings possess one and the same body and ideation, this is Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. This is the fourth abode of sentient beings. Fifth, when sentient beings reside in the sphere of neither ideation nor external awareness, this is Āsaṃjñika Heaven. This is the ﬁfth abode of sentient beings. Sixth, when sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite space, this is the sixth abode of sentient beings. Seventh, when sentient beings reside in the sphere of inﬁnite con- sciousness, this is the seventh abode of sentient beings. Eighth, when sentient beings reside in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility, this is the eighth abode of sentient beings. Ninth, when sentient beings reside in the sphere of neither ideation nor nonideation, this is the ninth abode of sentient beings. (4) What is the ninefold item to be relinquished? It means the nine roots of craving: ﬁrst there is craving; second, because of craving there arises the act of seeking; third, because of seeking there arises a gain; fourth, because of gain there arises a thought of its utility; ﬁfth, because of the thought of utility there arises desire; sixth, because of desire there arises strong attachment; seventh, because of attachment there arises an act of grasping; eighth, because of grasping there arises an act of parsimony; and ninth, because of parsimony there arises an act of guarding. (5) What is the ninefold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the nine successive stages of the process of cessation: ﬁrst, when a bhikṣu enters the ﬁrst meditative absorption there ceases to be the sound of auditory faculty; second, when he enters the second med- itative absorption there ceases to be mental activity of thinking and delib- eration; third, when he enters the third meditative absorption there ceases to be the awareness of delight; fourth, when he enters the fourth meditative absorption there cease to be the signs of inhalation or exhalation; ﬁfth, when he enters the sphere of inﬁnite space, the initial formless state of concentration, there ceases to be the ideation of external form; sixth, when he enters the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness there ceases to be the ideation of empty space; seventh, when he enters the sphere of nothingness or nonutility there ceases to be the ideation of consciousness; eighth,

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when he enters the sphere of neither ideation nor nonideation, there ceases to be the ideation of nonutility or nothingness; ninth, when he enters the ﬁnal state of cessation, having transcended the senses and ideation, which is equivalent to third saintly state of anāgāmin, there ceases to be both ideation and sensation.
Again there is the tenfold doctrinal item that is very useful for religious salvation, the tenfold doctrinal item that should be practiced, the tenfold doctrinal item that should be comprehensively understood, the tenfold doctrinal item that should be relinquished, and the tenfold doctrinal item that should be directly experienced by oneself. (1) What is the tenfold item that is very useful for religious salvation? It means the ten kinds of refuge for religious salvation. Fiirst, a bhikṣu is endowed with two hundred and ﬁfty disciplines, as well as possessing digniﬁed deportment, and, being afraid of committing even a minute offense, he trains in all of the disciplines with meticulous evenness, having no detrimental imbal- ance. Second, he is befriended by good associates. Third, a bhikṣu uses words appropriately, neither in excess nor insufﬁciently, and he is able to understand the meanings beyond words. Fourth, he willingly seeks out opportunities to listen to discourses on the Dharma and freely shares whatever doctrine he has received to others, without hesitation. Fifth, a bhikṣu visits the places of various practitioners of austerity and open- handedly offers his assistance to them, accomplishing whatever is difﬁcult to accomplish, and also teaching others how to do the same. Sixth, he attends as many discourses as possible to acquire knowledge and retains whatever he has learned in memory, without forgetting anything. Seventh, he exerts himself to eradicate unfavorable mental obstacles and promote favorable mental states. Eighth, a self-motivated bhikṣu always focuses his mind with vigilant mindfulness on essentially good conduct, as if he is visualizing it right before his eyes. Ninth, he realizes transcendent insight and knowledge, intuitively perceives the origination and cessation of the psychophysical elements, and, on the basis of the disciplines upheld by wise and saintly disciples, he eradicates the root of all suffering. Tenth, he is content with quiet seclusion, engages in mental contempla- tion, and never wastes time in worldly pastimes during sessions of med- itation. (2) What is the tenfold item to be practiced? It means the ten

14
right practices: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness (samyak-smṛti), right concen- tration, right wisdom, and right liberation. (3) What is the tenfold item to be comprehensively understood? It means the ten bases of cognition, namely the ﬁve sense faculties and their respective objects: the visual organ, the eye; the auditory organ, the ear; the olfactory organ, the nose; the gustatory organ, the tongue; the tactile organ, the body; and the visual object of form, the auditory object of sound, the olfactory object of smell, the gustatory object of taste, and the tactile object of touch. (4) What is the tenfold item to be relinquished? It means the ten kinds of wrong paths: wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness (mithyā-smṛti or mithyā- vāyāma), wrong concentration, wrong deliverance, and wrong knowl- edge. (5) What is the tenfold item to be directly experienced by oneself? It means the ten norms of the arhat who does not require further training: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, right wisdom, and right liberation.
O bhikṣus, the foregoing is called the teaching of the ten ﬁvefold doc- trines, which I have now completed for you. From the time I realized the status of a tathāgata I have continued to accomplish whatever should be done for the beneﬁt of my disciples, and I have completed it. I have instructed you with friendly love and in a gentle manner. You should respectfully receive the teaching I have given and carry out what has been taught by me. O bhikṣus, you should abide in a quiet, secluded place such as an empty spot under a tree, make effort to practice medi- tation, and refrain from slackening. If you do not work hard now toward your religious goal, what use is there in regretting it later on? I wish for you to make effort to uphold the foregoing teaching.
At that time, having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, the bhikṣus were delighted and carried out what was taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 11: The Gradual Increase of Doctrines by One]

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Sutra 12

Doctrines in Groups of Three

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha sojourned at the monastery built by Anāthapiṇḍika in the Jetavana Forest accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. At that time, the World-honored One said to the bhikṣus:
I shall exhort on the subject of the subtle [supreme] Dharma. Whatever I explain to you is endowed with meaning and pure and genuine essence, and it is well balanced in respect to the practice of austerity. This is called the “teaching comprised of three groups of doctrine.” You should listen attentively and contemplate and remember what I explain to you. The following is the teaching.
The bhikṣus were then attentive and ready to listen. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The threefold doctrinal collection is comprised of three groups of doctrinal items. The ﬁrst group of doctrinal items deﬁne the path that leads to an evil life course, the second group of doctrinal items deﬁne the path that leads to a good life course, and the third group of doctrinal items deﬁne the path that leads to nirvana. What is a singular item that leads to an evil life course? It is merciless malice toward others, which directs a person toward an evil life course. What is a singular item that leads to a good life course? It is merciful compassion toward other sentient beings, which directs a person toward a good life course. What is a singular item that directs a person to the goal of nirvana? It is the practice of mental awareness of one’s inner and outer physical senses with strenuous effort. This directs a person toward nirvana.
Again, there is a double doctrinal item that leads to an evil life course, a second double doctrinal item that leads to a good life course, and a

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third double doctrinal item that leads to nirvana. What are the two doc- trinal items that lead to an evil life course? One is the transgression of precepts and associating with the wicked, and another is breaking away from right views. What are the two doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? One is adherence to the precepts and the other is adherence to right views. What are the two doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? One is the practice of calming the mind and the other is the practice of analytical introspection.
Again, a triple doctrine leads to an evil life course, a second triple doctrine leads to a good life course, and a third triple doctrine leads to nirvana. What are the three doctrinal items that lead to an evil life course? They are the three kinds of morally unfavorable roots: greed, hatred, and delusion. What are the three doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? They are the three kinds of morally good roots: the absence of greed, hatred, and delusion. What are the three doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? They are the practice of the threefold concentration: con- centration on the emptiness of the self and things attributed to it; con- centration on signlessness or the nondifferentiation of things; and con- centration on a non-purposeful or goal-free state of existence.
Again, a fourfold doctrine leads to an evil life course, a second fourfold doctrine leads to a good life course, and a third fourfold doctrine leads to nirvana. What are the four doctrinal items that lead to an evil life course? They are ﬁrst, uttering words of amorous passion; second, uttering hateful words; third, uttering frightening words; and fourth, uttering delusory words. What are the four doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? They are: ﬁrst, words uttered in the absence of amorous pas- sion; second, words uttered in the absence of hatred; third, words uttered in the absence of fearfulness, and fourth, words uttered in the absence of delusion. What are the fourfold doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? They are the four applications of mental awareness in the following: ﬁrst, the inner and outer physical senses; second, sensation or feeling; third, the mind or intellect; and fourth, the psychophysical elements (aggregates).
Again, a ﬁvefold doctrine leads to an evil life course, a second ﬁvefold doctrine leads to a good life course, and a third ﬁvefold doctrine leads

18
to nirvana. What are the ﬁve doctrinal items that lead to an evil life course? They consist of violation of the ﬁve precepts, i.e., taking life, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, speaking falsehoods, and states of indolence arising from [the use of] intoxicants. What are the ﬁve doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? They consist of strict adherence to the ﬁve precepts: abstinence from taking life, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from speaking falsehoods, and from states of indolence arising from [the use of] intoxicants. What are the ﬁve doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? They are the ﬁve kinds of spiritual faculties: faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and insight. Again, a sixfold doctrine leads to an evil life course, a second sixfold doctrine leads to a good life course, and a third sixfold doctrine leads to nirvana. What are the six doctrinal items that lead to an evil life course? They are six kinds of disrespect: toward the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; toward the precepts; toward concentration; and toward one’s parents. What are those six doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? They are six kinds of respect: toward the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; toward the precepts; toward concentration; and toward one’s parents. What are those six doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? They are the six objects of mindfulness or recollection: being mindful of the Buddha,
Dharma, and Sangha; being mindful of the precepts; being mindful of charity; and being mindful of divinity.
Again, a sevenfold doctrine leads to an evil life course, a second sev- enfold doctrine leads to a good life course, and a third sevenfold doctrine leads to nirvana. What are the seven doctrinal items that lead to an evil life course? They are seven evil actions: taking life; taking what is not given; sexual misconduct; false speech; duplicitous speech; harsh speech; and frivolous sycophancy. What are those seven doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? They are seven good actions: abstinence from taking life, abstinence from taking what is not given, abstinence from sexual misconduct, abstinence from false speech, abstinence from duplic- itous speech, abstinence from harsh speech; and abstinence from frivolous sycophancy. What are the seven doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? They are seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment. First, a bhikṣu practices the discipline of mindfulness on the basis of nondesire and

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quiescence, distancing [himself from worldly matters]. In like manner, second, he practices the discipline of discernment of the psychophysical elements; third, he practices the discipline of effort; fourth, he practices the discipline of delight; ﬁfth, he practices the discipline of freedom from bodily and mental disturbance; sixth, he practices the discipline of the practice of concentration; and seventh, he practices the discipline of the mind of equanimity on the basis of nondesire and quiescence, dis- tancing [himself from worldly matters].
Again, an eightfold doctrine leads to an evil life course, a second eightfold doctrine leads to a good life course, and a third eightfold doctrine leads to nirvana. What are the eight doctrinal items that lead to an evil life course? They are eight kinds of wrong conduct (i.e., counter to the eightfold noble path): wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong concentration. What are the eight doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? They are the eight criteria of the secular world: gain and loss; infamy and fame; praise and blame; and suffering and happiness. What are those eight doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? They are the eightfold noble path: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Again, a ninefold doctrine leads to an evil life course, a second nine- fold doctrine leads to a good life course, and a third ninefold doctrine leads to nirvana. What are the nine doctrinal items that lead to an evil life course? They are the nine kinds of hatred. First a person hates some- one, thinking “He abused me in the past.” Second, he hates someone, thinking “He is abusing me now.” Third, he hates someone, thinking “He will surely abuse me in the future.” Fourth, a person hates someone, thinking “He abused someone I love.” Fifth, he hates someone, thinking “He is abusing someone I love now.” Seventh, he hates someone, thinking “He will surely abuse someone I love in the future.” Seventh, a person hates someone, thinking “He associated with someone I hate.” Eighth, he hates someone, thinking “He is now associating with someone I hate.” Ninth, a person hates someone, thinking “He will associate with someone
I hate [in the future].”

20
What are the nine doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? They are the nine kinds of subduing hatred. First, a person subdues his hatred for someone, thinking “This person abused me in the past, but what beneﬁt is there in my holding a grudge against him? I have already subdued my hatred.” Second, he thinks “I am now subduing my hatred.” Third, he thinks “I will subdue my hatred in the future.” Fourth, a person subdues his hatred for someone, thinking “This person abused someone I love, but what beneﬁt is there in my holding a grudge against him? I have already subdued my hatred.” Fifth, he thinks “I am now subduing my hatred.” Sixth, he thinks “I will surely subdue my hatred in the future.” Seventh, a person subdues his hatred for someone, thinking “Though this person befriended someone I hate, what beneﬁt is there in my holding a grudge against him? I have already subdued my hatred.” Eighth, he thinks “I am now subduing my hatred.” Ninth, he thinks “I will subdue my hatred in the future.”
What are the nine doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? They are the nine roots of proper mental attention: delight, devotion, joy, happiness, concentration, absolute knowledge, the eradication [of deﬁlement] and the maintenance of equanimity, absence of desire, and liberation. Again, a tenfold doctrine leads to an evil life course, a second tenfold doctrine leads to a good life course, and a third tenfold doctrine leads to nirvana. What are the ten doctrinal items that lead to an evil life course? They are the ten kinds of wrongful deeds: taking life, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, speaking falsehoods, duplicitous speech, harsh speech, ﬂattery, covetousnes, malicious intent, and wrong views. What are the ten doctrinal items that lead to a good life course? They are the ten kinds of good deeds: not taking life, not taking what is not given, not engaging in sexual misconduct, not speaking falsehoods, not enaging in duplicitous speech, not engaging in harsh speech, not engaging in ﬂattery, not being covetous, not having malicious intent, and not holding wrong views. What are the ten doctrinal items that lead to nirvana? They are the ten direct paths: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration,
right liberation, and right wisdom.

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O bhikṣus, you should be able to reach nirvana through the practice of these ten doctrinal disciplines. These are called the sublime right doc- trines in groups of three. From the time I realized the status of a tathāgata I have continued to accomplish and complete that which should be done for the beneﬁt of my disciples. Concerned with your destinies, I have continued to teach you the [doctrinal] scriptures and the [practical] path. You should be concerned about your destinies. You should always stay in a secluded place, such as under a tree, and never slacken in the practice of contemplation. If you do not work hard toward your religious goals now, what use is there in having regrets later on?
Having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, the bhikṣus were delighted and carried out what was taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 12: Doctrines in Groups of Three]

Sutra 13

Greater Causality
(Dīgha Nikāya 13: Mahā-nidāna Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was staying in the country of Kuru at the residence of Kammāsadhamma, accompanied by one thousand two-hundred ﬁfty bhikṣus. At that time, Ānanda, while sitting in a secluded place, thought to himself:
How marvelous it is! The insight that is imbedded in the doctrine of twelve- limbed causality (pratītyasamutpāda) is so profound that I cannot fathom it. [In contrast,] my insight, accomplished in applying mental awareness to the function of intellect, is but a [simple] event before my eyes. What is that which is considered profound [and which I cannot see]?
Thereupon, leaving his secluded room, Ānanda came to the place of the World-honored One and, after honoring him by bowing his forehead to the Buddha’s feet, took his seat on one side and said to the World-honored One:
A while ago, when I was practicing meditation in my secluded room, an idea struck me: How profound must be the insight of the twelve- limbed causality! And, how difﬁcult it is to fathom it! [In comparison,] my insight, accomplished in the application of mental awareness to the function of intellect, is simply a [minor] phenomenon seen before me. What is that insight which is so profound [that I cannot see it], sir?
At that moment, the World-honored One replied to Ānanda:
You should not give up, Ānanda. The insight of the twelve-limbed causal- ity is very profound and difﬁcult to understand. O Ānanda, this twelve- limbed causality is difﬁcult to see and difﬁcult to know. If anyone, whether he is an evil god, the god Brahmā, śramaṇas, or brāhmaṇas, has not seen this causality before trying to fathom, investigate, and

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analyze its meaning, he will be equally confused and unable to see what this causality is. O Ānanda, I shall now explain it to you.
There is a causal condition for the fact of old age and death. Should someone ask you, “What is the causal condition of old age and death?” you should reply, “Birth is the condition of old age and death.” If he asks again, “What is this causal condition of the fact of birth?”, you should reply, “The will-to-becoming is the condition of birth.” If he asks, “What is the condition of this will-to-becoming?”, you should reply, “The act of grasping is the condition for the will-to-becoming.” If he then asks, “What is the causal condition of the act of grasping?”, you should reply, “Thirstlike craving is the condition for the act of grasp- ing.” If he asks again, “What is the causal condition of thirstlike craving?”, you should reply, “Sensation or feeling is the condition for thirstlike craving.” If he asks again, “What is the causal condition of sensation?”, you should reply, “Sense contact is the condition of sensation.” If he then asks, “What is the causal condition of sense contact?”, you should reply, “The sixfold sense operation is the condition of sense contact.” If he asks again, “What is the causal condition of the sixfold sense oper- ation?”, you should reply, “A mental and physical process is the condition of sixfold sense operation.” If he asks again, “What is the causal condition of this mental and physical process?”, you should reply, “Consciousness is the condition of the mental and physical process.” If he then asks, “What is the causal condition of consciousness?”, you should reply, “A group of dispositional forces is the condition of consciousness.” If he then asks, “What is the causal condition of the dispositional forces?”, you should reply, “The state of ignorance is the condition of the dispo- sitional forces.”
O Ānanda, in this manner, depending on ignorance (avidyā), there
arises dispositional forces. Depending on dispositional forces (saṃskāra), there arises consciousness. Depending on consciousness (vijñāna), there arises a mental and physical process. Depending on the mental and phys- ical process (nāmarūpa), there arises the sixfold sense operation. Depend- ing on the sixfold sense operation (āyatana), there arises sense contact [with an object]. Depending on sense contact (sparśa), there arises sen- sation (sense perception). Depending on sensation (vedanā), there arises

24

thirstlike craving. Depending on craving (ṭṛṣṇā), there arises an act of grasping. Depending on grasping (upādāna), there arises the will-to- becoming. Depending on the will-to-becoming (bhava), there arises birth. Depending on birth (jāti), there arises the process of old age, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and agony. This aggregate [of old age and death] (jāramaraṇa), which is suffering in itself, arises on the basis of birth. This is called the causal aggregate of suffering.
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
What does it mean to say that depending on the condition of birth, there arises the effect of old age and death? If every sentient being were pre- vented from being born, how could old age and death arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Old age and death would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that the fact of old age and death arises depending on birth, and that depending on birth, there arises old age and death. The meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
Again, the Buddha said to Ānanda:
What does it mean to say that depending on the will-to-becoming, there arises birth? If every sentient being were prevented from being driven by the will-to-becoming toward the realm of desire (kāmadhātu), toward the realm of form (rūpadhātu), or toward the formless realm (ārūpya- dhātu), how could birth arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Birth would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that birth arises depending on will-to-becoming, and that depending on the will- to-becoming there arises birth. The meaning of “causal dependence” that I intend to explain can be found here.
Again the Buddha said to Ānanda:

60c

What does it mean to say that depending on an act of grasping, there arises the will-to-becoming? If every sentient being were prevented from grasping desires, taking wrong views as true, taking wrong disciplines as true, or taking the existence of a self as true, how could the will-to- becoming arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “The will-to-becoming would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that will-to- becoming arises depending on grasping, and that depending on grasping there arises will-to-becoming. The meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
Again, the Buddha said to Ānanda:
What does it mean to say that depending on thirstlike craving, there arises an act of grasping? If every sentient being were prevented from being driven by a thirstlike craving toward desire, toward becoming, or toward non-becoming, how could grasping arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Grasping would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that grasping arises depending on thirstlike craving, and that depending on thirstlike craving there arises grasping. The meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
Again, the Buddha said to Ānanda:
What does it mean to say that depending on sensation, there arises thirst- like craving? If every sentient being were prevented from experiencing pleasure, pain, or neither pleasure nor pain, how could thirstlike craving arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Thirstlike craving would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:

26
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that thirstlike craving arises depending on sensation, and that depending on sensation there arises thirstlike craving. The meaning that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, you should know that from the cause of thirstlike craving there arises an act of pursuit; from the cause of pursuit there arises an object of pursuit or acquisition; from the cause of acquisition there arises a value of utility; from the cause of utility there arises desire; from the cause of desire there arises attachment; from the cause of attachment there arises greed; from the cause of greed there arises an act of guarding; from the cause of guarding there arises an act of defending. O Ānanda, from the cause of the act of defense there arise armed conﬂicts and legal disputes that create innumerable evils. The meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, what does this mean? If every sentient being were dis- suaded from the act of defending, how could armed conﬂicts and legal disputes arise, producing innumerable evils?”
Ānanda replied, “These evils would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that armed conﬂicts and legal disputes arise from the cause of defending, and that depending on the act of defending there are armed conﬂicts and legal disputes. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
Again, the Buddha said to Ānanda:
What does it mean to say that from the cause of guarding there arises an act of defending? If every sentient being were dissuaded from the act of guarding, how could an act of defending arise?
Ānanda replied, “Acts of defense would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that an act
of defense arises from the cause of guarding, and that depending on the 61a

27
act of guarding, there is the act of defending. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
Again, the Buddha said to Ānanda:
What does it mean to say that from the cause of greed, there arises an act of guarding? If every sentient being were persuaded from being affected by greed, how could an act of guarding arise?”
Ānanda replied, “Acts of guarding would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that an act of guarding arises from the cause of greed, and that depending on greed there is the act of guarding. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that from the cause of attachment there arises greed? If every sentient being were prevented from becoming attached [to anything], how could greed arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Greed would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that greed arises from the cause of attachment, and that depending on attachment there is greed. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that from the cause of desire there arises attachment? If every sentient being were prevented from desire [for anything], how could attachment arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Attachment would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that attachment arises from the cause of desire, and that depending on desire there is attachment. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.

28
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that from the cause of utility there arises desire? If every sentient being were prevented from ﬁnding utility [in anything], how could desire arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Desire would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that desire arises from the cause of utility, and that depending on utility there is desire. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that from the cause of acquisition there arises utility? If every sentient being were prevented from making acquisitions, how could utility arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Utility would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that utility arises from the cause of acquisition, and that depending on acquisition there is utility. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that from the cause of an act of pursuit there arises acquisition? If every sentient being were prevented from the pursuit of anything, how could acquisition arise in anyone?
Ānanda replied, “Acquisition would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that acquisition arises from the cause of the act of pursuit, and that depending on the act of pursuit there is acquisition. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal depend- ence that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that from the cause of thirstlike craving there arises an act of pursuit? If every sentient being were pre- vented from the pursuit of anything, how could thirstlike craving arise in anyone?

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Ānanda replied, “Thirstlike craving would not be able to arise, sir.” The Buddha continued:
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that the act of pursuit arises from the cause of thirstlike craving, and that depending on thirstlike craving there is the act of pursuit. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
Again the Buddha said to Ānanda:
From the cause of thirstlike craving there arises an act of pursuit, and so on, up to the arising of guarding and defending. From the cause of sensation a similar causal series can be established; that is, from the cause of sensation there arises an act of pursuit, and so on, up to the act of guarding and defending.
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
What does it mean to say that depending on sense contact there arises sensation? O Ānanda, if there was neither visual faculty, nor visual form, nor visual perception, how could contact arise?”
Ānanda replied:, “There would be no contact, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
If there is neither sound nor auditory sensation, neither odor nor olfactory sensation, neither taste nor gustatory sensation, neither the physical body nor tactile sensation, neither intellect nor mental impression, how could there be sense contact?
[Ānanda replied,] “There would be no contact, sir.”
The Buddha continued, “O Ānanda, if every sentient being were prevented from experiencing sense contact, how could sensation arise?”
[Ānanda replied,] “There would be no sensation, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
As you say, O Ānanda, because of this causality, we know that sensation arises from sense contact, and that depending on sense contact there is sensation. O Ānanda, the meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.

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The Buddha said to Ānanda:
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that depending on the mental and physical process16 there arises sense contact? If every sentient being were prevented from having the mental and physical process, how could there be mental contact?
[Ānanda replied,] “There would be no mental contact, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] “If every sentient being was prevented from having a physical body and sense organs, how could bodily contact arise?”
[Ānanda replied,] “There would be no bodily contact, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] “O Ānanda, if there was no mental and physical process, how could any contact arise?”
[Ānanda replied:] “There would be no contact, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Ānanda, because of this causality, I know that sense contact arises from the cause of a mental and physical process, and that depending on a mental and physical process there arises sense contact. The meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that depending on consciousness there arises the mental and physical process? If consciousness does not enter into the mother’s womb, could a mental and physical process arise?
[Ānanda replied,] “No, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] “If consciousness enters the womb and does not come out of it, could a mental and physical process arise?”
[Ānanda replied,] “A mental and physical process would not be able to arise, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] “If consciousness comes out of the womb and the fetus dies, could a mental and physical process be increased?”
[Ānanda replied,] “No, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] O Ānanda, if there is no consciousness, could a mental and physical process arise?”
[Ānanda replied,] “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]

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O Ānanda, because of this causality, I know that a mental and physical process arises from the cause of consciousness, and that depending on consciousness there arises a mental and physical process. The meaning of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here.
O Ānanda, what does it mean to say that depending on a mental and physical process there arises consciousness? If consciousness does not stay with the mental and physical process, there is no abode of con- sciousness. If there is no abode of consciousness, how could birth, old age, death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and agony arise?
[Ānanda replied,] “None of these things could arise, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] “O Ānanda, if there is no mental and physical process, how could consciousness arise?”
[Ānanda replied,] “Consciousness could not arise, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Ānanda, because of this causality, I know that consciousness arises from the cause of the mental and physical process, and that depending on the mental and physical process there arises consciousness. The mean- ing of causal dependence that I intend to explain can be found here. O Ānanda, therefore, the mental and physical process depends on con- sciousness and consciousness depends on the mental and physical process; the mental and physical process depends on the sixfold sense operation and the sixfold sense operation depends on sense contact; sense contact depends on sensation and sensation depends on thirstlike craving; thirst- like craving depends on grasping and grasping depends on the will-to- becoming; the will-to-becoming depends on birth and birth depends on
old age, death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and agony.
O Ānanda, [as to the causal relation between the mental and physical process and consciousness and the subsequent series,] the causal chains have been equally addressed, equally answered, equally delimited, equally explained, equally intuited, and regarded as an [individual] sen- tient being.
O Ānanda, bhikṣus should acquire this principle of causality; this transcendent insight, freed from the evil inﬂuence of deﬁlements by intuiting it as it really is, thereby liberates the mind from desire.

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O Ānanda, the kind of bhikṣu who thus realizes liberation should be called one who has realized liberation through analytical insight. These emancipated bhikṣus know how the Tathāgata is existentially limited (i.e., does not exist after death), how he is not limited (i.e., exists after death), how he is both limited and unlimited, and how he is neither limited nor unlimited. How do they know this? O Ānanda, [the causality of the mental and physical process and consciousness, together with the subsequent series,] have been equally addressed, equally answered, equally delimited, equally explained, equally intuited, and regarded as an [individual] sentient being. Having thus known the nature of sentient beings thoroughly, those bhikṣus who have realized liberation through transcendent insight, freed from the evil inﬂuence of deﬁlements, though neither seeing nor knowing in an ordinary sense, are yet able to see and know the nature of the Tathāgata as it really is.
O Ānanda, whoever speculates about the self invariably upholds the view that it exists, and they then regard the mental and physical aggregates together with sensation as an individual self. Some say, “Sensation is not the self, but the self is sensation.” Others say, “Sensation is not the self, and the self is not sensation either, but the element of sensation as a whole is the self.” Others say, “Sensation is neither the self, nor is the self sensation, nor do the elements of sensation constitute the self either, but thirstlike craving alone is the self.”
O Ānanda, if someone, referring to the self, asserts that sensation is the self, you should say to them, “The Tathāgata distinguishes three kinds of sensation; namely, pleasure, pain, and neither pleasure nor pain. When one feels a pleasurable sensation, there is neither a sensation of pain nor that of neither pleasure nor pain. When one feels pain, there is neither a sensation of pleasure nor that of neither pleasure nor pain. When one feels a sensation of neither pain nor pleasure, there is neither a sensation of pain nor a pleasurable sensation. O Ānanda, this is because a pleasurable object, with which the sense faculty has come into contact, produces a pleasurable sensation [only]. When a sense contact that pro- duces a pleasurable sensation ceases, the sensation also simultaneously ceases to be. O Ānanda, a painful object, with which a sense faculty has come into contact, produces a painful sensation [only]. When a sense

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contact that produces a painful sensation ceases, the sensation also simul- taneously ceases to be. A sense object that is neither painful nor pleas- urable, with which a sense faculty has come into contact, produces a sensation of neither pain nor pleasure [only]. If the sense contact that produces a sensation of neither pain nor pleasure ceases, the sensation also simultaneously ceases to be.
O Ānanda, this is comparable to obtaining ﬁre by friction. If someone rubs a piece of wood against another piece of wood, creating friction, ﬁre can be obtained; if he keeps the two pieces of wood apart, however, there is no possibility of creating ﬁre. Likewise, sensation arises from the contact between an object and its corresponding sense faculty. A pleasurable sensation arises from contact with an object, but if this contact ceases to be, the sensation also simultaneously ceases. A painful sensation arises from contact with an object, but if this contact ceases, the sensation also simultaneously ceases to be. A neutral sensation of neither pleasure nor pain arises from contact with an object, but if this contact ceases, the sensation also simultaneously ceases to be.
O Ānanda, these three kinds of sensation are thus conditioned [by sense contact] and are impermanent. These kinds of sensation arise through the causality of dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda). Whatever arises through dependent origination is subject to decay, is mutable, and undergoes change. This causality is not the existence of the self, nor is the self the existence of this causality. One should see this matter as it really is, through right knowledge.
O Ānanda, one who thinks that the self exists regards sensation as the self. Such a person is wrong. O Ānanda, suppose someone who believes in the existence of the self asserts, “Sensation is not the self, but the self is sensation.” You should say to him, “The Tathāgata distin- guishes three kinds of sensations: pleasure, pain, and neither pleasure nor pain. If pleasurable sensation is the self, then when the pleasurable sensation passes there would come to be two selves. This is wrong. If a painful sensation is the self, then when the pain subsides there would come to be two selves. This is also wrong. If a sensation of neither pleas- ure nor pain is the self, then when this neutral sensation passes there would come to be two selves. This is wrong.”

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O Ānanda, if one who sees the existence of the self asserts, “Sensation is not the self, but the self is sensation,” that person is wrong. O Ānanda, one who speculates about the existence of the self upholds the following theory: “Sensation is neither the self, nor is the self sensation, but the elements of sensation constitute the self.” You should say to him, “There is no sensation whatsoever. How can you say that there are elements of sensation? Are you identiﬁable with elements of sensation?’ He will surely reply, “No, I cannot be identiﬁed with these elements.” Therefore, Ānanda, one who speculates about the existence of the self, saying, “Sensation is neither the self, nor is the self sensation, but the elements of sensation constitute the self”—that person is incorrect.
O Ānanda, one who speculates upon the existence of the self asserts, “Sensation is neither the self, nor is the self sensation, nor are the contents of sensation the self, but thirstlike craving is the self.” You should say to him, “There is no sensation at all. How can thirstlike craving exist? Are you identiﬁable with this thirstlike craving?’ He will surely reply, “No, I cannot be identiﬁed with it.” Therefore, Ānanda, one who spec- ulates upon the existence of the self, asserting, “Sensation is not the self, nor is the self sensation, nor are the elements of sensation the self, but the thirstlike craving alone is the self”—that person is incorrect.
O Ānanda, [as to the causal relation between the mental and physical process and consciousness, and the subsequent series,] the causal linkages have been equally addressed, equally answered, equally delimited, equally explained, equally intuited, and regarded as an [individual] sentient being. O Ānanda, those bhikṣus, having thus known the nature of human existence thoroughly as it really is, are liberated from the mind of desire by acquiring transcendent insight, thereby freed from the evil inﬂuence of deﬁlements. They are called ones who have realized liberation through analytical insight. The bhikṣus who have realized liberation know the existence of the self, the nonexistence of the self, both the existence and nonexistence of the self, as well as neither the existence nor nonexistence of the self. How is this so? O Ānanda, [regarding the causality of depend- ent origination,] the causal linkages have been equally addressed, equally answered, equally delimited, equally explained, equally intuited, and regarded as an [individual] sentient being. Having thus known the nature

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of human existence thoroughly, those bhikṣus realize liberation through the attainment of transcendent insight, freed from the evil inﬂuence of deﬁlements. Though neither seeing nor knowing in an ordinary sense, they are able to see and know the aforementioned fourfold knowledge.
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
Among those who speculate about the existence of the self, it has been equally established that some identify certain [nonsentient] material ele- ments with a “self”; others identify unlimited material elements with a “self”; further, others identify a small portion of the mental or sentient elements (i.e., the four remaining mental aggregates) with a “self”; while yet others identify unlimited mental elements with a “self.” O Ānanda, those who identify a part of the material elements with the self are con- vinced that their view alone is good, and all other views are wrong. Those who identify unlimited material elements with the self are also convinced that their view alone is good, and all the other views are wrong. Those who identify limited mental elements with the self are convinced that their view alone is good, and all other views are wrong. Those who identify unlimited mental elements with the self are convinced that their view is good, and all other views are wrong.
The Buddha said to Ānanda:
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert that the seven abodes of con- sciousness and the two higher abodes are a safe haven, a place of release, of protection, like a house, guiding lights, wisdom, a refuge, free from falsity and deﬁlement. What are these seven? The ﬁrst is when sentient beings possess different bodies and different ideations. These are humans and heavenly beings. This is the initial abode of consciousness. Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “This is the place of safe haven, of release, of protection, a house, a light, wisdom, a refuge, free from falsity and deﬁlement.” O Ānanda, if a bhikṣu knows this initial abode of con- sciousness, its causal origin derived from the totality of causes and condi- tions, its cessation, their pleasure and pain, and the way of transcending it, he sees things as they really are. O Ānanda, such a bhikṣu would say, “I have seen that the aggregates are not the self, nor is the self the aggregates.

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I have seen the aggregates as they really are.” [Second,] when sentient beings possess individual bodies but one and the same ideation, this is the time when the god Brahmā was initially born in Ābhāsvara Heaven, where communication is transmitted by light instead of sound. [Third,] when sentient beings possess one and the same body but different ideations, this is Ābhāsvara Heaven. [Fourth,] when sentient beings pos- sess one and the same body and ideation, this is Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. Fifth is when sentient beings abide in the sphere of inﬁnite space; sixth is when sentient beings abide in the sphere of inﬁnite consciousness; and seventh is when sentient beings abide in the sphere of nothingness or nonutility. These are the seven abodes of consciousness. Some śra- maṇas and brāhmaṇas assert that these are places of safe haven where consciousness may abide, a place of release, of protection, a house, a guiding light, wisdom, a refuge, free from falsity and deﬁlement. O Ānanda, if, however, a bhikṣu knows these abodes of consciousness, their causal origin derived from the totality of causes and conditions, their cessation, their pleasure and pain, and the way of transcending them, he sees things as they really are. Such a bhikṣu would say, “I have seen that these aggregates are not the self, nor is the self these aggregates. I have seen the aggregates as they really are.” This is the nature of the seven abodes of consciousness.
What are the two bases of consciousness? They are the abodes of sentient beings who abide in the sphere of nonideation and in the sphere of neither ideation nor nonideation. Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert that these are places of safe haven where consciousness may abide; abodes to be sought and protected, houses, guiding lights, wisdom, refuges, free from falsity and deﬁlement. O Ānanda, if a bhikṣu knows these abodes of consciousness, their causal origin derived from the totality of causes and conditions, their cessation, their pleasure and pain, and the way of transcending them, he sees things as they really are. Such a bhikṣu would say, “I have seen that these aggregates are not the self, nor is the self these aggregates. I have seen things as they really are.” This is the nature of the two bases of consciousness.
O Ānanda, again, there are eight kinds of deliverance. What are these eight? When one, with an ideation of form within, perceives external

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forms, this is the ﬁrst deliverance. When without any form or internal ideation one perceives external forms, this is the second deliverance. When one has thus terminated all deﬁlements, this is the third deliverance. When, having transcended all form ideations and annihilated sensory reaction, one abides in the ﬁrst formless state of concentration, this is the fourth deliverance. Having transcended the realm of inﬁnite space, one abides in the realm of inﬁnite consciousness; this is the ﬁfth deliv- erance. Having transcended the previous realm, one abides in the realm of nothingness or nonutility; this is the sixth deliverance. Having tran- scended the previous realm, one abides in the realm of neither ideation nor nonideation; this is the seventh deliverance. Having transcended this realm, one abides in the ﬁnal state of cessation that transcends the senses and ideation; this is the eighth deliverance.
O Ānanda, bhikṣus should be able to freely traverse from one liberated state to another in due order as well as in reverse order. Such a bhikṣu can realize these stages of liberation simultaneously.
At that time, Ānanda, having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, was delighted, respectfully received the teaching, and carried out what was taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 13: Greater Causality]

Sutra 14

Indra’s Questions on Causality
(Dīgha Nikāya 21: Sakka-pañha Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was staying in Magadha at Indra’s Śāla Tree Cave on Mount Vediyaka, north of the village of Āmra. At that time, Śakra, lord of the gods, motivated by subtle good intent, wished to see the Buddha, thinking, “I would like to go to see the World-honored One.” Having heard that their lord, motivated by subtle good intent, was ready to visit the Buddha, the Trāyastriṃśa gods then came to speak to the god Indra, saying:
Very good, indeed. O Lord Śakra, motivated by subtle good intent, you are ready to see the Tathāgata. We wish also to visit the World-honored One in your company, sir.”
The god Indra at once spoke to Pañcasikha, the gandharva god, “I am ready to visit the World-honored One. You should accompany me. The Trāyas- triṃśa gods too shall come along with me.” All delightedly replied, “Yes, sir.” Thereupon, Pañcasikha played a string instrument made of lapis lazuli to offer music before Śakra while standing among the other gods. Then Śakra, lord of the gods, the Trāyastriṃśa gods as well as Pañcasikha, suddenly dis- appeared from the assembly hall and arrived at Mount Vediya of Magadha as quickly as the time it takes for a wrestler to bend his arm and straighten it. At that time, the World-honored One was engaged in ﬁery concentration, illumining all of Mount Vediya in a similar ﬁery color. Then, seeing the ﬁery slopes, the countrymen said to each other, “The reason that this mountain is brightly illumined in ﬁery color must be found in the power of the Tathāgata
and the gods.”
Thereupon, Śakra said to Pañcaśikha:
The Tathāgata, who has extinguished all deﬁlements, is difﬁcult to see, because he frequently descends to this remote, secluded place and spends

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his hours in silence, uttering no words, accompanied in the silence only by wild birds and animals. Many great deities reside in this mountain, accompanying the World-honored One. May you play your instrument before the World-honored One to entertain him. I shall come later on accompanying the other gods.
Pañcaśikha replied, “Yes, sir.” At once he visited the place by himself as instructed and played his instrument in a spot near the World-honored One, accompanying it with a song:
O my dear Bhadrā, you should venerate your father. Your father is very handsome.
When you were born to him,
I was in love with your mother, Lakṣmī. Originally, caused by a minor event,
In my mind arose higher aspiration,
Evolving to become greater and more intense.
As a result, I frequently made offerings to the arhats, Engaged myself in practicing four kinds of meditation Along with the sons of the Śākyas,
Always enjoying a quiet residence,
As though my mind sought the nectar [of religious salvation]. While I concentrated myself in practice,
Śākyamuni also gave rise within himself the aspiration To pursue the path of realizing supreme enlightenment. He still proceeds upon that career path even now, While I seek that woman,
Wishing to make love without fail.
My mind has been entrapped in attachment, Unable to abandon my passion toward her. Though wishing to abandon it,
I have not been able to leave,
Just like an elephant languishing in chains.
I am like one who meets a cool wind when hot, Who obtains cool springwater when thirsty, Who realizes nirvana;

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I am like water that extinguishes ﬁre,
An ill person who is visited by a good doctor,
A starving person who obtains delicious food and Is gratiﬁed by consuming it to his heart’s content, An arhat who abides in a state of realization, and An elephant that, though still in chains, yet resists. Like such an elephant,
I suddenly dash here and there, hardly controllable; Unrestrained, I cannot stop by myself;
Just as an elephant pressed by heat plunges into a cool pond, Its surface totally covered with various ﬂowers,
Thereby cooling its entire body.
Whatever offering I have made before and will make later on Should be offered to the arhats.
Whatever I obtain due to rewarding fortune Should be given to them.
If you die, I shall die together [with you].
[If I] survive after [your demise], I will commit suicide. Without you, I certainly cannot live.
May the lord of the Trāyastriṃśa gods, O Śakra, Grant me my wish.
I shall praise you with due propriety.
May you extend your sympathetic understanding to my request.
At that time, the World-honored One came out of the state of concentration and said to Pañcaśikha:
Very good, O Pañcaśikha, you have praised the Tathāgata with your voice of purity, accompanying it by playing the stringed instrument made of lapis lazuli. The instrumental sound and your voice, neither too long nor too short, well harmonized over a melancholy tune, is able to move human hearts. Your performance on the instrument seems to express various meanings, not only explaining the bondage of desire and praising the practice of austerity, but also promoting the life of the śramaṇa and the goal of nirvana.

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At that moment, Pañcaśikha said to the Buddha:
I recall, sir, that once in the olden days, when the World-honored One had accomplished the path of the Buddha under the nyagrodha tree of Ajapāla near the Nairañjanā River in Uruvela, the son of Indra’s chari- oteer, Sikhaddi by name, and the daughter of the gandharva god got together to seek sexual gratiﬁcation. At that time, having conﬁrmed that their minds were inclining toward this, I composed verses at once and, by way of playing a tune, I explained to them the bondage of desire, commended the practice of austerity, and exhorted the life of the śramaṇa as well as nirvana. Then, having listened to my song, that heavenly nymph raised her eyes toward me and said with a smile, “O dear Pañca- śikha, I have not yet seen the Tathāgata but I have heard of the words of praise spoken by those gods assembled in the Sudharma Hall of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, saying, “He has such-and-such virtues,” “He has such-and-such powers,” [and so on]. You have always upheld your faith in the Tathāgata and have been closely associated with him. Now I wish to become acquainted with the Tathāgata along with you, sir.” O World- honored One, at that time I gave my promise to her, but ever since I have not had an opportunity to speak to her again, sir.
Then Śakra, lord of the gods, thought to himself, “Pañcasikha has already entertained the Tathāgata. I now should think of him [and communicate].” Śakra, lord of the gods, thus thought of the gandharva god.
This thought then appeared in Pañcaśikha’s mind, “Now, Śakra, lord of the gods, has sent a message to me.” At once, picking up the string instrument made of lapis lazuli, Pañcaśikha returned to the place of the god Indra. Indra said to him:
May you go to see the World-honored One as my proxy, representing the Trāyastriṃśa gods, and after greeting him with a bow say these words of enquiry about his well-being: “Is His Holiness at ease with his rising and sitting, does he feel strong in his walking?”
Thus instructed, Pañcaśikha returned to the World-honored One and, having honored the Buddha by bowing his forehead to the Buddha’s feet, he withdrew to one side and said to the World-honored One:

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Śakra, lord of the gods, lord of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven and all the gods therein, sent me to the World-honored One with words of enquiry regard- ing your well-being: “Is His Holiness at ease in his rising and sitting, does he feel strong in his walking?”
The World-honored One replied:
May you, the god Indra, and all the Trāyastriṃśa gods equally enjoy increased longevity, a pleasurable life, and good health. For the gods of those other heavens and humans, as well as those sentient beings, the asuras, have been indulged with longevity, comfortable living, and the absence of illness.
At that moment, Śakra, lord of the gods, again thought to himself, “We should see and pay our respects to the World-honored One.” Accompanied by the Trāyastriṃśa gods, he immediately went to the place of the Buddha and all of the gods, having honored the Buddha by bowing their foreheads to the Buddha’s feet, withdrew to one side.
Thereupon the god Indra said to the Buddha, “This is strange. I feel that I am sitting far away from the World-honored One, and I should take my seat at a closer spot.”
The Buddha said to the god Indra, “Though the assembly of your gods is quite large, come closer toward me and take your seat.”
At that moment, the Śāla Tree Cave automatically increased in size so as to provide abundant space for all the Trāyastriṃśa gods. Thereupon, the god Indra and the Trāyastriṃśa gods, as well as Pañcaśikha, all honored the Buddha by bowing their foreheads to the Buddha’s feet and withdrew to take their seats on one side.
Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha:
At one time, the World-honored One was at the house of a lay brāhmaṇa householder in Śrāvastī. At that time, the World-honored One had entered into the ﬁery mental concentration. I was then traveling on a minor errand, in a treasure chariot equipped with thousand-spoked wheels, and as I was passing through the air on the way to visit the guardian god Virūḍhaka, I happened to see a heavenly maiden, her hands held together in reverence, standing before the World-honored One. I approached her and said:

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When the World-honored One comes out from his concentration, may you greet him by announcing my name and enquire about his well-being: “Is His Holiness at ease in his rising and sitting, does he feel strong in his walking?”
I was uncertain whether [the heavenly maiden] really conveyed my greeting to Your Holiness. O World-honored One, do you recall the occasion, sir?
The Buddha replied:
Yes, indeed, I recall it. She announced your name and greeted me in your very voice. When I came out of the concentration, I could still hear the sound of your chariot [fading away].
The god Indra said to the Buddha:
Once upon a time, due to of some minor business, I happened to be together with the Trāyastriṃśa gods, who were assembled at the Sudhar- ma Hall, when the senior gods all commended me with the following words: “If the Tathāgata should arise in this world, he will promote our well-being while causing the advantage of the asuras, the adversarial demigods, to diminish.” Now I myself see Your Holiness, thus knowing and directly conﬁrming that the Tathāgata, Arhat, has indeed appeared in this world, promoting the well-being of the gods while causing the advantage of the asuras to diminish.
There was a Śākya daughter, Gopikā by name, who practiced the dis- cipline of pure and genuine austerity under the World-honored One, and who, after her body had dissolved and her life had ended, was born in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven as my son, [ Gopaka]. All the Trāyastriṃśa gods praised him, “Gopaka, son of our lord, is in possession of great merit and the power of inﬂuence.” There were also three bhikṣus who had once prac- ticed austerity under the World-honored One. After their bodies dissolved and their lives ended, they were born among lowly gods such as gandharvas. They come every day to serve me and play music at my mealtimes, day and evening. Having seen them, Gopaka teased them in these verses:
You are the Buddha’s disciples. Once when I was in a lay household,

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I used to offer you alms and robes, and Venerated you with respect and reverence. Whatever name you had at that time, Having received the Buddha’s teaching, You failed to investigate into the doctrines Taught by the master of supreme insight. In my previous life,
I venerated you and was intent
In listening to the teachings of the Buddha, and
Thus was born in this Trāyastriṃśa Heaven as the son of the god Indra. Can’t you see that in my previous life I was a woman,
But because of my merit
I am now the son of the god Indra? In your previous life,
Both of you together practiced austerity,
Yet you have now fallen to a lower position, Thus serving us at mealtimes.
Because of the wrong deeds you once did,
You are now receiving such an unfavorable reward, Placing yourselves as servants to us at mealtimes. You were born in an impure locality
Unable to avoid others’ teasing. Having listened to my teasing,
You should be weary of your position. From now on, exert yourselves and Never take a position in service to others.
O you two, exert yourselves in your practice, Contemplate the teaching of the Tathāgata, Forsake whatever you feel as attachment,
Understand the result of desire and impure conduct: Insofar as you are bound by desire,
Your conduct cannot be really true But is of the deceptive human world. Just as an elephant breaks its reins,
One should go beyond Trāyastriṃśa Heaven.

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Through heroic endeavor
One should go beyond Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, While Śakra and the heavenly gods Assemble at the Sudharma Hall,
Thereby causing Śakra to sigh in wonder and
The Trāyastriṃśa gods to acknowledge his superior power.
Indeed, the son of the Śākya
[Actually] accomplished this heroic feat, Going beyond Trāyastriṃśa Heaven.
(Here in the Chinese text, Indra continues his narrative in verse:)
Wearying of the bondage caused by desire, Gopaka thus completed his exhortation [Referring again to that exemplary hero,] saying,
“The Buddha appeared in the country of Magadha, Known to all as Śākyamuni.”
Those three bhikṣus, though disappointed at the time, Regained their practice of mindfulness later on.
One of the three became a gandharva god, While the other two,
Having realized the truth of the noble path, Transcended Trāyastriṃśa Heaven.
The disciples did not doubt
Whatever doctrine the World-honored One taught. Of those three bhikṣus,
Who all listened to the Buddha’s teaching,
Two excelled in practice more than the other one. Having realized their own excellent accomplishment, These two have just been born in Ābhāsvara Heaven. Having witnessed this event,
I come to present myself at the place of the Buddha.
Lord Indra said to the Buddha, “May Your Reverence spare a moment to address my doubts?”
The Buddha replied, “Let me know your questions. I shall answer accord- ingly.”

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At that time, the god Indra said to the Buddha:
What kinds of moral and spiritual deﬁlements cause the gods, humans, gandharvas, and asuras, as well as all other sentient beings, respectively fettered, to thus hate each other and carry on armed conﬂict?
The Buddha replied to Śakra:
The fetter of hatred invariably arises from greed and jealousy. These two forces of motivation thus drive sentient beings toward armed conﬂict.
The god Indra then said to the Buddha:
It is indeed true, O World-honored One, that because of the force of greed and jealousy, gods, humans, gandharvas, and asuras, as well as all other sentient beings, are driven to battle each other with weapons. Having listened to the Buddha’s answer, the net of my doubt is now totally removed; I am no longer in doubt about it, sir. But I still do not understand from what original cause greed and jealousy arise—what are the direct cause, the indirect cause, and the respective ultimate factors? What is it that when present makes these forces operative, and when absent renders these forces inoperative?
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
Greed and jealousy arise due to the existence of things that we hold dear and things that are not held dear by us. These two are the direct causes, the indirect causes, and the ultimate factors. When these factors are pres- ent, greed and jealousy arise; in their absence, greed and jealousy do not arise.
Śakra, lord of the gods, then further said to the Buddha:
This is indeed true, sir. Greed and jealousy arise, invariably caused by things that we hold dear and things that are not held dear by us. These two are the direct causes, the indirect causes, and the ultimate factors. When these factors are present, greed and jealousy arise; when these are absent, greed and jealousy do not arise. Having listened to the Buddha’s answer, the net of my doubt is now totally removed; I am no

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longer in doubt about this, sir. But what gives rise to the things that are dear to us and those that are not dear to us, from what direct cause, from what indirect cause, and from what ultimate factor? What is it that, when present, invites their arising, while when absent prevents their arising?
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
Things that are we hold dear and things that are not dear to us arise from our desires, from desires as direct causes, desires as indirect causes, and desires as ultimate factors. When desires are present, greed and jealousy arise; when desires are absent, greed and jealousy do not arise.
Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha:
This is indeed true, sir. Things that are held dear by us and things that we do not hold dear invariably arise because of desires. They arise from desires as direct causes, as indirect causes, and as ultimate factors. When desires are present, things dear to us and things not dear to us arise; when desires are absent, neither arises. Having listened to the teaching of the Buddha, the net of my doubt is now totally removed; I am no longer in doubt about this, sir. But from what do desires arise, from what direct cause, from what indirect cause, and from what ultimate factors? What is it that when present gives rise to desire, but when absent does not give rise to desire?
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
Things that we hold dear (i.e., cravings) arise from thoughts as direct causes, thoughts as indirect causes, and thoughts as ultimate factors. When thoughts are present, desires arise; when thoughts are absent, desires do not arise.
At that time, Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha:
This is indeed true, sir. Desires invariably arise from the cause of thoughts. They arise from thoughts as direct causes, as indirect causes, and as ulti- mate factors. When thoughts are present, desires arise, while when they are absent, desires do not arise. Having listened to the teaching of the Buddha, the net of my doubt is now totally removed; I am no longer in

48
doubt about this, sir. But I still do not understand what thoughts arise from, from what direct cause, from what indirect cause, and from what ultimate factor? What is it that, when present, gives rise to thoughts, but when absent does not give rise to thoughts?
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
Thoughts arise from mental calculation based on obsessive conceptions, as direct cause, as indirect cause, and as ultimate factor. When mental calculation based on obsessive conceptions is present, thoughts arise; when it is absent, thoughts do not arise.
At that time, Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha:
This is indeed true, sir. Thoughts invariably arise from mental calculation based on obsessive conceptions. Thoughts arise from mental calculation based on obsessive conception and ideations as direct cause, as indirect cause, and as ultimate factor. When mental calculation based on obsessive conceptions is present, thoughts arise, but when it is absent thoughts do not arise. But I still do not understand from what this mental calculation based on obsessive conceptions arises, from what direct cause, from what indirect cause, and from what ultimate factor? What is it that, when present, gives rise to mental calculation based on obsessive conceptions, but when absent does not give rise to such mental calculation?
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
Whenever thoughts arise, they are caused by mental calculation based on obsessive conceptions as direct cause, as indirect cause, and as ultimate factor. When this is present, thoughts arise; when absent, thoughts do not arise. O Śakra, lord of the gods, if there is no mental calculation based on obsessive conceptions, there would be no thought. If there is no thought, there would be no desire. If there is no desire, none of the things that are held dear by oneself as well as things that are not held dear would arise. If there is neither of these two, neither greed nor jealousy would arise. If there is no jealousy or greed, neither armed con- ﬂict among sentient beings, nor the will to injure and murder each other, would arise. O Śakra, lord of the gods, all this is ultimately based on

64c

obsessive conceptions as direct cause, obsessive conceptions as indirect cause, and obsessive conceptions as ultimate factor. From this ultimate factor, then, thoughts arise; from thoughts desires arise; from desires there arise things that one holds dear and things that are not held dear; from these two, there arise greed and jealousy; because of greed and jealousy, all sentient beings are driven to injure and murder each other.
Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha:
This is indeed true, O World-honored One. Because of obsessive con- ceptions, thoughts arise. Thoughts arise with obsessive conceptions as direct cause, as indirect cause, and as ultimate factor. In the presence of obsessive conceptions arises thought, while in their absence there is no arising of thought. If there is no obsessive conceptions as ultimate factor, no thought arises; if there is no thought, no desire arises; if there is no desire, none of things that are held dear by oneself or those things that are not held dear will arise; if there are neither of these two, neither greed nor jealousy will arise; if there is neither greed nor jealousy, no sentient being will be driven to injure or murder another. Having listened to the teaching of the Buddha, the net of my doubt has now been totally removed and I am no more in doubt about this, sir.
Śakra then said to the Buddha:
For the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, has or has not the proper path that will help them terminate mental calculation based on obsessive concep- tions been set out, sir?
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
Neither śramaṇas nor brāhmaṇas have been given a proper method by which to totally eradicate obsessive conceptions. Why is this? O Śakra, lord of the gods, there are many compartmentalized areas in this world. Sentient beings are ﬁrmly attached to their own compartmentalized areas, defending them formidably, and thus they are unable to relinquish them. They claim that theirs are real while all others are unreal. Because of this, O Śakra, lord of the gods, all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas have no proper method by which to totally eradicate obsessive conceptualization.

50
At that time, Śakra, lord of the gods, spoke to the Buddha:
This is indeed true, sir. There are many compartmentalized areas in this world. Sentient beings are ﬁrmly attached to their own compartmentalized areas, defending them formidably, and they are unable to relinquish them. They claim that theirs are real while all others are unreal. Because of this, O Śakra, lord of the gods, all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas have no proper method by which to totally eradicate obsessive conceptions. Having listened to the explanation of the Buddha, the net of my doubt has now been removed; I am no longer in doubt about this, sir.
Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha, “Do the śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas have some sort of method by which to partially eradicate mental cal- culation based on obsessive conceptions?”
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
There are three types of obsessive conceptions: verbal, mental, and actions. Some speech injures oneself, others, and both oneself and others. Forsaking through concentration the obsessive conceptions that are merely attendant to the object (purpose) of speech, one will not injure oneself, others, or both oneself and others. Bhikṣus, with a sense of the appropriate time, concentrate their minds toward the course of the ref- erential object of speech without conceptual disruption. Some thought injures oneself, others, and both oneself and others.
At that time, Śakra, lord of the gods, said, “I have no doubt about what I have heard from the Buddha.”
Again, he said to the Buddha, “How many forms of ﬁrm, noble equanimity are there?”
The Buddha said to Śakra, lord of the gods:
There are three kinds of equanimity. First, the equanimity that pleases the body; second, that which distresses the body; and third, that which is neutral to the body. O Śakra, lord of the gods, the equanimity that pleases the body injures oneself, others, and both oneself and others. Forsaking this pleasure, one remains with that which is being pleased, thereby not injuring himself, others, or both himself and others. Bhikṣus, with a sense of the appropriate [time], concentrate on it and do not forget.

65a

This is regarded to receive the higher ordination in conformity with the Vinaya disciplines. O Śakra, lord of the gods, distressing one’s body injures oneself, injures others, and injures both. Forsaking this bodily distress, one remains with that which is distressed, not injuring himself, others, or both himself and others. Bhikṣus with a sense of the appropriate [time], concentrate on it and do not forget. This is regarded to receive the higher ordination in conformity with the Vinaya disciplines. Again, O Śakra, lord of the gods, being neutral to one’s body injures oneself, others, and both oneself and others. Forsaking the neutrality of the body, one remains with what is forsaken, not injuring himself, others, and both himself and others. Bhikṣus, with a sense of the appropriate [time], con- centrate on it and do not forget. This is regarded to receive the higher ordination in conformity with the Vinaya disciplines.
At that time, Śakra, lord of the gods, said, “I have no doubt about what I have heard from the Buddha.”
Śakra, lord of the gods, then said to the Buddha, “How many rules of dis- cipline for the sense faculties are there with which the wise and holy are endowed, sir?”
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
As for the visual faculty and the object of form, I distinguish two kinds: one that should be known by a bhikṣu and another should not be known. In like manner, I differentiate two kinds of perceptions for the auditory faculty and its object, the olfactory faculty and its object, the gustatory faculty and its object, the tactile faculty and its object, and the mental faculty and its object: namely, one that should be known and another that should not to be known.
At that time, Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, I can already guess the answers based upon the Tathāgata’s initial explanation, even before a detailed exposition is given, sir. When the eyes see an object of form, I differentiate between two kinds of perception: one that should be known and another that should not be known. Likewise, I differentiate between two kinds of perception

52
of the ears and sound, the nose and smell, the tongue and taste, the body and touch, and the intellect and the psychophysical elements.
O World-honored One, when I recognize in visual perception favorable elements decreasing and unfavorable elements increasing, I say that I should not associate with that perception. O World-honored One, when I recognize in visual perception favorable elements increasing and unfa- vorable elements decreasing, I should associate with that perception. In like manner, when the ears, nose, body, and manas cognate sound, smell, touch, and the elements, if I recognize favorable elements increasing and unfavorable elements decreasing, I say that I should associate with that perception.
The Buddha said to Śakra, lord of the gods, “Very good! This is known as the dual rules of discipline to which the wise and holy should adhere.” Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha, “I have no doubt about what
I have heard from the Buddha.” He continued:
To which of the following titles is a bhikṣu entitled? First, ultimate per- fection; second, ultimate practice of austerity; third, ultimate state of comfort and happiness; and fourth, ultimate ﬁnal nirvana ?
The Buddha replied to Śakra, lord of the gods:
When one has brought cessation to the body that is distressed because of desire, he or she is entitled to be named by these four terms: one who has accomplished the ultimate perfection, ultimate practice of austerity, ultimate comfortable happiness, and ﬁnal nirvana.
Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha:
This question, with which I have had problems and about which I have held many doubts for a long time, has now been resolved through the Tathāgata’s clariﬁcation, sir.
The Buddha said to Śakra, lord of the gods, “In the past, did you once visit śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas and question them about this?”
Śakra, lord of the gods, replied to the Buddha:

65b

Yes, sir. I recall that in the past I once visited śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas and questioned them about this. On another occasion, I recall that we assembled at the Sudharma Hall and I discussed with the Trāyastriṃśa gods as to whether or not the Tathāgata had appeared in this world, but despite our search we were unable to conﬁrm his appearance. We returned to our respective palaces and engaged in pastimes gratifying the ﬁve senses. O World-honored One, later on I also saw various great deities who were engaged in gratifying the ﬁve senses, reaching the ends of their lives. At this, O World-honored One, I was terriﬁed, my hair standing on end.
At the same time, I also observed śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas residing in secluded places, having renounced domestic life and desires. So I approached them and enquired, “What is called the ultimate?” When I asked the meaning of this, they could not reply. They did not know the answer, but in turn asked me, “Who are you?” I answered, “I am Śakra, lord of the gods, Indra.” They then asked me, “Who are you? What Śakra is that?” I then replied, “I am the lord of the gods, Śakra. Having a ques- tion in my mind, I came to ask you about it.” I then explained what I understood of the doctrines of the Śākya. After they had listened to my exhortation, they became my disciples. I am now a disciple of the Buddha. Having realized the saintly state of stream-winner, provided that I do not fall into lower realms, after seven rebirths in the world of humans I am destined to realize the result of the path. May I request Your Holiness, O World-honored One, to prophesy the saintly state of once-returner on my behalf and explain the meaning of this term.
Śakra, lord of the gods, then composed verses:
Because of that deﬁled thought, I cherished doubts.
Throughout the night, together with the gods, While searching for the Tathāgata,
I saw a number of bhikṣus
Who had renounced domestic life in their secluded places. As they spoke of the World-honored One,
I went to see them with respectful greetings and,

54
With a bow, asked them:
“I have deliberately come to visit you. What is the ultimate perfection?” After this question, I then asked them Whether they had the proper method By which to realize ultimate cessation,
But they could not answer my question. Today, O Unsurpassed Honorable One, Whom I have long sought after,
I have been examining my conduct and
My mind has been engaged in right contemplation.
Your Holiness has understood the conduct of my mind and My practice for a long period of time;
May I request the Pure-eyed One to note this.
I pay my homage to the Highest among Humans, The Unsurpassed One in the three worlds,
Thereby to sever the relation of indebtedness and attachment. Now I venerate the Most Honorable One like the sun.
The Buddha said to Śakra, lord of the gods, “Do you recall the time when you acquired blissful joy and memorable happiness?”
Śakra, lord of the gods, replied:
Yes, sir. There was such a time. O World-honored One, I recall the blissful joy and memorable happiness that I acquired in the past. O World- honored One, I once battled the asuras and won victory; when the asuras withdrew I then returned with joy and delight. Considering this blissful joy and memorable happiness, I realize now that those feelings of joy and happiness were devoid of reality, in that they arose from the basic deﬁlement upon which armed conﬂict, dispute, and controversy rest. However, the joy and happiness that I have now acquired in relation to the Buddha is not the kind of blissful joy and memorable happiness that was acquired through armed conﬂict and disputes.
The Buddha said to Śakra, lord of the gods, “Now, having acquired [new] blissful joy and memorable happiness, what result do expect to ﬁnd in them?” 65c

55
Śakra, lord of the gods, then said to the Buddha, “I have sought after ﬁve kinds of meritorious results in the state of blissful joy and memorable hap- piness. What are the ﬁve?”
At once, he composed explanatory verses:
When later on my life ends and
I forsake my longevity in the heavens, I will enter a mother’s womb
That is free from illness and is pleasing to me. The Buddha inculcates the right, true path
By which to convert those who have not yet been liberated. Within the Dharma of the perfectly enlightened,
I shall practice the discipline of austerity, Steadfast transcendent knowledge, and Directly perceive the noble truths.
Realizing the original place from which things arise, Realizing deliverance in the eternity therein,
With effort for practice,
I will acquire the knowledge
Of the nature of things as they really are.
Even if I fail to obtain the direct experience of the path, The merit therefrom is superior to rebirth among the gods.
All the gods, from the superior heaven and Akaniṣṭha Heaven (highest in the realm of form),
Down to the last body of incarnation, Will be born in that place.
Now I have been reborn there with A heavenly body, pure and genuine, I see through my pure vision
That my longevity has also increased.
Having completed these verses, Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the Buddha, “I wish to acquire these ﬁve rewards with blissful joy and memorable hap- piness, sir.”
At that time, Śakra, lords of gods, said to the Trāyastriṃśa gods:

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Is it not a good idea that we conduct the rite of veneration and observance for the sake of the god Brahmā in the guise of a youth, resident of the higher heaven above us, while now in front of the Buddha?
No sooner had he ﬁnished speaking than there suddenly appeared the god Brahmā in the guise of a youth, ﬂoating in mid-air over the Trāyastriṃśa gods. He recited the following verse to Śakra, lord of the gods:
The pure and genuine practice, Carried out by the lord of the gods, Beneﬁts many sentient beings.
May the lord of the gods visiting Magadha Thoroughly ask about the meaning of Tathāgata.
Then, upon completing the verse, the god Brahmā in the guise of a youth suddenly disappeared.
At that time, Śakra, lord of the gods, arose from his seat and, having hon- ored the World-honored One [by bowing his forehead to the Buddha’s] feet, circumambulated him three times and left the place. The Trāyastriṃśa gods and Pañcaśikha also honored the Buddha [by bowing to his] feet and departed. Then Śakra, the lord of the gods, who was by then a little farther ahead, looked back and said to Pañcaśikha:
It was very good that you played the instrument before the Buddha to entertain him, and that thereafter I arrived, together with the gods. I have now come to know you and I shall promote you to fatherly status, the highest among the gandharvas, and arrange for the daughter of the lord of the gandharvas, Bhadrā, to become your wife.
When the World-honored One had completed this teaching, the eighty-four thousand heavenly beings all acquired genuine insight into the nature of the Dharma free from deﬁlement. Then Śakra, Indra, lord of the gods, the Trāyas- triṃśa gods, as well as Pañcaśikha, having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, all rejoiced and respectfully carried out what was taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 14: Indra’s Questions on Causality]

66a

Sutra 15

The Episode at Anupiya
(Dīgha Nikāya 24: Pāṭika Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was staying in the Mallan country at Anupiya, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. At that time, the World-honored One, donning his saṃghāṭī robe and with his almsbowl in hand, entered the town of Anupiya for almsround. The World- honored One then thought to himself:
It seems too early to go for almsround. Now, I may visit the pleasure grove of the brāhmaṇa wanderer Bhārgava. O bhikṣus, let us wait there till the proper time comes and then go for almsround.
The World-honored One then proceeded to that grove. At that time, having seen the Buddha approaching his place from a distance, the brāhmaṇa Bhār- gava immediately stood up to welcome the Buddha and, after exchanging greetings, said to the Buddha:
Welcome, Gautama. You have not seen us here for some time. Now, what purpose has prompted you to come in this way, sir? Please take a seat here.
The World-honored One then sat down as invited, while Bhārgava also took his seat on one side. The brāhmaṇa then said to the World-honored One:
Last evening the bhikṣu Sunakṣatra, the son of a Licchavi clansman, vis- ited me here and said to me, “Teacher, I am no longer practicing austerity in the place of the Buddha. It is because he has rejected me.” Though I listened to what he said, no sooner did I see Gautama walking by than I greeted you with welcome. I certainly did not accept his words, sir.
The Buddha replied to Bhārgava:

66b

I am sure and I know that you did not believe what Sunakṣatra said to you. Sometime ago, when I was staying at the Sudharma Hall near the Markaṭa Pond in Vaiśālī, this man Sunakṣatra came to see me and directly asked me, “The Tathāgata has rejected me. I cannot practice austerity with the Tathāgata.”
I then said to him, “Why do you say that you will not practice austerity with me, and that I have rejected you?”
Sunakṣatra replied, “It is because the Tathāgata has not shown me his supernormal power, sir.”
I then asked him, “Have I ever asked you, ‘If you practice austerity within my religion, I will show you my supernormal power’? Have you ever asked me, ‘If the Tathāgata will show me a miracle of supernormal power [ﬁrst], then I will practice austerity’?
Sunakṣatra then responded, “[I have asked] neither [of these questions of you], sir, World-honored One.”
I said to Sunakṣatra, “In my dialogue with you I neither asked you ‘If you practice austerity in my religion, I will show you my supernormal power’ nor did you say to me, ‘If Your Holiness shows a miracle of supernormal power I will practice austerity.’ O Sunakṣatra, what do you think? According to your thought, have I been able to show you my supernormal power as Tathāgata? Or have I not? Has the doctrine of sal- vation I laid out [for my disciples] been able to help them to end suffering exhaustively as an essential method of deliverance?”
Sunakṣatra replied, “As the World-honored One says, I have neither said that the Tathāgata has not been able to show his supernormal power, nor have I said that the doctrine of salvation the Tathāgata laid out as the essential method of deliverance has not been able to help his disciples to realize their goal of ending suffering exhaustively, sir.”
[I then said to him,] “Therefore, O Sunakṣatra, if you practice austerity by following the doctrine of my religion, you will be able to realize supernormal power; I did not say that you could not realize it. As it is the essential method of deliverance from suffering, I say that you will be able to realize deliverance, and I did not say that you could not realize it. What do you seek in this religious doctrine anyway?”

60
Sunakṣatra said, “World-honored One, you have not taught me as fre- quently as occasions permit. The World-honored One knows everything about the beginning of things17 but is unwilling to teach me about it, sir.” I replied, “O Sunakṣatra, have I ever said to you ‘If you practice aus- terity according to the doctrine of my religion as I have laid it out, I will teach you the beginning of things’?18 Have you ever said to me, ‘If the World-honored One teaches me the beginning of things, I will practice
austerity under the guidance of [your] religion’?”
Sunakṣatra replied, “[I have not asked either of these questions], sir.” I continued, “Therefore, O Sunakṣatra, I neither invited you initially with such a statement, nor did you reply to me with such a [condition] in your response. Why do you now say to me [what is contrary to the truth]? O Sunakṣatra, what do you think? According to your thought, has the Tathāgata been able to teach you the knowledge about the beginning of things? Or has he not? Has the doctrine of salvation I laid out as the essential method of deliverance been able to end suffering exhaustively?” Sunakṣatra replied, “I have neither said that the Tathāgata has not been able to teach me the beginning of things, nor have I said that the doctrine of salvation taught by the World-honored One as the essential method of deliverance could not help us end suffering exhaustively, sir.” I then said to Sunakṣatra, “As you said in your reply, if I can teach you the beginning of things, then the doctrine of salvation that I taught you as the essential method of deliverance can also end suffering exhaus-
tively. What do you wish to seek in my religion?”
I then said to Sunakṣatra, “Previously, in the land of Vṛji, in Vaiśālī, you praised the Tathāgata (Buddha), the Dharma, and the Sangha in innumerable ways, just as someone praises the eight qualities of the pure and cool ponds, namely (1) coolness, (2) lightness of gravity, (3) resilience, (4) clarity, (5) sweetness, (6) purity, (7) pleasing to drink, and
(8) suitable for physical health, in order to give rise to a pleasant and delightful feeling in people’s hearts. You also praised the Tathāgata, the Dharma, and the Sangha in the land of Vṛji, in Vaiśālī, like this, and thereby caused many people to become happier with faith [in the Three Treasures]. Sunakṣatra, you should know that if you disavow the practice

66c

of the path now, the people in the society may spread critical comments about your character, saying, ‘Though the bhikṣu Sunakṣatra has many good friends and is closely associated with the World-honored One as his disciple, he cannot continue the practice of austerity till the end of his life and therefore disavowed his adherence to the precepts and returned to the ordinary world to live an ignoble life.’ O brāhmaṇa, you should know that despite my advice, he did not follow my admonition, dis- avowed the precepts, and returned to secular society.”
O brāhmaṇa, at another time, when I was staying at the Sudharma Hall near the Markaṭa Pond in Vaiśālī, a Nirgrantha (Jain) practitioner, Kandaramasuka by name, was staying in area. He was revered with respect, renowned afar, had many friends, and received extensive material support. The bhikṣu Sunakṣatra, in his saṃghāṭī robe and with his alms- bowl in hand, entered the city of Vaiśālī for almsround, proceeded in due order, and reached the abode of the Nirgrantha practitioner. At that time, Sunakṣatra questioned the Nirgrantha teacher about some philo- sophical matter of profound meaning. Since, however, [the Nirgrantha practitioner] could not reply to the question, he eventually became angry. Sunakṣatra thought to himself, “Because I have irritated this person, will my action result in suffering and agony for a long period of time?” O brāhmaṇa, you should know that, after his almsround, carrying his saṃghāṭī robe and almsbowl, the bhikṣu Sunakṣatra then came to my place and, after honoring me by bowing his forehead to my feet, took his seat on one side. He did not, however, report the incident to me. Therefore, I said to him, “O foolish man, how can you claim that you are a disciple of the Śākya master (lit., “son of the Śākya”)?” Sunakṣatra then replied to me, “World-honored One, why do you call me a fool? And why can’t I claim that I am a disciple of the World-hon-
ored One, sir?”
I told him, “Foolish man, you once visited the Nirgrantha teacher and asked him about a philosophical question of profound meaning. Since, however, he could not answer the question, he eventually became angry. At that moment, you thought to yourself, ‘Since I have now insulted this person, will my action result in suffering and agony for a long period of time?’ Did you not think this to yourself?”

62

Sunakṣatra replied, “He was supposed to be an arhat. For some reason [that I do not know], he became angry, sir.”
I replied to Sunakṣatra, “Foolish man, your thought ‘For some reason he became angry’ is itself absurd, because an arhat by deﬁnition is free from agitation and anger. You should be able to discern by yourself if [someone] is an arhat and adheres to the seven kinds of ascetic practice for a long time: (1) not to wear garments until the end of one’s life, (2) not to sustain oneself by ingesting intoxicating drinks or meat, nor to eat rice and rice gruel, (3) not to commit sexual misconduct (i.e., to remain celibate), (4) not to go beyond the four stone shrines located in Vaiśālī, the Udena shrine in the east, (5) the Gautamaka shrine in the south, (6) the Bahuputraka shrine in the west, and (7) the Saptāmra shrine in the north. Yet he has now left all of these sites and no longer attends to them. Having vowed to keep these rules, however, the Nirgrantha ascetic committed all these four offenses later on and then died outside the city of Vaiśālī. Like a wild jackal, suffering from an unsightly skin disease, emaciated with illness, ﬁnally dies among the cemetery mounds, that Nirgrantha ascetic who vowed to follow the ascetic norms and yet broke all of them is just like such an animal. Originally he vowed to himself that he would not wear clothing until the dissolution of his body at death, yet later on he wore clothing. Originally he vowed that he would not drink intoxicating liquors, eat meat, or partake of rice and rice gruel until the dissolution of his body at death, yet he later broke all of these ascetic rules. Originally he vowed to not commit sexual intercourse, yet later he broke [this rule as well]. Originally he vowed to not abandon the four shrines, the Udena shrine in the east, the Gotamaka shrine in the south, the Bahuputra shrine in the west, and the Saptambaka in the north, and yet he left all of these sites and no longer attends to them. That practitioner has broken these seven vows by himself and is already dead among the cemetery mounds outside the city of Vaiśālī.”
I said to Sunakṣatra, “Foolish man, you do not believe my words.
You should go there and just see what has happened with your own eyes.”
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:

67a

The bhikṣu Sunakṣatra, wearing the saṃghāṭī robe and with his almsbowl in hand, then entered the city for almsround, and having completed it he left the city and saw that the Nirgrantha ascetic had ended his life among the cemetery mounds. After seeing this, he came to see me and, having honored me by bowing his forehead to my feet, he sat down on one side but he did not mention anything about it to me.
O brāhmaṇa, you should know that I then said to Sunakṣatra, “What do you think, O Sunakṣatra? Wasn’t the fate of the Nirgrantha practitioner exactly as I had predicted?” He replied, “Yes, sir. It was exactly as pre- dicted by the words of the World-honored One.” O brāhmaṇa, you should know that, despite having given Sunakṣatra an opportunity to witness my supernormal power, he still said, “The World-honored One has not shown me his supernormal power.”
Again, another time when I was staying in the Mallan country in the town of Śuklabhūmi,19 a market town of the people of Bumu, a Nirgrantha ascetic, the kṣatriya Kaura by name, was also residing in that area. He was revered with respect, renowned afar, had many friends, and received extensive material support. [One morning], wearing the saṃghāṭī robe and with almsbowl in hand, I entered the town for almsround, accom- panied by Sunakṣatra, who was behind me. Sunakṣatra saw the Nirgrantha ascetic Kaura lying face down on a pile of cow dung, licking up distiller’s grain. O brāhmaṇa, you should know that, having seen the ascetic in such a state, the bhikṣu Sunakṣatra thought to himself, “Though there are many arhats in human society, I see that no one among those who are on the course toward that highest goal surpasses this practitioner. This is a Nirgrantha ascetic and his path of practice excels all other paths. Why? Because the kṣatriya Kaura subjects himself to this kind of ascetic practice, removing and discarding his self-pride by crouching over a pile of cow dung and licking up distiller’s grains.”
At that moment, O brāhmaṇa, I turned to the right and, looking behind, said to Sunakṣatra, “You are a fool. How can you claim to be a disciple of the Śākya teacher?”
Sunakṣatra replied, “World-honored One, why does Your Holiness call me a fool, sir? And why does Your Holiness ask me, ‘How can you call yourself a disciple of the Śākya teacher?’”

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I said to Sunakṣatra, “You are a fool because, having seen this Nir- grantha ascetic Kaura crouched over a pile of cow dung and licking up distiller’s grain, you thought to yourself, ‘Among those who have become arhats and those who are yet on the course toward that goal, this kṣatriya Kaura is the most honorable. Why? Because the kṣatriya Kaura subjects himself to this kind of ascetic practice, removing and discarding his self- pride by crouching over a pile of cow dung and licking up distiller’s grains.’ Didn’t you think this thought?”
He replied, “Yes, sir. I really thought so, sir.”
Sunakṣatra then said, “World-honored One, why should jealousy arise from the state of arhat?”
I said to the fool, “I do not experience jealousy regarding the state of arhat. Why do you ask how jealousy can arise in the state of arhatship? You are a fool for believing that the kṣatriya Kaura is a real arhat. On the contrary, this man will die after seven days because of his swollen belly, and his corpse will arise among the hungry ghosts and experience the perpetual suffering of hunger. After his death his corpse will be tied up in [a pile of] bīraṇa grass and dragged away to be left among the cemetery mounds. If you do not believe what I say, you should go speak to that man.”
Sunakṣatra then went to the kṣatriya Kaura and said to him, “The śramaṇa Gautama has predicted that you will die after seven days from an illness, with a swollen belly; your corpse will arise among the hungry ghosts and will experience the perpetual suffering of hunger. After your death your corpse will be tied up in [a pile of] bīraṇa grass and dragged away to be left among the cemetery mounds.” Sunakṣatra then said to the ascetic, “Why don’t you reduce your consumption of food so that his prediction will not come about?”
O brāhmaṇa, you should know that Kaura the kṣatriya died after seven days because of his swollen belly, his corpse arose among the hungry ghosts, and after his death his corpse was tied up in [a pile of] bīraṇa grass and dragged away to be left among the cemetery mounds. At that time, counting the number of days on his ﬁngers, Sunakṣatra reached precisely the seventh day from the date [of the man’s death] predicted by Buddha. Sunakṣatra then visited the community of those

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naked ascetics and, having arrived there, he questioned them, saying, “Dear holy men, where is the kṣatriya Kaura now?” They replied, “He is dead.” [Sunakṣatra] then asked them, “How did he die?” They replied, “Because of a swollen belly.” He then asked, “How was his corpse treated in the funeral rite?’ They replied, “It was tied up in a pile of bīraṇa grass and dragged away to be left among the cemetery mounds.”
O brāhmaṇa, having heard this, Sunakṣatra immediately went to the cemetery. Before he arrived there, the corpse had shifted its knees and legs to crouch down again. Sunakṣatra then went to the corpse and asked it, “Kaura the kṣatriya, are you dead?” The corpse replied, “I am already dead.” He questioned again, “From what illness did you die?” The corpse replied, “Gautama predicted that I would die in seven days because of a swollen belly. Just as he predicted, after seven days my belly became swollen and I died.” Sunakṣatra asked again, “Where have you been reborn?” The corpse replied, “Gautama predicted that I would be born among the hungry ghosts of the corpses. Today I have been reborn among the corpses of the hungry ghosts.” Sunakṣatra questioned it again, “How was your corpse treated at the funeral?” The corpse replied, “According to Gautama’s prediction, the corpse would be tied up in a pile of bīraṇa grass then dragged away and left among the cemetery mounds. Exactly as predicted, my corpse was tied up in a pile of bīraṇa grass and dragged away to be left among the cemetery mounds.” The corpse then said to Sunakṣatra, “Though you became a bhikṣu by renouncing domestic life, you will not be able to realize any good effect. Even though the śramaṇa Gautama predicted all these things, you still don’t believe his words.” Having thus spoken, the corpse fell ﬂat, laying itself down.
O brāhmaṇa, the bhikṣu Sunakṣatra then came to see me and, having honored me by bowing his forehead to my feet, he took his seat on one side, but he did not tell me what he had experienced that day. I said to him, “My prediction about the kṣatriya Kaura was correct, wasn’t it?’ He replied, “Yes, indeed, it was exactly as predicted by the World- honored One, sir.” O brāhmaṇa, I had already shown him my supernor- mal power like this several times, yet Sunakṣatra still insists that I have not shown him my supernormal power.
Again the Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:

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On another occasion, when I was staying at the Sudharma Hall near the Markaṭa Pond, a brāhmaṇa ascetic, Pāṭikāputra (“Son of Pāṭikā”) by name, resided in the area. He was respected, renowned afar, had many friends, and received extensive material support. He announced to the crowds of citizens in Vaiśālī: “Just as the śramaṇa Gautama praises his knowledge, I too can also assert that I have great knowledge. Just as the śramaṇa Gautama claims that he has supernormal power, I too can say that I have such power. Again, just as the śramaṇa Gautama has truly realized the path of transcendence, I too can claim that I have realized such a path. I can demonstrate miracles through [similar] supernormal powers as those shown by him. If the śramaṇa shows a single miracle, I shall demonstrate two. If he shows two, I shall demonstrate four. If he shows eight, I shall demonstrate sixteen. If he shows sixteen, I shall demonstrate thirty-two. If he shows thirty-two, I shall demonstrate sixty- four. Whatever number of miracles the śramaṇa Gautama shows, I shall double that number without exception for my demonstration.”
O brāhmaṇa, the bhikṣu Sunakṣatra, wearing the saṃghāṭī robe and with his almsbowl in hand, then entered the city and saw the brāhmaṇa ascetic speaking to the crowd of citizens in Vaiśālī, declaring, “Just as the śramaṇa Gautama praises his knowledge I too can also assert that I have great knowledge. Just as the śramaṇa Gautama claims that he has supernormal power, I too can say that I have such power. Again, just as the śramaṇa Gautama has truly realized the path of transcendence, I too can claim that I have realized such a path. I can demonstrate miracles through [similar] supernormal powers as those shown by him. If the śra- maṇa shows a single miracle, I shall demonstrate two. If he shows four, I shall demonstrate eight. And so on—whatever number of miracles the śramaṇa Gautama shows, I shall double that number without exception for my demonstration.”
Having completed his almsround, the bhikṣu Sunakṣatra then came to see me and, after honoring me by bowing his forehead to my feet, he took his seat on one side and said to me, “This morning, wearing the saṃghāṭī robe and with my almsbowl in hand, I entered the city and hap- pened to hear what the brāhmaṇa ascetic Pāṭikāputra was saying to the crowd of the citizens: “Just as the śramaṇa Gautama praises his knowledge

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I too can also assert that I have great knowledge. Just as the śramaṇa Gautama claims that he has supernormal power, I too can say that I have such power. Again, just as the śramaṇa Gautama has truly realized the path of transcendence, I too can claim that I have realized such a path. I can demonstrate miracles through [similar] supernormal powers as those shown by him. If the śramaṇa shows a single miracle, I shall demonstrate two, and so on. Whatever number of miracles the śramaṇa Gautama shows, I shall double that number without exception for my demonstra- tion.” Sunakṣatra thus reported to me the ascetic’s claim in detail. I then responded to Sunakṣatra, “Pāṭikāputra cannot come to meet me here without renouncing his words, his view, and his self-conceit before the crowd of the citizens. Should he, thinking in the same way and without renouncing his words, his view, or his self-conceit, come to the śramaṇa Gautama, his mind will be split asunder into seven pieces. It is impossible for him to come here without renouncing his words, his view, and his self-conceit.” Sunakṣatra then said to me, “World-honored One, please be cautious. O Tathāgata, take heed in uttering these words.”
The Buddha said to Sunakṣatra:
Why do you say, “World-honored One, please be cautious. O Tathāgata, take heed in uttering these words?”
Sunakṣatra replied, “That ascetic Pāṭikāputra has great authority and power. He might appear here through the power of transﬁguration and disprove the words of the World-honored One.”
I said to Sunakṣatra, “Has there been any occasion on which the words of the Tathāgata were contrary to whatever is spoken?”
Sunakṣatra replied, “No, sir.”
Again I said to Sunakṣatra, “Having admitted this, why then do you say, ‘World-honored One, be cautious. O Tathāgata, take heed in uttering these words’?”
Sunakṣatra replied, “World-honored One, you should go see the ascetic Pāṭikāputra yourself and listen to the words of the gods who come to talk to you, sir.”
I [promptly] replied, “I also know it by myself as well as from the words of the gods. [For instance], the general Ajita of Vaiśālī, after the

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dissolution of his body at the end of his life, was born in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven. He came to see me, saying, ‘The brāhmaṇa Pāṭikāputra does not know shame despite the fact that he breaks the precepts, tells lies, and makes false accusations among the crowd of people in Vaiśālī, such as “The general Ajita was born among the dead hungry ghosts after the dissolution of his body at the end of his life.” On the contrary, I was reborn in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven after my death, sir.’
Thus, I know Pāṭikāputra by myself and also from the god who came to tell me about his fraudulence. I then said to the foolish man Sunakṣatra, “If you do not believe my words, I may have to ask you go to Vaiśālī and make an announcement that after tomorrow’s meal I shall come to meet Pāṭikāputra.”
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
Sunakṣatra, after passing the night, wearing the saṃghāṭī robe and with his almsbowl in hand, entered the city for almsround. He then spoke in detail to the crowd of brāhmaṇas, śramaṇas, and brāhmaṇa ascetics in the city of Vaiśālī, “The brāhmaṇa ascetic Pāṭikāputra said to the crowd of people, ‘Just as the śramaṇa Gautama praises his knowledge, I too can also assert that I have great knowledge. Just as the śramaṇa Gautama has a great power of inﬂuence, so do I also possess a great power of inﬂu- ence. Just as the śramaṇa Gautama claims that he has supernormal power, I too can say that I have such power. Again, just as the śramaṇa Gautama has truly realized the path of transcendence, I too can claim that I have realized such a path. I can demonstrate miracles through [similar] super- normal powers as those shown by him. If the śramaṇa shows a single miracle, I shall demonstrate two. If he shows two, I shall demonstrate four, and so on—whatever number of miracles the śramaṇa Gautama shows, I shall double that number without exception for my demonstra- tion.’ Now the śramaṇa Gautama wishes to come to meet Pāṭikāputra. All of you in this crowd should visit the place of Pāṭikāputra.”
At that time, the brāhmaṇa Pāṭikāputra was walking on a road. Having found him, Sunakṣatra hurried to reach him and said to him, “You have spoken to the crowd of Vaiśālī citizens with the following words, ‘Just as the śramaṇa Gautama has a great wisdom, I too have a great wisdom’

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and so on. And ‘Whatever number of miracles the śramaṇa shows through his supernormal power, I will demonstrate double that amount.’ Having heard your claim, Gautama is now coming to your residence. You should go home and meet him there.”
[Pāṭikāputra] replied, repeating his words, “Certainly, I am returning. Certainly, I am returning.” Though he said this, he was thoroughly fright- ened, with his hair all standing on end. He returned to his tinduka tree forest and, sitting on a charpoy, he was worried and confused.
The Buddha continued, speaking to the brāhmaṇa:
After the day’s meal, I visited Pāṭikāputra’s home accompanied by many śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, ascetics, and lay devotees of the Licchavi clans- people, and took a seat. There was a brāhmaṇa ascetic, Śara by name, among those present, to whom they instructed, “Go into the forest and tell Pāṭikāputra, ‘Now, many Licchavi śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, ascetics, and lay devotees have assembled at your residence. They have agreed in admitting that you, Son of Pāṭikā, have made these claims to the crowds of citizens, “Just as the śramaṇa Gautama has great insight, I too have great knowledge,” and so on. And “Whatever number of mir- acles the śramaṇa shows through his supernormal power, I will demon- strate double that amount.” Now, therefore, the śramaṇa Gautama has come to your forest. You should go meet him.’”
Thereupon, having been thus instructed by the people’s request, Śara went into the tinduka tree forest and said to the ascetic Pāṭikāputra, “All the Licchavi śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, ascetics, and lay devotees have assembled in the forest at your abode. They agreed in consensus that you, Son of Pāṭikā, have made claims to the crowds of citizens, ‘Just as the śramaṇa Gautama has great insight, I too have great knowledge,’ and so on, up to saying, ‘Whatever number of miracles the śramaṇa shows through his supernormal power, I will demonstrate double that amount.’ Now the śramaṇa Gautama has come to your forest. You should go there and meet him.”
At that moment, Pāṭikāputra replied to Śara, “I am coming, I am com- ing.” Having replied, he restlessly turned his body right and left on the charpoy. His foot then became hooked and entangled in the ropes of the

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charpoy, so that he could not get his foot free fromit, let alone walk to meet the World-honored One.
Śara then said to Pāṭikāputra, “Having no knowledge, you say only empty words: ‘I am coming. I am coming.’ But you are unable to extricate yourself from the charpoy. How can you walk to the place where the assembly is waiting?” Having thus reprimanded Pāṭikāputra, the brāh- maṇa ascetic Śara returned alone to the assembly, reporting, “I have gone to speak to Pāṭikāputra, delivering your message. He only replied, ‘I am coming, I am coming,’ but he restlessly tossed around on the char- poy and his foot became entangled in the rope, and he cannot extricate himself from it. Since he cannot extricate himself from the charpoy, how can he walk to this place and meet us?”
At that moment there was a certain Licchavi minister sitting among the assembly. He stood up and, having rearranged his robes to expose his right shoulder, he knelt with both palms joined together and said to the assembly, “Honored members of this assembly, please wait awhile. I shall now go and get that person to return with me.”
The Buddha continued speaking to the brāhmaṇa:
At that time, I said to that particular Licchavi minister, “That ascetic, Pāṭikāputra, speaks such words, upholds such a view, and insists on such self-conceit. There is no sense in forcing him to meet me. Even if you try to bind him with leather ropes to a group of oxen and drag him away to the extent of crushing his body, he would not come here by renouncing his words, his view, and his self-conceit. If you cannot believe my words, you may go see that person yourself.”
The Licchavi minister then went to Pāṭikāputra and said to him, “All the Licchavi śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, ascetics, and lay devotees have assembled in the forest at your abode. They agreed in consensus that [you] have made claims before the crowds of citizens, saying, ‘Just as the śramaṇa Gautama has great knowledge, I too have great knowledge,’ and so forth. And ‘Whatever number of miracles the śramaṇa shows through his supernormal power, I will demonstrate double that amount.’ Now the śramaṇa Gautama has come to your forest. You should return there.”

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At that moment, Pāṭikāputra replied to the Licchavi minister, “I am coming. I am coming.” Having replied thus, he restlessly turned his body right and left on the charpoy and his foot became hooked and entan- gled in the rope, so that he could not extricate his foot from the charpoy, let alone walk to meet the World-honored One.
The Licchavi minister then said to Pāṭikāputra, “Having no knowledge, you only say empty words, ‘I am coming.’ You are unable to extricate yourself from this charpoy. How can you go to the place where the assembly of people are waiting?”
The minister then said to the ascetic, “Many wise people acquire new insights through analogy. Once in the immemorial past, a lion, king of all animals, lived in a deep forest. When the lion went out in the morning, it looked around all the four directions, promptly roared vigorously three times, and then toured through the ﬁelds to choose a kind of ﬂesh for his food. O Pāṭikāputra, as soon as that lion, having ﬁnished his meal, returned to its forest, a wild jackal, which had followed after the lion, ate the leftover carrion and thus, ﬁlled with vigor, it claimed “What beast is this lion, no greater than I? I can now keep an entire forest under my control; I come out of the cave in early morning, look around in all the directions, promptly roar three times, then tour through the jungle to choose my favorite ﬂesh and feed on it.”
The next morning the jackal came out of its cave and promptly roared three times before stepping out for touring. While it wished to roar like a lion, it turned out to be only the howling of a jackal. Your case is just like that of the jackal. Despite the fact that you are indebted to the Buddha’s gracious inﬂuence, on account of which you sustain your life in the world and receive people’s material support, you are now trying to compete with the Tathāgata.”
Thereupon, the minister reprimanded Pāṭikāputra by composing the following verses:
A wild jackal claims to be a lion and Praises himself as the king of animals. Despite wishing to make a lion’s roar,
The animal makes only the howling of a jackal.

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Abiding alone in an empty forest, It claims to be the king of animals.
Despite wishing to make a lion’s roar,
The animal makes only the howling of a jackal. Squatting on the ground,
The animal seeks the burrows of ﬁeld mice,
Cutting through the mounds, it searches for the carcass. Despite wishing to make a lion’s roar,
The animal makes only the howling of a jackal.
The Licchavi minister said to Pāṭikāputra, “You too, are like that jackal, indebted to the Buddha’s gracious inﬂuence, you have subsisted in the world and enjoyed receiving material support. Yet you try to compete with the Tathāgata.”
The minister then reprimanded Pāṭikāputra further by means of four other analogies, and then returned to the assembly, reporting, “Delivering the message of this assembly, I urged Pāṭikāputra to come to this assem- bly. Even though he replied, ‘I am coming, I am coming,’ he restlessly turned his body right and left on the charpoy and his foot then became hooked and entangled within the rope so that he could not extricate his foot from that couch, let alone walk to meet the World-honored One.”
At that moment, the World-honored One said to the Licchavi minister:
As I told you before, it is senseless even if you wish to urge this man to come along with you to this place to meet us. Even if you try to bind him with leather ropes to a group of oxen and drag him away to the extent of crushing his body, he would not agree to come here by renounc- ing his words, his view, and his self-conceit. O brāhmaṇa, I then gave the assembly my exhortation on the Dharma, encouraging them, bene- ﬁtting them, and delighting them. Upon making the lion’s roar three times, my body ascended into midair and returned to my original abode.
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
A śramaṇa or a brāhmaṇa asserts that the gods Brahmā and Īśvara created this world entirely. I asked him a question, “Was the world as a whole

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created by Brahmā and Īśvara?” He could not answer and counter- questioned me, “O Gautama, what do you think about that?” I replied, “It may be answered that when this world was initially destroyed, those sentient beings who had survived in Ābhāsvara Heaven reached the end of their life spans and the end of their dispositional forces, and were subsequently born in the Brahmā heaven of [vast] emptiness. They, how- ever, gave rise to craving and attachment in themselves and wished for other sentient beings to be born there. The other sentient beings, upon reaching the end of their life spans and of the end of their dispositional forces, were again born in that heaven. Those sentient beings then thought to themselves, ‘I am now the god Brahmā, having arisen suddenly without cause. For there is no creator of my being, while I can reach each and every destiny of all meanings without exception, and acquire total free- dom in all thousands of worlds. I am able to act as cause [for all things] and transﬁgure myself into any and all forms. I am the primordial and most subtle being, becoming father and mother of humankind. I was initially alone without a companion when I ﬁrst came here, but because of my power all the sentient beings have been multiplied. I am the creator of these sentient beings.’
“The other sentient beings then followed suit, asserting, ‘He was the god Brahmā, having arisen suddenly without cause. For there was no creator of his being, while he could reach every destiny as to all meanings without exception, endowed with total freedom in all thousands of worlds. He could act as cause [of all things] and transﬁgure himself into any and all forms. He is the primordial and most subtle being, becoming father and mother of humankind. Because of his initial being, all of us come to being. This great god Brahmā created all of us.’
“These sentient beings then reached the end of their lives and were born into this world according to the creator’s will, gradually grew up, then shaved their hair and beards, donned the three robes, renounced domestic life, and accomplished the path of religion. They enter the mental concentration and recollect the origin of their being through the mind of concentration, and utter the following words: ‘This great Brahmā arose suddenly without cause. Created by no one, he can reach, without exception, each and every destiny of different meanings and acquire

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total freedom in all thousands of worlds. He can act as cause for anything and transﬁgure himself into any and all forms. He is the primordial and most subtle being, father and mother of humankind. That great Brahmā is permanent, does not change; but we, created by that deity, are subject to the law of impermanence and cannot abide forever. We are those that are in incessant change.’”
O brāhmaṇa, my answer was like that. On the basis of my assistance, each of those śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas said, “Brahmā and Iśvara created this world.” O brāhmaṇa, in fact the origin of this world is beyond the power of the god Brahmā; only the Buddha knows it absolutely. The Buddha alone can go beyond the creation of the world and know what is beyond. Though he knows this he is not attached to it, but knows cre- ation as it really is in terms of suffering, causal concatenation, cessation, and the essential path of transcending both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Having seen this world and its creation through the insight of the universal equality [of the psychophysical elements], he thereby realizes liberation with no residual inﬂuence of deﬁlement. Such is called the Tathāgata.
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
A śramaṇa or a brāhmaṇa says, “Pleasure and being corrupted by pleasure is the beginning of the human being.” I said to him, “Why do you say that pleasure and corruption by pleasure is the beginning of the human being?” He, however, could not answer and counterquestioned me, “What do you think about that?” I replied, “It may be answered that when those sentient beings in Ābhāsvara Heaven were delighted with pleasure and corrupted by pleasure, and at the end of their life spans they came to be born in this world, gradually grew up, shaved their hair and beards, donned the three robes, renounced family life, and accomplished the path of religion. They entered the mental concentration and recollected their origins through the power of mental concentration, saying, “While those sentient beings do not like pleasure and are not corrupted by pleasure, abiding always in that original place unchanged, we humans are fond of pleasure and play and thus subject to the law of impermanence and change.”
O brāhmaṇa, my answer would be like that. For this reason, the śra- maṇa or the brāhmaṇa regards pleasure and play as the beginning of

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the human being. In this manner, only the Buddha knows the beginning absolutely, and also by going beyond the beginning of humankind, he knows what is beyond. Though he knows this, he is not attached to it but sees it as it really is, in terms of suffering, causal concatenation, ces- sation, and the essential method of transcending both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Having seen the beginning of humankind through the insight of the universal equality [of the psychophysical elements], he thereby realizes liberation without any residual inﬂuence of deﬁlement. Such is called the Tathāgata.
The Buddha [again] said to the brāhmaṇa:
A śramaṇa or a brāhmaṇa may say, “Someone who is mentally debauched (i.e., having a corrupted mind) by pleasure is the beginning of the human being.” I questioned him, “Do you really regard a mind corrupted by pleasure to be the beginning of the human being?” He could not answer, and counterquestioned, “O Gautama, what do you think about it, sir?” I then said to him, “Some sentient beings, while watching each other intimately, become corrupted. When they died they came to be born in this world, gradually grew up, shaved their hair and beards, donned the three robes, renounced domestic life, and accomplished the path of religion. Entering mental concentration, they know their origins through the power of mental concentration and say, “Those sentient beings did not see each other and hence their minds were not corrupted, so they were permanent and unchanged. We used to see each other and so our minds were corrupted, and thus we became impermanent and subject to change.”
O brāhmaṇa, it is like that. For this reason, the śramaṇa or the brāh- maṇa regard mental corruption as the beginning of the human being. In this way, the Buddha alone knows it absolutely and also goes beyond the beginning of the human being and knows what is beyond. Though he knows this he is not attached to it but sees it as it really is, in terms of suffering, causal concatenation, cessation, and the essential method of transcending both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Having seen the beginning of the human being through the insight of the universal equality

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[of the psychophysical elements], he thereby realizes liberation without any residual inﬂuence of deﬁlement. Such is called the Tathāgata.
The Buddha [again] said to the brāhmaṇa:
A śramaṇa or a brāhmaṇa says, “I came to be born without a cause.” I said to him, “You really assert that you were born without any cause?” He could not answer, and counterquestioned me. I answered, “Some sen- tient beings who have neither thought nor knowledge, when they give rise to thought they subsequently die and come to be born in this world, gradually grow up, shave their hair [and beards], renounce domestic life, don the three robes, and at once enter mental concentration, cognizing their origins through the power of the mental concentration. They say, “I was nonexistent but now, suddenly, [I] exist. This world is essentially nonexistent but is now existent. This is real and the rest is false.”
O brāhmaṇa, it is like this. For this reason, the śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa regards our existence as causeless. The Buddha alone knows it absolutely and also goes beyond the beginning of the human being and knows what is beyond. Though he knows this, he is not attached to it but sees it as it really is, in terms of suffering, causal concatenation, cessation, and the essential method of transcending both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Having seen the beginning of humankind through the insight of the uni- versal equality [of the psychophysical elements], he thereby realizes lib- eration without any residual inﬂuence of deﬁlement. Such is called the Tathāgata.
The Buddha [again] said to the brāhmaṇa:
My theory is like the following, which some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas secretly criticized, saying, “Those self-claimed disciples of the śramaṇa Gautama enter liberation on the basis of purity and genuineness and thus accomplish the act of puriﬁcation [of the deﬁlements]. They know purity and genuineness, but they do not know the universal purity of human spirituality.” I do not support this theory that my disciples enter liberation on the basis of purity, accomplishing the act of puriﬁcation through gen- uine practice, and they know purity and genuineness but do not know

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the universal purity of human spirituality. O brāhmaṇa, I myself assert that my disciples enter liberation on the basis of purity and genuineness, accomplishing puriﬁcation [of the deﬁlements], and thus know the state of universal purity [as to human spirituality].
At that time, the brāhmaṇa said to the Buddha:
They spoke slanderous words against the śramaṇa Gautama to no good beneﬁt, saying, “The śramaṇa (i.e., the Buddha) himself admitted, ‘My disciples enter liberation on the basis of purity and genuineness and thus accomplish the act of puriﬁcation [of the deﬁlements]. They know purity and genuineness but they do not know the universal purity of human spirituality.’” Contrary to this slanderous statement, the World-honored One has not made such a statement. The World-honored One has himself asserted that his disciples enter liberation on the basis of purity and gen- uineness, accomplishing puriﬁcation [of the deﬁlements], and thus know the state of universal purity [as to human spirituality].
The brāhmaṇa again said to the World-honored One:
I wish also to enter liberation on the basis of purity and genuineness so that I can accomplish the act of puriﬁcation of all deﬁlements and know the state of universal purity, sir.
The Buddha replied:
If you wish to realize that goal it will be exceedingly difﬁcult, because you hold a different (i.e., wrong) view, a different principle of persever- ance, and a different set of practices. Based on any other view than the right one, it is extremely difﬁcult to enter the liberation of purity and genuineness. Only if you continue to uphold goodwill and friendly asso- ciation with the Buddha without hiatus will you be able to secure the comfortable state of happiness for a long time to come.
At that time, having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, the brāhmaṇa Bhārgava was delighted and respectfully received the teaching and carried out what was taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 15: The Episode at Anupiya]

Sutra 16

Kalyāṇa-jātika
(Dīgha Nikāya 31: Siṅgālovāda Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was sojourning on Vulture Peak in the city of Rājagṛha, together with one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples. At that time, at the appropriate time, the World-honored One, wearing the saṃghāṭī robe and with his almsbowl in hand, entered the city and proceeded for almsround. There was a son of a wealthy family in Rājagṛha, Kalyāṇa-jātika20 by name. Early in the morning he went out of the city, reached the park grove, made an excursion there, and then, after bathing in water and moistening his entire body, he bowed toward all directions: east, west, south, north, above, and below, completing the same veneration without exception. At that time, the World-honored One happened to be in the grove that belonged to Kalyāṇa-jātika, the son of the wealthy family, and having seen
him carry out his morning rite, [the Buddha] said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:
Why have you gone out of the city in the early morning, bathed to moisten your body in this grove, and conducted the rite of bowing toward all directions?
Kalyāṇa-jātika replied to the Buddha:
When my father died, he left his advice to me as his will: “If you wish to carry out a certain rite, you should make your veneration toward the directions of east, west, south, north, above and below.” I have been faithfully upholding my father’s instruction, sir. Thus, after bathing, join- ing palms respectfully, I venerate all the directions, without exception, in the order of the east, south, west, north as well as above and below.
The World-honored One said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:
O son of the wealthy family, your rite of veneration has only directional links. Though I do not deny the meaningfulness of your rite, I say that

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there is a similar, yet distinct in meaning, form of the rite belonging to the wise and saintly in my religious practice.
Kalyāṇa-jātika said to the Buddha, “May the World-honored One please teach me the veneration of the six directions that is practiced by the wise and saintly.”
The Buddha replied to the son of the wealthy family, “Listen attentively, you should retain and consider well the following. I shall give you an account of the practice.”
Kalyāṇa-jātika replied, “Yes, sir. My wish [for you to teach me the rite] is realized.”
The Buddha continued:
If a wealthy person, or a son [or daughter] of a wealthy family knows what the four kinds of action deﬁlement (karma-kleśa) are and does not commit any of the four bases of evil action, and also if he knows what the six kinds of detrimental action against prosperity and wealth are, and does not commit any of the six detrimental actions, O Kalyāṇa- jātika, such is called the “six directional rites of veneration” to be practiced by the wise and saintly. If your life in this world is good you are bound to acquire good rewards. What you have undertaken as your [livelihood] in this life will also be your undertaking in the next life. In the present life, if you acquire a single reward as commended by the knowledgeable, then at your death you will be reborn in a good place in the heavens. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, you should know that the four kinds of deﬁled actions are (1) taking life (killing), (2) taking what is not given (stealing),
(3) committing sexual impropriety, and (4) engaging in false speech. What are the four bases of evil action? They are (1) desire, (2) anger,
(3) fear, and (4) delusion. If a wealthy person or the son [or daughter] of a wealthy family should commit an offense of [any of] these evil actions, that action will inevitably lead to the loss or exhaustion of their wealth and prosperity.
Having thus exhorted, the Buddha repeated it in verse:
If one is hampered by four kinds of bases of evil conduct, Namely, desire, anger, fear, and delusion,

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His fame and popularity will decline every day
Just as the waning moon proceeds toward its total extinction. The Buddha again said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:
If a wealthy person or the son [or daughter] of a wealthy family does not commit any offense in these bases of evil action, there will be increase and development of their wealth and prosperity.
Again the World-honored One composed a verse:
If one does not commit any offense
Of the deﬁlements of desire, anger, fear, and delusion, His fame grows and increases every day
Just as the waxing moon proceeds toward its round perfection. The Buddha said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:
The six kinds of detrimental action against prosperity and wealth are
(1) ingesting intoxicants, (2) gambling, (3) wasting one’s wealth, (4) enchantment by music and dance, (5) associating with bad characters, and (6) being indolent and idle. These are the six detrimental actions to prosperity and wealth. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, if a wealthy person or the son [or daughter] of a wealthy family understands what the four deﬁled actions are, refrains from committing an offense of any of the four bases of evil action, and also knows these six detrimental actions to wealth and prosperity, he will become free from the four bases of evil action and will venerate all six directions. If your life in this world is good, you are bound to acquire good rewards. What you have undertaken as your [livelihood] in this life will also be your undertaking in the next life. In the present life, if you acquire a single reward as commended by the knowledgeable, at your death you will be reborn in a good place in the heavens.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, you should know that drinking intoxicants results in six kinds of loss: (1) loss of wealth, (2) becoming prone to illness,
(3) being drawn into ﬁghts and disputes, (4) having a bad reputation that spreads, (5) being unable to control outbursts of anger and rage, and (6) the diminishing of wisdom each day. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, if a

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wealthy person or the son [or daughter] of a wealthy family continues to ingest intoxicants without stopping, his family business will lose productivity each day.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, playing dice in gambling results in six kinds of loss: (1) exhausting one’s wealth each day, (2) if succesful in gambling, creating enmity, (3) being reprimanded by the wise, (4) others will not believe or respect those who gamble, (5) being avoided by and alienated from the people of society, (6) giving rise to a mentality that inclines toward [committing] theft. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, these are called the six kinds of loss resulting from gambling. If a wealthy person or the son [or daughter] of a wealthy family continues to engage in gambling, his family business will lose productivity each day.
Dissipation results in six kinds of loss: (1) one does not protect himself,
(2) one does not protect his wealth and property, (3) one does not protect his descendants, (4) he is always fearful and frightens others, (5) he becomes entangled in the evil psychophysical elements, resulting in suf- fering, and (6) he easily and willingly succumbs to delusion. These are called the six kinds of dissipation. If a wealthy person or the son [or daughter] of a wealthy family should continue to dissipate, his family business will lose productivity each day.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, enchantment by music and dancing results in six kinds of loss: one seeks for (1) songs, (2) dances, (3) string instruments,
(4) hand-played instruments, (5) drums and percussive instruments, and
(6) telling stories. These are called the six kinds of loss caused by music and dance. If a wealthy person or the son [or daughter] of a wealthy family should continue to be enchanted by the entertainment of music and dance, his family business will lose its productivity each day. Association with bad characters also results in six kinds of loss: (1) contriving deception, (2) preferring secret meetings, (3) inducing others to engage with bad groups, (4) cheating others for one’s own proﬁt, (5) pursuing after undue wealth and proﬁt, and (6) taking delight in exposing others’ faults. These are called the six kinds of loss caused by association with bad characters. If a wealthy man or a son of a wealthy family should continue to associate himself with bad characters, his family business
will lose productivity each day.

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Indolence results in six kinds of loss: (1) no effort in work because of having wealth and an easy life, (2) no effort in work because of poverty,
(3) no motivation for effort because of cold weather, (4) no effort because of hot weather, (5) no effort because of the early morning, and (6) no effort because of the late afternoon. These are called the six kinds of loss caused by indolence. If a wealthy person or the son [or daughter] of a wealthy family should continue to be indolent, his family business will lose productivity each day.
Having thus exhorted, the Buddha again composed the following verses:
Beguiled by intoxicating liquors,
One will be surrounded by drinking companions. Having accumulated wealth through right means, One will distribute it until it is exhausted.
Drinking liquor, one loses discipline, Always delighting in song and dance. Visiting others’ houses in the daytime, One falls and is trapped in a pit.
Swayed by bad characters,
One cannot reform his conduct, Slandering mendicant wanderers,
Holding wrong views that will be laughed at in the world, Impure action is what people shun.
Judging people based only on their good or bad external appearance, Arguing about nothing but gambling,
Keeping company with bad characters,
None of whom would urge one to forsake gambling, Impure action is what people shun.
Beguiled by intoxicating liquors,
Forgetting to measure the degree of one’s poverty, Slighting the weight of one’s wealth,
Accustomed to a degree of extravagance, Thus one destroys his household and Surmounts it with troubles and disaster. Associating with a gambling party,

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Combined with the habit of drinking,
One ends up together with others at a brothel, Accustomed to vulgar and lowly behavior,
His life goes down like a waning moon proceeding to extinction. Doing evil things, seeing evil things,
One commits evil actions alongside with bad characters, He gains nothing from beginning to an end,
In this world as well as in the next. Indulging in sleep during the day,
Waking late in the night with unwholesome expectations, Being alone in the darkness, with no good friend,
He is unable to keep up his household.
Though he recognizes the things to be done in the morning or in the evening,
Yet he leaves them undone,
When it is cold or hot, he neither begins nor completes The tasks he needs to do, idly postponing them,
Thus throwing away an opportunity for success. Without taking account of cold or heat,
If he strives to do things in the morning or in the evening, There would be nothing that cannot be accomplished,
Nor would there be any worry, having thus realized the goal. The Buddha said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:
There are four kinds of enemies who appear to be one’s close friends. You should recognize their behavior. What are these four? They are (1) one who seeks a better shelter out of greed, (2) one who ﬂatters with appealing words, (3) one who acts with deceptive obedience, and (4) one who is a bad character.
[Again] the Buddha said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:
There are four types of seeking shelter out of greed. What are these four? They are (1) initially giving but later on stealing, (2) giving a little but demanding much more in return, (3) following the stronger out of fear,

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and (4) being a companion [to someone] in the hope of gaining some- thing. These are the four types of seekers of shelter, through which an enemy seeks association.
[Again] the Buddha said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:
There are four kinds of ﬂattery with appealing words. What are these four? They are (1) agreeing with an associate as to good and bad with no discrimination, (2) abandoning an associate when there is difﬁculty and trouble, (3) secretly hindering an associate from taking an alternative good course, and (4) refusing to rescue an associate experiencing a crisis. These are the four types of ﬂattery through which an enemy seeks asso- ciation. There are four kinds of deceptive obedience [in words but not in action]. What are these four? They are (1) deception in the beginning,
(2) deception later on, (3) deception when witnessing against [someone], and (4) punishing [someone] for the slightest fault. These are the four types of deceptive obedience through which an enemy seeks association. There are four kinds of bad characters [with whom one may associate]. What are these four? They are (1) someone with whom one is acquainted when drinking, (2) someone with whom one is acquainted when gam- bling, (3) someone with whom one is acquainted when procuring pros- titutes, and (4) someone with whom one is acquainted when indulging in entertaining songs and dances. These are the four types of bad char- acters with whom one may seek association.
Having thus exhorted, the World-honored One again composed verses:
Those bad characters who seek out a better shelter from one, Speak ﬂattering words for the same reason,
Behave with deceptive obedience likewise, and Become acquainted in questionable circumstances. One cannot rely on them.
The wise should recognize them always and Distance themselves from them,
Just as when avoiding taking a dangerous shortcut on a long journey. The Buddha said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:

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There are four kinds of true friends with whom you should associate, who are beneﬁcial and provide relief and protection. What are these four? They are (1) one who urges restraint in cases of wrongdoing, (2) who is merciful and sympathetic, (3) who gives beneﬁt to others, and
(4) one who shares both the happiness and misery of others. These are true friends who assist by calling for restraint in cases of wrongdoing and beneﬁt others variously, and who offer relief and protection. One should always associate with these kind of friends.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, there are four kinds of association with those who provide beneﬁt, relief, and protection. What are these four? They are (1) one who restrains others from committing wrongdoing, (2) one who shows the norm of honesty, (3) one who has mercy and is sympathetic, and (4) one who teaches the path to rebirth in the heavens. Such a friend is one who restrains others from wrongdoing, beneﬁts others, and provides relief and protection. Again next, there are four kinds of merciful sym- pathy: (1) rejoicing with others who receive beneﬁt, (2) being concerned about their wrongdoing, (3) praising their virtues, and (4) restraining those who are eager to expose others’ wrongdoing. These are the four types of merciful sympathy, which are beneﬁcial and provide relief and protection. There are four kinds of beneﬁts. What are these four? They are (1) assisting one in self-restraint, (2) guarding against someone expend- ing and losing their wealth, (3) providing support for someone so that they may be free from fear, and (4) giving mutual warning and advising others privately. These are the four types of providing beneﬁt, relief, and protection. There are four types of sharing others’ happiness and misery. What are these four? They are (1) giving unsparingly of one’s own life and body for others, (2) giving unsparingly of one’s own wealth for others,
(3) removing any source of fear for others, and (4) offering mutual warning and advice for others privately. These are the four types of sharing hap- piness and misery that provide beneﬁt, relief, and protection.
Having thus exhorted, the World-honored One composed the following verses:
Restraining wrongdoing prevents close association with bad characters,

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With merciful sympathy, there is true association with others, Whoever is beneﬁcial to others increases that association, Simultaneously establishing an association among equals.
This kind of friendly association should be promoted, It is such associations in which the wise abide,
The friendly association that is incomparable,
Yet is comparable to a merciful mother accompanying her child. If one wishes to have such associations,
He [or she] should seek a friend who is spiritually well established, Through whose association one acquires precepts,
Just as if the light of a ﬂame illuminates him. The Buddha said to Kalyāṇa-jātika:
You should know the six directions. What are these six? One’s father and mother are in the eastern direction, one’s teacher and elder are in the southern direction, one’s wife and children are in the western direction, one’s close friends are in the northern direction, one’s servants are in the downward direction, and one’s religious guides (śramaṇa or brāh- maṇa) are in the upward direction.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, as a child of one’s parents, you should be ﬁlial to them in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) to support one’s parents so that they are free from privation, (2) to conﬁde in them whatever one wishes to do, (3) to be obedient to them in whatever they do [that is right], without opposing them, (4) to not go against their right livelihood, and (5) to continue the same livelihood of one’s parents with- out cessation. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, one should be ﬁlial to one’s parents in terms of these ﬁve norms. Parents also should intimately respect their children in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) to restrain their son [or daughter], not permitting them to engage in wrong conduct, (2) to show what is good by direct instruction, (3) to have their love permeate their child’s bones and marrow, (4) to seek a good spouse for them, and (5) to provide their child with whatever is needed at times. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, if a son [or daughter] is obedient and respectfully carries out parental instructions, he will be secure, without any fear or
anxiety.

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O Kalyāṇa-jātika, a disciple should respect his teacher in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) providing him with nec- essary material support, (2) serving him with respect and reverence, (3) honoring him as above one’s position, (4) respectfully accepting his instruction without failing, and (5) listening to his teaching and upholding it. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, being a disciple, one should respect his teacher according to these norms. A teacher should guide his disciple with respect in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) cultivating his student according to the Dharma, (2) teaching what he has not yet heard,
(3) enabling him to understand the meaning of what he has heard, (4) showing him meritorious friends, and (5) giving him all of one’s knowl- edge without sparing. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, if a disciple is obedient and respectfully carrys out his teacher’s instructions, he will be secure, without any fear or anxiety.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, a husband should respect his wife in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) maintaining mutual respect with one’s wife, (2) maintaing a proper attitude [toward one’s wife], (3) accompanying her during times of changing clothes and dining, (4) wait- ing for her preparations for an outing, and (5) entrusting her with house- hold matters. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, a husband should attend his wife respect- fully as [outlined] above, and the wife, too, should respect her husband in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) waking up before her husband, (2) staying behind him, (3) speaking harmoniously,
(4) following him respectfully, and (5) consulting him before deciding things. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, if a husband treats his wife with respect as mentioned above, he will be secure, without any fear or anxiety.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, a person should be respectful toward his relations in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) offering gifts,
(2) giving good advice, (3) sharing beneﬁt, (4) acquiring proﬁt equally, and (5) not deceiving them. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, these are the ﬁve norms through which one should be respectful toward one’s relations. One’s relations, too, should be respectful toward a member of their family in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these norms? They are (1) guarding [against] undisciplined conduct, (2) guarding [against] the wasteful loss of wealth, (3) protecting one who is in fear because of danger, (4) giving

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mutual warning and consultation privately, (5) praising others always. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, if a member of one’s family respectfully acts toward his relatives in the manner [outlined] above, he will be secure, without any fear or anxiety.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, a master should supervise his servants in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) assigning work according to their capabilities, (2) providing them with food and drink at proper times, (3) rewarding them for their work at times, (4) giving medicine when they become ill, and (5) giving them days off from work. These are the ﬁve ways for supervising one’s servants. Servant workers should serve their master in terms of ﬁve norms. What are these ﬁve? They are
(1) waking up early in the morning, (2) working with careful attention,
(3) neither transferring one’s work nor taking work in exchange with another worker, (4) following a certain order in conducting their duties, and (5) praising the name of their master. These are the ways a master should treat his workers. If he treats his workers like this, he will be secure, without any fear or anxiety.
O Kalyāṇa-jātika, a lay devotee should serve śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas [according to ﬁve norms]. What are these ﬁve? They are (1) practicing charity through physical work, (2) practicing charity in one’s verbal expression, (3) practicing charity through mental alertness, (4) dedicating things at times, and (5) not closing one’s house gate [to others]. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, just as lay devotees should serve śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas through the foregoing ﬁve norms, the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas should teach and guide lay devotees in terms of six norms. What are these six? They are (1) helping them refrain from wrongdoing, (2) show- ing them what is good, (3) guiding them to cultivate good mentality, (4) having them learn [by listening to] the teaching, (5) if they have heard teachings, helping them understand its meaning well, and (6) revealing the way to heaven for them. O Kalyāṇa-jātika, if a lay devotee serves the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas in these ways, he [or she] will be secure, without any fear or anxiety.
Having thus completed his exhortation, the World-honored One again composed the following verses:

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Father and mother are placed in the eastern direction, Teachers are in the southern direction,
Wife and children are in the western direction, Relations are in the northern direction, Servants are in the downward direction,
Śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas are in the upward direction.
If a son [or daughter] of a wealthy families venerate all the directions and
Respectfully follow the rite of veneration in regularity, They will realize heaven upon their deaths.
Gracious charity and sympathetic talk can Provide people with much gain and advantage, Sharing beneﬁt together with others, Equalizing gains between oneself and others,
Letting one’s possessions be open and accessible to others, These are the four norms, like the wheels [of a cart],
That bear the heavy burden and responsibility. If there were none of these norms in the world, There would be no ﬁlial piety whatsoever.
These are the four norms chosen by the wise in this world, Practicing these norms, one may obtain a great result and His [good] name will spread to far-distant regions.
Setting up a couch for sittting, placing food and drink before it, Providing whatever is at hand,
Thereby one’s [good] name spreads to far-distant regions. Excluding none of the older relations,
Showing good beneﬁt in perfect harmony Toward both one’s seniors and the juniors, One obtains good fame and reputation.
One should ﬁrst learn skills and arts, and
Then afterward he will succeed in business transactions, When one is well established in his business,
He should defend his concerns.
In expending wealth, he should not be extravagant. When choosing the head [of the workers],

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Whoever is deceptive and resistant should not to be recommended, The accumulation of wealth will rise from a small quantity,
Just as a swarm of bees gathers nectar from ﬂowers. Wealth is increased every day, having no loss in the end.
First, one should know the proper degree of satisfaction with food; Second, there should not be any slacking in the practice;
Third, some resources should be set aside For times of emergency;
Fourth, cultivated land should be put for mercantile transaction, Marshland should be converted to be pastureland;
Fifth, one should build a commemorative tower and shrine (i.e., a stupa), Sixth, monastic dwellings should be built.
The laity should commit themselves to the six venerations, Carrying them out in due order without losing time.
If one practices the discipline in this manner, The household will not be lost to dissipation,
One’s wealth will increase everyday, just as does the great ocean, Into which all the rivers on earth ﬂow.
At that time, Kalyāṇa-jātika said to the World-honored One:
It is wonderful, World-honored One. The teaching surpasses my original wish, and it surpasses my father’s teaching. It enables the defeated to look up again with hope, it enables a closed heart to open again, and it enables the deluded to be awakened, just as candlelight illuminates a dark room and thus one’s eyes are able to perceive again. The exhortation of the Tathāgata is also like this. In many ways it has illuminated the darkness of ignorance and revealed the pure white Dharma. Why is this so? Because the Buddha is the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One he is able to illustrate the truth and is the guide of the world. Now I shall take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha.
O World-honored One, may I now be permitted to become a lay devo- tee in the right Dharma. From today onward until the end of my life, I vow not to commit taking life, nor theft, nor engage in sexual misconduct, nor speak falsehoods, nor ingest intoxicants, sir.

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Having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, Kalyāṇa-jātika respectfully received the teaching and carried out what was taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 16: Kalyāṇa-jātika]

Sutra 17

Purity
(Dīgha Nikāya 29: Pāsādika Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was staying in a grove that belonged to a layman in the country of Kapilavastu, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples. At that time, a śrāmaṇera (novice), Cunda by name, who had completed that year’s summer retreat in the country of Pāvā, carrying his robes and almsbowl, had just arrived at the grove. Upon reaching the place where Ānanda stayed, Cunda honored Ānanda by bowing his forehead to his feet, then stood to one side and said to him:
Master Jñātiputra of the Nirgrantha followers has just passed away in the city of Pāvā. Within a short time, the Nirgrantha disciples have already divided into two groups. Each of these two factions looks for its own advantage and the fault of the other, mutually disdaining and accusing each other as to whose doctrinal insights are right. They argue with each other, asserting, “We know this well, whereas you do not. The discipline we practice is real and true, whereas you follow the practice of a wrong view. In your argument you ﬁrst state what [logically] should be placed later [as a conclusion] and assert what should be placed ﬁrst [as precedent] afterward. Thus, you uphold no logical rule in upside-down confusion. What we practice is the ultimate, while what you assert is wrong. You should question us if you have any doubt about it at all.”
O Venerable Elder Ānanda, listening to the arguments of those lay followers, supporters of the Nirgrantha movement, of that country, I have already become weary of the disputes, sir.
Ānanda said to the śrāmaṇera Cunda:
We have something important of which I wish to inform the World-honored One. I shall now accompany you and report this matter to His Holiness.

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If the World-honored One instructs us about anything related to this mat- ter, we will respectfully receive it as a lesson for our practice.
Having heard Ānanda’s words, the śrāmaṇera Cunda immediately went to visit the World-honored One and, after honoring the Buddha by bowing his forehaed to the Buddha’s feet, he stood to one side. Thereupon, Ānanda said to the World-honored One:
This śrāmaṇera Cunda, having completed the summer retreat in the country of Pāvā, carrying his robes and almsbowl, has just arrived here, sir. Upon reaching my place and honoring me by bowing his forehead to my feet, he said to me, “The teacher of the Nirgrantha followers has just passed away in the city of Pāvā. Within a short time, the Nirgrantha followers have already divided into two groups. Each of these two fac- tions looks for its own advantage and the faults of the other, mutually disdaining and accusing each other as to whose doctrinal insights are right. They argue with each other, saying, “We know this well, whereas you do not. The discipline we practice is real and true, whereas you follow the practice of a wrong view. In your argument you ﬁrst state what [logically] should be placed later [as conclusion] and assert what should be placed ﬁrst [as precedent] afterward. Thus, you uphold no logical rule in upside-down confusion. What we practice is the ultimate, while what you assert is wrong. You should question us if you have any doubt about it at all.”
Listening to the arguments of those lay followers, supporters of the Nirgrantha movement, of that country, Cunda has already become weary of the disputes, sir.
The World-honored One said to the śrāmaṇera Cunda:
What you have observed [in Pāvā] seems likely to be what is going on. O Cunda, the wrong doctrine they follow is not something worthy of being heard. It is not the doctrine imparted by the Perfectly Enlightened One. It is like a dilapidated commemorative tower (stupa) whose color cannot be easily changed. Although those followers have a teacher, they all uphold wrong views. Although they have a doctrine, it does not carry ultimate truth. Hence, such a doctrine is not worthy of being heard or

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adopting, nor is it a doctrine that would be able to help [anyone] as an essential method of liberation. Any doctrine, other than the teaching imparted by the Perfectly Enlightened One, cannot be altered, just as the color of a dilapidated tower can be modiﬁed. Some of the disciples, however, do not follow that doctrine but, forsaking wrong views, they [try to] follow the practice of the right [doctrine]. O Cunda, suppose someone were to then say to them, “Dear practitioners, the doctrine of your master is right. You should carry out the practice within this doctrine. Why do you abandon it?” If they believed these words, then both disciples would be lost from the [true] path, incurring immeasurable sin. Why is this so? It is because that doctrine does not carry ultimate truth.
O Cunda, when a master does not advocate a wrong view and his doctrine bears ultimate truth, then it is worthy of hearing and adopting and it is able to help anyone as an essential method of liberation. It is [like] the doctrine imparted by the Perfectly Enlightened One and, like the color of a newly built commemorative tower, it can easily be modiﬁed. Some of those disciples, however, are unable to follow the practice of this [true] doctrine, nor are they able to realize the result of that doctrine, but instead they advocate wrong views by forsaking the path that is open to everyone universally. Suppose someone were to say to those disciples, “Dear practitioners, your master’s doctrine is right and you should follow the practice of that doctrine. Why do you abandon it by advocating a wrong view?” If the disciples believe these words, then they will all see the real truth of that doctrine and acquire immeasurable merit. Why is this so? It is because the doctrine carries ultimate truth.
The Buddha said to Cunda:
[On the other hand] even when disciples have a master who advocates a wrong view and if the doctrine they follow does not carry ultimate truth, it is neither worthy of hearing or adopting, nor does it help anyone as an essential method of liberation. Thus, whatever doctrine other than that which is imparted by the Perfectly Enlightened One cannot be easily modiﬁed, like the color of a dilapidated commemorative tower. While these disciples are equipped with the truth of the doctrine and follow the practice prescribed therein, they advocate various wrong views. O

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Cunda, suppose someone were to say to them, “The doctrine of your master is right and the practice in which you are engaged is good. The strife [and discord] in which you are now engaged will surely enable you to realize the path of enlightenment and the result of nirvana in the present life.” If these disciples believe these words and accept the practice, then all will be lost from the path, incurring immeasurable sin. Why is this so? It is because that doctrine does not carry ultimate truth.
O Cunda, if the master does not advocate a wrong view then the doc- trine he imparts must carry ultimate truth, and that doctrine is worthy of hearing and adopting and is able to help anyone as an essential method of liberation. It is like the teaching of the Perfectly Enlightened One. For instance, it is like a newly built commemorative tower whose color can be easily be modiﬁed. Further, the disciples realize the truth of the doctrines and while following the practices prescribed therein, they give rise to right views within themselves. Suppose someone then says to them, “The doctrine of your master is right and the practice in which you are engaged is good. The strife [and discord] you are now engaging in will surely enable you to realize the path of enlightenment and the result of nirvana in the present life.” If those disciples believe these words and accept the practice, they would all have the right view, acquir- ing immeasurable merit. Why is this so? It is because the doctrine is of the nature of ultimate truth.
O Cunda, there may be a case in which a true guiding teacher, having appeared in this world, gives rise to anxiety in the hearts of his disciples, or there may also be a case in which a true guiding teacher, having appeared in this world, does not give rise to anxiety in the hearts of his disciples. How could a qualiﬁed guiding teacher, having appeared in this world, give rise to anxiety in the hearts of his disciples? O Cunda, when such a master initially appears in the world soon after his realization of the path, though his doctrine may be well endowed with the purity of his practice of austerity, he may yet take the course of cessation (i.e., passing from the world) before his essential method of realizing ultimate truth has circulated enough in the world. Consequently his disciples, who have not yet sufﬁciently mastered the method of practice, are anx- ious, saying, “Our master initially appeared in this world soon after the

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time of his realization of the path. Though his doctrine is well endowed with the purity of his practice of austerity, he may yet swiftly take the course of cessation from this world without sufﬁciently propagating in the essential method of realizing ultimate truth. Now the master may swiftly take the course of cessation, leaving us unequipped with the method of practice.” This is called “the anxiety of the disciples when their guiding teacher has appeared in this world.”
What is [then] the case of “the non-anxiety of the disciples” when their guiding teacher has appeared in this world? Suppose a [qualiﬁed] guiding teacher appears in this world, with a doctrine well endowed with the purity of the practice of austerity. When the essential method of real- izing ultimate truth has been circulated widely in the world, then even if their master were then to reach the end of his life, his disciples will already have sufﬁciently mastered the method of practice. This [naturally] reduces their anxiety and they say, “It has been a long time since our guiding master initially appeared in this world; since his doctrine was well endowed with the purity of the practice of austerity, his essential method of realizing ultimate truth has also been circulated widely in this world. Even if then he takes the course of cessation, he has already helped his disciples master the method of realizing ultimate truth.” In this way, O Cunda, the disciples have no anxiety about whether their guiding master has appeared in this world.
The Buddha said to Cunda:
There is a set of criteria on the basis of which the practice of austerity is regarded to be complete. Suppose a [qualiﬁed] guiding master has appeared in this world only very recently and his name and reputation have not yet widely circulated in society. This is called the the master’s “nonfulﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.” O Cunda, [suppose] a qualiﬁed guiding master has been in the world for a long time since he initially undertook renunciation, and his name and repu- tation have circulated widely in human society. This is called the master’s “fulﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.”
O Cunda, [suppose] a [qualiﬁed] guiding master has been in this world for a long time since he undertook his renunciation, and his name

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and reputation have circulated widely in human society. Many of his male disciples (bhikṣus), however, have not yet sufﬁciently received his instruction, nor have they been fully endowed with the practice of aus- terity, nor have they reached the goal of safety and peace, nor have they beneﬁted themselves with the merits thereof, nor have they received the sanction for doctrinal proﬁciency, nor have they been permitted to prop- agate the doctrine, nor are they yet able to settle religious disputes when- ever they arise, as required by the proper rules, nor are they able to acquire and demonstrate supernormal powers. This is called the master’s “nonfulﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.”
O Cunda, [suppose] a qualiﬁed guiding master has been in this world for a long time since he undertook renunciation. Hence, his name and rep- utation have been well circulated far widely in human society. Accordingly, all of his disciples have received his full instruction, and they are sufﬁciently endowed with the practice of austerity, they have reached the abode of safety and peace, they have beneﬁted themselves with the merits thereof, they have been granted the sanction for doctrinal proﬁciency, they are per- mitted to propagate the doctrine, and they are capable of settling religious disputes whenever they arise, as required by proper rules, and they can demonstrate their acquisition of supernormal powers. This is called the master’s “fulﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.”
O Cunda, [suppose] a [qualiﬁed] guiding master has been in this world for a long time since he undertook renunciation, and his name and reputation have circulated far widely in human society. Many of his female disciples (bhikṣuṇīs), however, have not sufﬁciently received his instruction, nor have they fully been endowed with the practice of aus- terity, nor have they reached the abode of safety and peace, nor have they beneﬁted themselves with the merits thereof, nor have they received the sanction for doctrinal proﬁciency, nor are they permitted to propagate the doctrine, nor are they yet able to settle religious disputes whenever they arise, as required by proper rules, nor are they able to acquire and demonstrate supernormal powers. This is called the master’s “nonful- ﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.”
O Cunda, [suppose] a qualified guiding master has been in this world for a long time since he undertook renunciation and his name

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and reputation have circulated far widely in human society. Accordingly, all of his female disciples (bhikṣuṇīs) have received his full instruction, they are sufﬁciently endowed with the practice of austerity, they have reached the abode of safety and peace and beneﬁted themselves with the merits thereof, they have been granted the sanction for doctrinal proﬁciency, they are permitted to propagate the doctrine, they are capable of settling religious disputes whenever they arise, as required by proper rules, and to demonstrate their acquisition of supernormal powers. This is called the master’s “fulﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.”
O Cunda, whether a qualiﬁed guiding master has fulﬁlled the criterion of the practice of austerity can also be determined by reference to his lay disciples, male and female, as to how widely and efﬁciently they have accomplished the practice of austerity, and so forth, up to how widely and efﬁciently they are able to demonstrate their acquisition of supernormal powers.
O Cunda, [suppose] a [qualiﬁed] guiding master has neither been in this world, nor are his name and reputation, his material support, or his detractions known widely in human society. This is called the master’s “nonfulﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.” If, however, a qualiﬁed guiding master has been in this world and is endowed with name and reputation [that are widely circulated in society], and he enjoys full material support with no lack and is free from any detraction against him, he is regarded as having “fulﬁlled the criterion of the prac- tice of austerity.”
Again, suppose that a qualiﬁed guiding master has been in this world and is endowed with name and reputation [widely circulated in society] and enjoys full material support with no lack. If, however, his disciples have not been endowed with their names and reputations or with full material support, this is also called the master’s “nonfulﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.” If a qualiﬁed guiding master has been in this world and is endowed with name and reputation [widely circulated in society] and receives full material support with no lack, and also if the names and reputations of his disciples have [widely cir- culated in society], they receive full material support with no lack, and they are free from any detraction against them, this is called the master’s

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“fulﬁllment of the criterion of the practice of austerity.” Whether or not the qualiﬁed guiding master fulﬁlls the criterion of the practice of austerity can also be determined by reference to his female disciples in similar terms. O Cunda, it has been a long time since I undertook my renunciation.
My name and reputation have widely circulated in society. My disciples have already been given instruction and training; they have reached the goal of safety and peace (i.e., enlightenment and quiescence) and ben- eﬁted themselves with merits thereof; they have been granted my sanction for doctrinal proﬁciency and are permitted to propagate the doctrine; they are capable of settling religious disputes as they arise, as required by proper rules, and they are able to demonstrate their acquisition of supernormal powers. My female disciples as well as both male and female lay disciples have also equally accomplished similar fulﬁllments as have my male disciples. O Cunda, in these ways, I have successfully propagated the practice of austerity far widely in human society, and so forth, up to my demonstration of acquisition of supernormal powers. O Cunda, there is no other guiding master in this world who is as greatly renowned in name and reputation as well as in enjoying material support, as myself, the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One. O Cunda, I can ﬁnd no other religious order in this world that has been so fully renowned in name and reputation and has received such material support as my order.
O Cunda, if you wish to explain [the success of my religion] (i.e. the practice of austerity) correctly, you should speak of the fact that “seeing does not see.” What does it mean to say that seeing does not see? It means that every [successful] practice of austerity is endowed with purity, and this is proclaimed and manifested. This is called “seeing does not see.”
Thereupon, the World-honored One said to the assembly of bhikṣus:
[The philosopher] Udraka Rāmaputra taught his followers the following theory: “Seeing does not see.” What did he mean by saying this? He explained it by means of an analogy, for instance, “Seeing a sword, one perceives its blade but does not perceive the edge of that blade.” O bhikṣus, the philosopher used that analogy to explain the meaning [of

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“seeing does not see”] in reference to an ordinary person, who is unable to perceive the edge of the blade. O Cunda, if you wish to describe the matter correctly, you should refer to the real meaning of the fact that seeing itself does not see. What does this mean? Every practice of aus- terity is endowed with purity and is proclaimed and manifested. This is that which one does not see. O Cunda, the continual [momentary] phe- nomena of each practice of austerity can be known if one does not let his attention rest on each ﬂeeting moment. On the other hand, if one tries to rest one’s attention on each moment, one cannot know the con- tinuous phenomena of the practice of austerity as successful, even though one is endowed [with its successful continuity]. O Cunda, of all the phe- nomena of religion, the practice of austerity is the ultimate taste, like the taste of ghee that is highest among all the milk products.
The World-honored One then said to the bhikṣus:
I have realized the ultimate experience in the following sets of disciplines, namely, the four kinds of application of mental awareness, the four kinds of supernormal powers, the four kinds of strenuous effort, the four kinds of meditative absorption, the ﬁve kinds of spiritual faculties, the ﬁve kinds of spiritual power, the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment, and the eightfold noble path. All of you should be in harmonious unity and not allow disputes to arise, because you have been taught by the same teacher and also because you are the members of the same order, just as water and milk [easily mix together and become one]. Within the Tathāgata’s religion you may realize the state of ultimate well-being through reliance on oneself, like a candle, and [you will eventually] realize the goal.
Suppose a bhikṣu gives an exhortation on some doctrine, and someone [among the audience] objects, “Such-and-such passage explained by So-and-so is neither correct, nor is the meaning thus rendered right.” Having faced this kind of charge, the bhikṣu [this challenged] should not respond either by accepting the charge as right or by rejecting it as wrong. Rather, he should say to the other bhikṣu, “Dear colleague, what do you think? My statement is like this, while yours is like that. The meaning I rendered in my statement is like this, while the meaning you

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rendered in your statement is like that. Which one, do you think, is supe- rior and which is inferior?” The other bhikṣu then may respond, “My statement is like this, and the meaning rendered is like that, whereas your statement is like that, and the meaning rendered is like this. Your statement seems to be superior and the meaning [thus rendered] is also superior.” Having said this, however, that bhikṣu should say, “Neither of our statements or of our meanings should be decided as wrong or right [immediately]. Let us clarify the matter together so as to determine whether my statement and meaning should be warned against, or receive reprimand, or be condemned to abandonment.” In this way, all of you should maintain harmonious unity and not give rise to disputes, because you have been taught by the same teacher and also because you are members of the same order [in which you are harmoniously mixed] just like water and milk. Within the Tathāgata’s religion you may realize the state of ultimate well-being through reliance on oneself, like a candle, and [you will eventually] realize the goal.
Suppose a bhikṣu gives an exhortation on some doctrine, and someone [among the audience] speaks out as follows, “Such-and-such passage spoken by So-and-so is not correct, although the meaning thus rendered is right.” Having faced this kind of charge, the former bhikṣu should not respond either by accepting the charge as right or rejecting it as wrong. Rather he should say to the bhikṣu [who challenged him], “Dear colleague, what do you think? My statement is like this, while yours is like that. Which one, do you think, is right and which is wrong?” The bhikṣu then may respond, “My statement is like this, while yours is like that. Your statement seems to be superior.” Having said this, the bhikṣu may continue, “Neither of our statements should be decided as wrong or right [imme- diately]. Let us clarify the matter together so as to determine whether my passage is to be warned against, receive a reprimand, or condemned to abandonment.” In this way, you should maintain harmonious unity and not give rise of disputes, because you have been taught by the same teacher and also because you are the members of the same order [and mix together harmoniously,] like water and milk. Within the Tathāgata’s religion you may realize the state of ultimate well-being through reliance on oneself, like a candle, and [you will eventually] realize the goal.

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Suppose a bhikṣu gives an exhortation on some doctrine, and someone [among the audience] speaks out as follows, “Although such-and-such passage explained by So-and-so is correct, the meaning rendered is wrong.” Having faced this kind of charge, the bhikṣu [thus challenged] should respond neither by accepting the charge as right nor rejecting it as wrong. Rather, he should say to the other bhikṣu, “Dear colleague, what do you think? The meaning rendered [by my statement] is like this, while yours is like that. Which one is right and which is wrong?” That bhikṣu may then respond, “The meaning rendered in my statement is like this, while yours is like that. Your meaning seems to be superior.” Having said this, the bhikṣu may continue, “Neither of these meanings should be decided as right or wrong [immediately], however. Let us clar- ify the matter together so as to determine whether the meaning I rendered should be warned against, reprimanded, or condemned to abandonment.” In this way, you should maintain harmonious unity and not give rise to disputes, because you have been taught by the same teacher and also because you are the members of the same order, [blending togther are easily as] water and milk. Within the Tathāgata’s religion you may realize the state of ultimate well-being through the reliance on oneself, like a candle, and [you will eventually] realize the goal.
Suppose a bhikṣu gives an exhortation on some doctrine, and someone [among the audience] speaks out as follows, “Such-and-such passage explained by So-and-so is correct, and the meaning rendered is also right.”The bhikṣu, having listened to these words, cannot say anything is wrong but should instead praise the other bhikṣu, “What you have said is right.” Because of these reasons, every bhikṣu should have direct experience with the twelve categories of scriptures and spread these scriptures widely. The twelve categories are (1) the sacred discourses in prose (sūtra), (2) the sacred discourses in prose and verse (geya), (3) the doctrines and destinies of religious fulﬁllment (vyākaraṇa), (4) the literature in verse (gāthā), (5) the Buddha's solemn and joyous utterances in prose and verse (udāna), (6) the doctrinal and Vinaya discourses as to motives and occasions (nidāna), (7) stories of past lives and experi- ences as a bodhisattva (jātaka), (8) stories of past events (avadāna), (9) extensive doctrinal studies (vaipulya), (10) descriptions of supernormal

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events and mysteries (adbhutadharma), (11) moral instructions consisting of heroic stories and moral retributions (itivṛttaka), and (12) detailed and extensive expositions and interpretations (upadeśa). Every bhikṣu should uphold his experience well with these [twelve] categories of scriptures, evaluate their meanings in observation, and spread the scrip- tures as widely as possible.
O bhikṣus, the robe that I set forth as the norm, whether it is [made from rags] picked up in cemetery mounds or donated by wealthy house- holders or obtained from ordinary households, should be sufﬁcient if it can protect one’s body from cold and heat as well as from mosquitoes and gadﬂies, covering the four major parts of the body. O bhikṣus, the food that I set forth as the norm, whether it is obtained from almsrounds or provided by lay householders, should be sufﬁcient if it satisﬁes one’s need. Because there is a danger of death when physical afﬂiction and various kinds of illness develop, one should receive as much food as is needed. O bhikṣus, the abode that I set forth as the norm should be either under a shady tree, in an outdoor corridor, in a room, in a house, in a rock cave, or in various kinds of residences. Whatever abode it may be, if it can protect one from cold and heat, wind and rain, mosquitoes and gadﬂies, and also insofar as it provides a secluded resting place, that is sufﬁcient. O bhikṣus, the medicine I set forth as the norm is made of either urine or excrement, and butter, oil, molasses, and sugar, in order to satisfy one’s need. Because there is a danger of death when physical afﬂiction and various kinds of illness develop, one should receive as much medicine as is needed.
The Buddha said:
Suppose that a heretic brāhmaṇa practitioner comes to accuse you, saying, “The śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas, enjoy various self-enjoy- ments.” If such words are spoken, you should reply to him, “You should not utter such words. If the śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas, engage in var- ious self-enjoyments, the reason is that there is a kind of enjoyment the Tathāgata reprimands, while there is also another kind of enjoyment that the Tathāgata praises.” The heretic brāhmaṇa may then ask, “What kind of self-enjoyment is found blameworthy by the Tathāgata?” When this

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is asked, you should reply, “The qualities that the ﬁve kinds of desire respectively obtain (pañca-kāma-guṇa) are endearing and enjoyable and [so they] become objects of human attachment. What are these ﬁve qualities? The visual faculty discerns forms, which, being endearing and enjoyable, become an object of attachment. [In like manner,] the auditory faculty discerns sounds, the olfactory faculty discerns smells, the gustatory faculty discerns tastes, and the tactile faculty discerns physical touch. Because these are endearing and enjoyable, they become objects of attachment. Furthermore, the indirect causes of the ﬁve desires give rise to delight and happiness, which the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlight- ened One condemns.
Furthermore, it is like the case of a person who deliberately kills other sentient beings to obtain happiness. The desire to kill, taking a life, is what the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One condemns. Again, it is like the case of someone who deliberately steals others’ prperty, in order to obtain happiness. The desire to steal is what the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One condemns. Again, it is like the case of someone who deliberately violates the practice of austerity in order to obtain hap- piness. The desire to commit sexual misconduct is what the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One condemns. Again, it is like the case of someone who deliberately speaks falsehoods in order to obtain hap- piness. The desire to lie is what the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlight- ened One condemns. Again, it is like the case of someone who deliber- ately spends his wealth on drinking, and so on, as he wishes, in order to obtain happiness. The desire to [spend one’s wealth] on drinking and so on is what the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One condemns. Again, it is like the case of someone who deliberately engages in heretical practices of self-mortiﬁcation (ascetic practice) in order to obtain hap- piness. The desire to engage in heretical practices of self-mortiﬁcation is what the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One condemns.” O bhikṣus, I condemn the ﬁve kinds of sensation fulﬁlled by the ﬁve kinds of desire. These are the objects of human attachment. What are these ﬁve? The visual faculty discerns forms, which, being endearing and enjoyable, become an object of attachment. [In like manner,] the auditory faculty discerns sounds, the olfactory faculty discerns smells,

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the gustatory faculty discerns tastes, and the tactile faculty discerns phys- ical touch. As these are endearing, they become objects of human attach- ment. Though these are the kinds of happiness [sought by ordinary peo- ple], the śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas, do not regard them as [real] happiness. It is just like a person who deliberately kills other sentient beings in order to obtain happiness. This is not the kind of happiness [sought by] śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately steals others’ things in order to obtain happiness. This is not the kind of happiness [sought by] śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately violates the practice of austerity in order to obtain happiness. This is not the kind of happiness [sought by] śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately speaks falsehoods in order to obtain happiness. This is not the kind of happiness [soiught by] the śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately spends his wealth on drinking, and so on. as he desires. This is not the kind of happiness [sought by] śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately engages in heretical practices of self-mortiﬁcation. This is not what the Tathāgata taught as right practice. It is not the kind of happiness [sought by] śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas.
Again, some heretic brāhmaṇa practitioners may ask, “What kind of self-enjoyment is praised by the śramaṇa Gautama?” O bhikṣus, if you are asked such a question, you should reply, “Dear friends, the qualities (i.e., sensations) obtained by the ﬁve kinds of desire are endearing and enjoyable, and [are therefore likely to] become objects of human attach- ment. What are these ﬁve? The visual faculty discerns forms, and so forth, up to the tactile faculty which discerns physical touch, through which respective sensations are cherished and enjoyed, and become objects of attachment. Dear friend, these kinds of happiness, which arise from the ﬁve kinds of desire as direct cause and their respective objects as indirect cause, should be eradicated as quickly as possible. It is just like someone who deliberately kills other sentient beings in order to obtain happiness. If there is this kind of happiness, one should eradicate it immediately. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately steals others’ things in order to obtain happiness. If there is this kind of happiness,

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one should eradicate it immediately. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately violates the practice of austerity in order to obtain happiness. If there be this kind of happiness, one should eradicate it immediately. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately speaks falsehoods in order to obtain happiness. If there is that kind of happiness, one should eradicate it immediately. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately spends his wealth on drinking and so on, as he desires, in order to obtain happiness. If there is this kind of happiness, one should eradicate it immediately. Again, it is just like someone who deliberately engages in heretical practices of self-mortiﬁcation in order to obtain happiness. If there is this kind of happiness, one should eradicate it immediately. Furthermore, it is just like someone who, distancing himself from avarice and from other evil deﬁlements, realizes the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption in which there is an awareness of an object and an act of examining, while the sense of joy and bliss increase through removal of the cause of birth (i.e., reaching the supramundane realm). This kind of happiness is what the Buddha praises. Again, it is just like someone who, eliminating the awareness of an object and the subjective act of examination, with increasing tranquility or self-conﬁdence, continually applying mental concentration, enters the second meditative state of absorption in which there is neither the awareness of an object nor a subjective act, but the sense of joy and bliss predominate in the arising state of concentration. This kind of happiness is what the Buddha praises. Again it is just like someone who, with the fading away of the sense of joy but dwelling in the sense of equanimity, fully aware of subtler bliss, reaches the third meditative state of absorption in which he experiences the mindfulness, equanimity, and bliss that are sought by the wise and holy practitioner. This kind of happiness is what the Buddha praises. Again, it is just like someone who, having transcended both pain and pleasure and removed sorrow and joy, realizes the fourth meditative state of absorption in which there is neither pain nor pleasure but an increase of the state of equanimity that consolidates pure and genuine
mindfulness. This kind of happiness is what the Buddha praises.
If any heretic brāhmaṇa practitioners should ask, “How many mer- itorious effects do you seek to realize in this kind of happiness?”, you

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should reply, “This kind of happiness is comprised of seven meritorious effects. What are these seven? One realizes direct experience of the ulti- mate path in the present life; if deﬁlement obstructs him from realizing it, he may realize it at the time of his death. If he is again obstructed from it at the time of death, he may eradicate the ﬁve kinds of deﬁlement21 that bind sentient beings to the lower realm of desire, or he may realize one of the ﬁve kinds of ﬁnal nirvana without returning to this world: ﬁrst, an anāgāmin (nonreturner) who passes away in the middle of his term of life in some particular heaven; second, an anāgāmin who passes away from the realm of desire (kāmadhātu) and is reborn in the realm of form (rūpadhātu) and enters nirvana from there; third, an anāgāmin who enters nirvana after proper mental preparation; fourth, an anāgāmin who enters nirvana without any mental preparation; and ﬁfth, an anāgāmin who is born in the highest Akaniṣṭha Heaven (i.e., ārūpyadhātu, formless realm) and enters nirvana from there. Dear friends, these are the seven meritorious effects of the foregoing kinds of happiness.
Suppose a bhikṣu is still engaged in the practice of moral discipline, seeking the higher goal of safety and peace, but is unable to eradicate the ﬁve kinds of moral and spiritual hindrances: (1) sexual desire, (2) malice, (3) sloth and drowsiness, (4) agitation and worry, and (5) doubt. If a bhikṣu is still engaged in the practice of moral discipline, seeking the higher goal of safety and peace, but is unable to eradicate the ﬁve kinds of moral and spiritual hindrances, unable to exert himself in the four kinds of mental awareness, and unable to exert himself in the practice of the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment, he would in no way be in the position to seek clear insight in order to strengthen the possibility of realizing that state that is beyond human conditions and that of saintly transcendent knowledge. Dear friends, only when a bhikṣu who is prac- ticing moral discipline, seeking the higher goal of safety and peace, is able to eradicate the ﬁve kinds of moral and spiritual hindrances, to exert himself in the four kinds of mental awareness, and to exert himself in the practice of seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment, will he then be in the position to seek clear insight in order to strengthen the possibility of realizing the state that is beyond human conditions and of that of saintly transcendent knowledge.

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Dear friends, when a bhikṣu realizes the state of an arhat by eradicating all deﬁlements, he has accomplished what should be accomplished in life, thus lightening his burden. From this he acquires meritorious beneﬁt for himself, puts an end to various existential fetters, attains liberation through right knowledge, and never falls into the nine kinds of wrong conduct. What are these nine kinds [of wrong conduct]? They are (1) taking life (killing), (2) taking what is not given (stealing), (3) breaking the practice of austerity, (4) speaking falsehoods, (5) forsaking the path,
(6) following [the dictates of desire, (7) following [the dictates of] anger,
(8) following [the dictates of] fear, and (9) following [the dictates] of delusion. Dear friends, this is called the resulting state of the arhat in which, having eradicated all deﬁlements, he accomplishes what should be accomplished in life, thus lightening his burden; from this he acquires meritorious beneﬁt for himself, puts an end to various existential fetters, attains liberation through right knowledge, and distances himself from the nine kinds of wrong conduct.
Again, some heretic brāhmaṇas criticize Buddhists, saying, “The śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas, uphold a doctrine that says impermanent things exist.” You should reply, “Dear friends, you should not make this kind of critical comment against us. Why do you think that the śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas, uphold the theory that there exist noneternal things? The truth thus held by the śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas, however, is itself eternal, immovable, and immutable, just like the threshold of a gate is immovable and immutable, [though passersby may come and go through it]. In like manner, the truth [about the way in which impermanent things exist in continuity] held by the śramaṇas, sons of the Śākyas, is eternal and immovable.
Again, some heretic brāhmaṇas criticize Buddhists, saying, “The śramaṇa Gautama knows all past events but he does not know future events.” Since heretic brāhmaṇas presuppose a different notion of knowl- edge as well as a different notion of transcendent insight, their words of criticism [on Buddhist teachings] are baseless. Past events, which are directly seen before his eyes, would never have escaped from the Tathā- gata’s supernormal power of vision. As for the future, he gives rise to
the knowledge born of enlightenment. If events that took place in the 75c

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past were neither real nor productive of delight and happiness, and there- fore not beneﬁcial to anyone, the Buddha does not record [such events]. Again, even if they were real, [if those past events] were not productive of delight and happiness and not beneﬁcial to anyone, the Buddha does not record them. Again, if those events were real and productive of delight and happiness, but were still not beneﬁcial to anyone, the Buddha does not record them. If, however, [those past events] were real, pro- ductive of delight and happiness, and also beneﬁcial to all, the Tathāgata has cognizance of them all and subsequently recalls them. In the case of events that take place in the present as well as in the future, the Tathā- gata’s supernormal power should be regarded equally, as before. In the past, present, and future the Tathāgata’s words will never be false, regard- less whether they are spoken on proper occasions, are about practical and factual matters, or about useful matters, or on doctrine, or about the disciplines.
The Buddha initially realized supreme enlightenment during the ﬁrst third of the night, and [that experience] remained with him throughout his life, until the latter third of the night [on which he entered parinir- vāṇa]. Throughout the period between these two nights, whatever speech the Buddha made is, without exception, true as to how things really are. Thus he is called the Tathāgata. Moreover, the Tathāgata’s speech is fac- tual, and facts are like the Buddha’s speech. Thus he is called the Tathā- gata. What does the title “Perfectly Enlightened One” mean? The Buddha perfectly knows all the contents of his insight, his cessation, and his enlightenment. Thus he is called “perfectly enlightened.”
Again, some heretic brāhmaṇas assert a theory that “the world exists eternally is alone true, while the rest is false.” Other heretics assert another theory that “the world exists temporarily is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, a third theory asserts that “the world both eternally exists and temporarily exists is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, a fourth theory asserts that “the world neither eternally exists nor tem- porarily exists is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, a ﬁfth theory that asserts that “this world has its limit [in time and space] is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, a sixth theory asserts that “this world has no limit [in time and space] is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again,

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a seventh theory asserts that “this world has both limit and no limit is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, an eighth theory asserts that “this world has neither limit nor no limit is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, a ninth theory asserts that that “having both this life and this body is alone real, while the rest is false.” Again a tenth theory asserts that “having neither a life nor a body is alone real, while the rest is false.” Again, an eleventh theory asserts that “having both a different life and a different body is alone real, while the rest is false.” Again, a twelfth theory asserts that “having neither a different life nor a different body is alone real, while the rest is false. Again, a thirteenth theory asserts that “the Tathāgata has an end [to his existence] is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, a fourteenth theory asserts that “the Tathā- gata has no end [to his existence] is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, a ﬁfteenth theory asserts that “the Tathāgata has both an end to his existence and no end to his existence is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, a sixteenth theory asserts that “the Tathāgata has neither an end to his existence nor no end to his existence is alone true, while the rest is false.” The foregoing are called the basic [alternative] theories concerning past (i.e., original) existence. I have recorded for your sake [these] theories that assert “this world is eternal,” and so on, up to the [last] theory that asserts “the Tathāgata has neither an end to his existence nor no end to his existence.” The foregoing are all wrong views (mithyā- dṛṣṭi) concerning the basic theories of future existence. I have recorded them for your sake.
I shall also record the [views] concerned with the basic theories of
future existence. What is the theory of future existence? I will record the following possibilities. A ﬁrst theory asserts that “the self consists of materiality and has an end according to [one’s] thought (i.e., con- sciousness) is alone true, while the rest is false.” In like manner, a second theory asserts that “the self consists of immateriality and has an end according to one’s thought”; a third theory asserts that “the self consists of both materiality and immateriality and has an end according to one’s thought”; a fourth theory asserts that “the self consists neither of mate- riality nor immateriality and has an end according to one’s thought”; a ﬁfth theory asserts that “the self[’s existence] has a limit [in space and

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time]”; a sixth theory asserts that “the self has no limit [in time and space]’; a seventh theory asserts that “the self has both limit and no limit”; an eighth theory asserts that “the self has neither a limit nor no limit and has an end according to one’s thought”; a ninth theory asserts that “the self has no happiness and has an end according to one’s thought”; a tenth theory asserts that “the self has both happiness and suffering and has an end according to one’s thought”; an eleventh theory asserts that “the self has neither suffering nor happiness and has an end according to one’s thought”; a twelfth theory asserts that “the self consists of a single thought and has an end according to one’s thought”; a thirteenth theory asserts that “the self consists of multiple thoughts and has an end according to one’s thought”; a fourteenth theory asserts that “the self consists of a few thoughts and has an end according to one’s thought”; a ﬁfteenth theory asserts that “the self consists of an inﬁnite number of thoughts and has an end according to one’s thought is alone true, while the rest is false.” These are called the basic theories of wrong views con- cerning future existence. I have recorded them for your sake.
Again, some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas may raise the following the- ories and views, [which assert that] “this world eternally exists is alone true, while the rest is false,” and so forth, up to the [last] theory, which asserts that “the self is consists of an immeasurable number of thoughts is alone true, while the rest is false.” Again, “such-and-such theories, such-and-such views, are alone true, while the rest is false.”
You should answer, “You have certainly raised this theory, but why should this theory asert that ‘the world eternally exists is alone true, while the rest is false’? This kind of theoretical statement is not accepted by the Buddha. Why? Because all of these theories and views [in which respective theories are formulated] is comprised of some fetter of attach- ment. From examining the foregoing theories, I infer that there is no one among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who can equal my theory and view. How could there be anyone equal to myself, especially because they overemphasize their respective theories over those of others? These varieties of wrong views concerning the self are merely [empty] speech, and there is none about which both parties can discuss. This refutation

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equally applies to all the other theories, up to the one that asserts that the self consists of an immeasurable number of thoughts.
Again, some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas uphold a theory that this world is created by itself. Again, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas uphold another theory that this world is created by [something] other [than itself]. Again, a third group asserts that this world is created by both itself and by others. Again, a fourth group may assert that the world is created neither by itself nor by others, but [came into being] suddenly, [without cause]. [You should know that the very existence of] these śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who uphold the theory that the world is created by itself, however, are [ultimately] based on the causality of the contact of the sense faculties with their respective objects. [Therefore,] no one can explain the origin of the world in a theory without including the causality of sense contact. Why is this so? Because the six sense faculties establish contact with their respective objects by way of the physical body. On the basis of this contact (sparśa), there arises sensation; on the basis of sensation (vedanā), there arises craving; on the basis of craving (tṛṣṇā), there arises grasping; on the basis of grasping (upādana), there arises the will to becoming; on the basis of the will to becoming (bhava), there arises birth; on the basis of birth (jāti), there arises old age and death (jarāmaraṇa), and the mass of great troubles, such as sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and afﬂiction. If there are no six sense faculties, contact cannot arise; if there is no contact, sensation cannnot arise; if there is no sen- sation, craving cannot arise; if there is no craving, grasping cannot arise; if there is no grasping, the will to becoming cannot arise; if there is no will to becoming, birth cannot arise; if there is no birth, old age and death, as well as the mass of great troubles, such as sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and afﬂiction, cannot arise. In order to refute the remaining three alternative theories, you may apply this same [principle of] causality (i.e., dependent origination), because when there is contact of the senses and [their] objects, existence arises; when there is no such contact, exis-
tence cannot arise.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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If you wish to terminate these wrong views you should rely on the four kinds of application of mental awareness, especially by applying them in three ways of practice. How should a bhikṣu terminate these wrong views through reliance on the four kinds of mental awareness, especially by applying them in three ways? First, when a bhikṣu observes his inner body (inner senses) in concentration he should make effort without slack- ening, being mindful of his observations to keep them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and anxiety; second, while observing his outer body (outer senses) he should make effort without slackening, being mindful of his observations to keep them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and anxiety; third, while observing both inner and outer body he should make effort without slackening, being mindful of his observations to keep them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and anxiety. These three forms of practice also apply to the observation of one’s sensations, the observation of one’s mind (intellect), and the observation of one’s psychophysical elements.
There are eight different states of liberation that result from these practices. What are these eight? First, the liberation realized when one, with an ideation of internal form, perceives external forms; second, the liberation realized when one, without any ideation of internal form, per- ceives external forms; third, the liberation ealized when one has thus terminated all deﬁlements; fourth, the liberation realized when one, having transcended all ideations of form and annihilated sensory reaction, abides in the ﬁrst formless state of concentration, the realm of inﬁnite space; ﬁfth, the liberation realized when one, having transcended the realm of inﬁnite space, abides in the realm of inﬁnite consciousness; sixth, the liberation realized when one, having transcended the previous realm, abides in the realm of nothingness or nonutility; seventh, the lib- eration realized when one, having transcended the previous realm, abides in the realm of neither ideation nor nonideation; and eighth, the liberation realized when one, having transcended the previous realm, abides in the ﬁnal state of cessation, having transcended both senses and ideation, which is equivalent to the third saintly state of anāgāmin.
At that time Ānanda was [standing behind] the World-honored One, fan- ning him. [When the Buddha’s exhortation was over,] Ānanda at once

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rearranged his outer robe to expose his right shoulder and, kneeling with his right knee on the ground and both palms joined together, he said to the Buddha:
It is wonderful, World-honored One, this doctrine [you have] exhorted is endowed with foremost purity and subtlety. What title should be given to this exhortation and how should it be received and carried out, sir?
The Buddha replied to Ānanda, “This sutra can be called “Purity” and you should retain it without any admixture (lit., “in a pure manner”).” Having thus listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, Ānanda was delighted,
respectfully received it, and carried it out as taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 17: Purity]

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Sutra 18

Happiness Caused by Oneself
(Dīgha Nikāya 28: Sampasādanīya Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was staying in the town of Nālandā in the Pāvārika’s Mango Forest accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples. The venerable elder Śāriputra, engaged in meditation in a secluded place, thought:
My mind has become settled with the knowledge that throughout the past, present, and future there is no śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa whose wisdom, supernormal power, and meritorious virtues can equal those of the Tathā- gata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One (samyaksaṃbuddha).
Śāriputra then stood up from his meditation and went to see the World- honored One. Having honored the Buddha by bowing his forehead to his feet, Śāriputra withdrew to one side and took his seat. He said to the Buddha:
A short while ago, when I was engaged in meditation in a secluded place, it came to my mind that throughout the past, present, and future there is no śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa whose wisdom, supernormal power, and meritorious virtues can equal those of the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One.
The Buddha then said to Śāriputra:
Very good, you are able to speak [frankly] of your thought before me, ﬁrmly settled with unshakable conviction, and thereby you are able to make the lion’s roar like this. Among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas there is no one who can ever match your capacity. What do you think, O Śāriputra? Do you know what thoughts the past buddhas had in their minds, what moral disciplines they practiced, what doctrines they upheld, what transcendent insight they had, what liberation they realized, and in what state of liberation they abided?

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Śāriputra replied, “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
What do you think, O Śāriputra? Do you know what thoughts the future buddhas will have in their minds, what moral disciplines they will prac- tice, what doctrines they will uphold, what transcendent insight they will have, what liberation they will realize, and in what state of liberation they will abide?
Śāriputra replied, “No, sir.” [The Buddha again continued:]
What do you think, O Śāriputra? Do you know what thoughts the present buddha has in his mind, what moral disciplines he practices, what doc- trines he upholds, what transcendent insight he has, what liberation he has realized, and in what state of liberation he abides?
Śāriputra replied, “No, sir.”
Again, the Buddha said to Śāriputra:
You cannot know what thoughts the past, present, and future buddhas had, has, and will have, respectively, in their minds. On the basis of what reason have you decisively become settled with such a thought in your mind? In reference to what fact have you reached such an unshakable conviction, whereby you are able to make such a lion’s roar like that? When all the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas hear your announcement, “My mind has become settled with the knowledge that throughout the past, present, and future there is no śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa whose wisdom, supernormal power, and meritorious virtues can equal those of the Tathā- gata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One,” they will not believe your words.
Śāriputra said to the Buddha:
Although I am unable to know what thoughts the past, present, and future buddhas had, has and will have in their minds, I know the general char- acteristics of the Buddha. The Tathāgata has taught me the Dharma of profundity and vastness that is concerned with good and bad, with [the workings] of causality and its absence, illumination [with insight] and

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its absence, [ignorance], and I know that the Tathāgata’s exhortation is profound and vast. Having listened to the discourse, I have known each subject of the contents and have thoroughly investigated them all. I believe in the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One; I believe that the Dharma exhorted by the Tathāgata is thoroughly analyzable; and that the Tathāgata has [truly] realized cessation of the multitude of sufferings. These are the highest truths among all good doctrines. The knowledge and insight inparted by the World-honored One are compre- hensive, and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world, there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How could any of them ever so igno- miniously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality of the exhortation of the World-honored One, namely, revealing the disciplines. These disciplines constitute (1) the four kinds of application of mental awareness, (2) the four kinds of strenuous effort, (3) the four kinds of supernormal powers,
(4) the four kinds of meditative absorption, (5) the ﬁve kinds of spiritual faculties, (6) the ﬁve kinds of spiritual power, (7) the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment, and (8) the eightfold noble path. These are called the highest methods of practice. The World-honored One’s knowl- edge and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all- inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world there is none who can equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality of World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, revealing the cognitive bases (āyatanas). The epis- temic bases mean the eyes and forms, the ears and sounds, the nose and smells, the tongue and tastes, the body and tactile sensation, and the intellect and elements. The Tathāgatas, Arhats, Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past equally made these epistemic bases known, namely, the visual faculty and objective forms, and so on, up to the intellectual faculty and objective elements. The Tathāgatas, Arhats, Perfectly Enlight- ened Ones of the future too will be obliged to equally make these epis- temic bases known, namely, the visual faculty and objective forms, and

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so on, up to the intellectual faculty and objective elements. The Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One of the present time, who is my master, has also equally made these epistemic bases known, namely, the visual faculty and objective forms, and so on, up to the intellectual faculty and objective elements. No one can surpass the Tathāgata in revealing these epistemic bases. His knowledge and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world, there is none who can ever equal the World- honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality of the World-honored One,’s exhortation, namely, revealing the way of descending into the mother’s womb [at the time of rebirth] with awareness. The descent into the mother’s womb comprises four kinds: (1) entering the womb, abiding in it, and coming out of it, all without awareness; (2) entering the womb with awareness, but abiding in it and coming out of it without awareness;
(3) entering the womb and abiding in it with awareness, but coming out of it without awareness; and (4) entering the womb, abiding in it, and coming out of it, all with awareness. Of these four, the fourth is the high- est, [as in the case of the Tathāgata], unsurpassed by any other being. The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world there is none who can equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so igno- miniously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality of the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, revealing the path of religion [consisting of four motivations]. The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state they apply the seven auxiliary disciplines of enlightenment in practice, starting with the four kinds of mindfulness or mental awareness, according to four motivations: (1) desire for realization, (2) riddance from worldly affairs, (3) cessation of deﬁlements, and (4) deliverance from the samsaric life cycle. In like manner, they strive in the practices of discernment of the psychophysical elements, endeavor, delight, freedom from bodily

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and mental disturbance, the practice of concentration, and the mind of equanimity according to the above four motivations. These motivations are [the most effective], unsurpassed [by any other principle]. The World- honored One’s knowledge and insight are comprehensive and his super- normal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world, there is none who can equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality in the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, revealing the process or method of cessation. The process of cessation is of four kinds: (1) gradual realization (intuition) of the cessation of suffering, of which the two factors of gradualness and lingering suffering in the process are inferior; (2) prompt realization of the cessation of suffering, of which only the [lingering] suffering in the process is inferior; (3) gradual realization of the cessation of pleasure, of which only the process of gradualness is inferior; and (4) prompt real- ization of the cessation of pleasure but without its wider dissemination, of which only the absence of dissemination is inferior. The process of cessation propounded by the present Tathāgata constitutes not only the prompt realization of the cessation of pleasure but also the wider dis- semination of this method as far as the supernormal powers exercised by heavenly beings.
Śāriputra said to the Buddha:
The teachings imparted by the World-honored One are of the nature of highest wonder, because even women, who have a lower scale of intelli- gence, can uphold the teachings, eradicate the evil inﬂuences of the deﬁle- ments, realize the supramundane realm free from such inﬂuences, realize the liberation of the mind [free from craving and attachment], the liberation of transcendent insight [free from ignorance], and directly experience the realization thereof in this present life, namely, “Whoever has exhausted [the cause of] birth and death, accomplishes the goal of the practice of austerity, completes whatever should be done in life, for whom there will be no more birth after this life.” This is the highest realization of cessation, unsurpassable by any other doctrine. The World-honored One’s knowledge

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and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world none can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One? Again, there is another superior quality in the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely: discourses [having the nature] of purity. The dis- courses of purity mean that the World-honored One neither speaks useless and false words, [as can be observed] among the śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas, nor does he seek verbal triumph, nor does he side with any group; whatever he says is gentle, well-timed, and has factual basis. These are the characteristics of the Tathāgata’s discourses regarded as pure and genuine and unsurpassable. The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the
World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality of the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, the teaching of the realization of insight. (1) The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state they observe the body from head to toes and vice versa. Inside and outside the skin, they observe the presence of unclean hair on the head as well as on the body, nails, the backs of the hands or insteps of the feet, liver, lungs, intestines, stom- ach, spleen, kidneys, the ﬁve viscera (i.e., heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, stomach), sweat, fat, marrow, brain, excretions and urine, nasal mucus, and tears. As these are all unclean, there is nothing whatsoever to which one may become attached. This is the ﬁrst stage of realization of insight.
(2) The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state, excluding the unclean items of the skin and ﬂesh, they observe exclusively the skeleton and teeth. This is the second stage of the realization of insight. (3) The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state, excluding the unclean items of the skin and ﬂesh as well as the skeleton and teeth, they observe

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exclusively where consciousness abides, thereby determining that con- sciousness abides in the present life, it abides in the future life, there is no discontinuity of the present life, there is no discontinuity of the future life after, there is no liberation in this present life, and there is no liberation in the future life. This is the third stage of the realization of insight. (4) The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state, excluding the unclean items of the skin and ﬂesh as well as the skeleton and teeth, they observe once again exclusively where consciousness abides, thereby determining that consciousness abides in the future life but not in the present life, there is discontinuity of the present life but no discontinuity of the future life after, there is liberation in the present life but no liberation in the future life. This is the fourth stage of the realization of insight.
(5) The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state, excluding thse unclean items of the skin and ﬂesh as well as the skeleton and teeth, they observe for a third time exclusively where consciousness abides, thereby determining that consciousness abides neither in the present life nor in the future life, there is discontinuity of both the present life and the future life, and there is liberation in the present life as well as in the future life. This is the ﬁfth stage of the realization of insight, of which no one can surpass [the Tathāgata’s supernormal power].
The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight (jñāna-prajñā) are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world, there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One? Again, there is another superior quality in the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, imparting [the critically examined] theories of eter- nalism, which is unsurpassed by any other person. The theories of eter- nalism are the following three: śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state they recollect twenty evolving and devolving cycles of eons, saying, “The eternal existence of the world is alone true, while the rest is false.” Why is this so? Because of my recollection I know that there

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were such evolving and devolving cycles of eons. But I do not know anything about any period beyond that, nor do I know anything about what takes place in the future.” These śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas proclaim their ignorance both morning and evening, asserting that “Only the world is eternal is true, while the rest is false.” This is called the ﬁrst theory of eternalism. (2) The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods and, while abiding in that state, they recollect forty evolving and devolving cycles of eons and say, “Only the eternal existence of the world is true, while the rest is false. Why is this so? Because of my recollection I know that there were such evolving and devolving cycles of eons. I also know all the past evolving and devolving cycles of eons, but I do not know anything about [current] evolving and devolving cycles of eons.” This theory knows the beginning of the world but not the period of its ending. These śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas proclaim their ignorance morning and evening, asserting that “Only the world is eternal is true, while the rest is false.” This is called the second theory of eternalism. (3) The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter into the state of mental concentration through various methods and, while abiding in that state, they recollect eighty evolving and devolving cycles of eons, saying, “Only the eternal existence of the world is true, while the rest is false. For what reason? Because of my recollection I know that there were such evolving and devolving cycles of eons. I also know what- ever past eons of evolving and devolving cycles beyond that as well as whatever future eons of evolving and devolving cycles beyond the present time, without exception.” These śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas proclaim their ignorance morning and evening, asserting that “Only the world is eternal is true, while the rest is false.” This is called the third theory of eternalism. [The Tathāgata, however, critically examined all these forms of eternalism, [and his knowldege] is unsurpassable by anyone.]
The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are comprehensive
and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so igno- miniously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?

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Again, there is another superior quality of the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, imparting the mind of other persons. The four kinds of mind-reading are (1) some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas investigate exter- nal signs (nimitta) and predict, “The intended object of another mind is such-and-such” and “The intended object of this mind is such-and-such,” and the result is either true or false. This is the ﬁrst kind of mind-reading.
(2) Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas do not investigate external signs but rely on the words of gods or nonhuman beings and predict, “Your thought is like this or like that,” which is also either true or false. This is the second kind of mind-reading. (3) Again, some śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas neither investigate external signs nor rely on the words of gods and non-human beings, but examining themselves (lit., the body) and listening to others’ words, they then predict, “Your thought is like this or like that,” which is also either true or false. This is the third kind of mind-reading. (4) Again, some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas neither inves- tigate external signs, nor rely on the words of gods and non-human beings, nor do they examine themselves or others, but removing both an awareness of an object and an act of examining they thereby enter the state of mental concentration, and while abiding in that state, inves- tigate the minds of others and predict, “Your thought is like this or like that.” There is no error in this kind of mind-reading. This is the fourth kind of mind-reading. [The Tathāgata’s supernormal power of mind- reading is unsurpassable by anyone.]
The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so igno- miniously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality of the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, teaching the four instructions for saintly realization. The fourfold instructions are (1) at times, a person following the [Tathā- gata’s] instruction without turning away eradicated the evil inﬂuence of the deﬁlements and thus realized the supramundane realm free from such inﬂuences, realized the liberation of the mind [free from craving and attachment], the liberation of transcendent insight [free from ignorance],

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and directly experienced the realization thereof in this present life: “Who- ever has exhausted [the cause of] birth and death, accomplishes the goal of the practice of austerity, completes whatever should be done, for him there will be no more birth after this life.” This is the effect of the ﬁrst kind of instruction.
(2) Again at times, a person following the [Tathāgata’s] instruction without turning away eradicated the ﬁve kinds of deﬁlement that bind sentient beings to the lower realm of desire, i.e., the heretical belief in a self, attachment to practices and observances other than those approved by the Buddha, doubt, sexual desire, and malice, realized the state of non- returner to be reborn [among the gods at the end of their life] and will not return to this world. This is the effect of the second kind of instruction.
(3) Again at times, a person following the [Tathāgata’s] instruction without turning away eradicated the three kinds of fetters, i.e., the heretical belief in a self, attachment to practices and observances other than those approved by the Buddha, doubt, the forces of desire, anger, and delusion, and thereby realized the state of once-returner and, having returned to this world, realized nirvana. This is the effect of the third kind of instruction.
(4) Again at times, a person following the [Tathāgata’s] instruction without turning away eradicated the three kinds of fetters, thereby realized the state of stream-winner and, returning to this world seven times, realize the ultimate goal of nirvana without falling into any evil course of existence. This is the effect of the fourth kind of instruction.
The foregoing instructions are unsurpassable. The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas of this world there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality in the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, enabling the disciples to uphold the pure and genuine moral disciplines. The set of moral disciplines are as follows: the śra- maṇas and brāhmaṇas should speak honestly, with no deception; they always caution themselves to reduce the amount of sleep of their own accord; they neither enage in ﬂattery nor speak falsehoods; they do not

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engage in fortune-telling, whether it is for a good or bad omen; they praise others but do not falsely praise others, in order to demonstrate that they seek no beneﬁt from others; they practice meditation and cul- tivate wisdom; they exercise eloquence without hesitation; they con- centrate on whatever they are engaged in, without distraction; and they make effort without slackening.
The Tathāgata’s ediﬁcation is unsurpassable. The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas of this world there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One?
Again, there is another superior quality in the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, imparting validation of the liberation accomplished by others. The knowledge of validation concerning others’ realization of liberation means that the World-honored One, reckoning various other causal conditions, thinks to himself and validates that this person has realized the state of stream-winner, or the state of once-returner, or the state of nonreturner, or the state of arhat. This kind of validation is unsur- passable. The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are compre- hensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One? Again, there is another superior quality in the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, imparting the supernormal knowledge of one’s for- mer states of existence. The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state they recollect the events of innumerable past worlds, extending to one life, two lives, and so on up to hundreds of thousands of lives through the period of the evolving and devolving cycles of eons. They recollect, “I was born in a certain place, my name and family was So- and-so, my race and clan were such-and-such, my life span was such- and-such, my favored food and drink were such-and-such, my suffering and happiness were such-and-such.” In reference to the characteristics

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of their transmigration from this world to another world, from that world to this world, and so on, they recollect innumerable past eons, always rec- ollecting their origins passing through various existences as “This is the state of ideation,” “This is the state of nonideation,” or “This is the state of neither ideation nor nonideation,” and they thus recollect everything and know everything. The Tathāgata’s power of this kind of knowledge is unsurpassable. The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are comprehensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world there is none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One? Again, there is another superior quality of the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, imparting supernormal vision. Supernormal vision means that the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter the state of mental con- centration through various methods, and while abiding in that state they perceive various persons thoroughly and exhaustively as either dead or alive, as either endowed with a good complexion or a bad one, as either born into a good course of existence or a bad one, or as either endowed with an agreeable ﬁgure or an ugly one, according to the kinds of actions they undertook in life. For instance, some sentient beings committed evil actions of body, speech, or mind, slandered the Buddhist śrāvaka arhats, held upside-down (i.e., perverse) views, and upon their deaths they fell into the three evil courses of existence. In contrast, other sentient beings upheld good conduct of body, speech, and mind, did not slander the arhats, and held right views, and upon their deaths they were born among the gods, and with the supernormal power of vision they observe sentient beings, perceiving and knowing them as they really are. This is unsur- passable. The World-honored One’s knowledge and insight are compre- hensive and his supernormal powers are all-inclusive. Therefore, among all the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of this world there are none who can ever equal the World-honored One. How much less could any of them ever so ignominiously wish to be superior to the World-honored One? Again, there is another superior quality of the World-honored One’s exhortation, namely, imparting the supernormal power of the wise and saintly disciples. In ordinary meaning, the supernormal power of swiftness

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means that the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas enter into the state of mental concentration through various methods, and while abiding in that state they acquire innumerable extraordinary powers, such as multiplying thier body into many at will and reversing them into a single body at will; passing through stone walls without obstruction; sitting in the lotus posture in midair, like a ﬂying bird; jumping into the ground as if into water and lying on the surface of water as if on the ground; creating ﬁery ﬂames and smoke like an actual bonﬁre; supporting the sun and moon in one’s hand; or standing up so as to reach the heaven of the god Brahmā. If these śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas boast of their acquisition of these powers, we should say to them, “We do not deny that these super- normal powers exist. But we say that these are the inferior kinds [of supernormal powers] performed by lowly, vulgar, ordinary people, and not the superior kinds performed by the wise and saintly disciples. When a bhikṣu, abiding in various worlds, is not corrupted despite being in surroundings that induce attachment, and by discarding attachments or distancing himself from them he carries out his practice properly, as required, this is called the supernormal power of the wise and saintly disciples. Also, when a bhikṣu is in an unpleasant environment but does not feel indignation or hatred, instead discarding these [afﬂictive emo- tions], and carries out his practice properly, as required, this is called the supernormal power of the wise and saintly disciples. In these various environments they distance themselves from both attachment and non- attachment, practice to maintain their equilibrium, and concentrate on doing so without fail. This is called the supernormal power of the wise and saintly disciples.
Moreover, the World-honored One is endowed with the power of
exertion and valor and with great insight; despite [empirical] cognition and awareness, he yet sees all with the insight of universal oneness. Hence, he is called One Who Has Realized the Insight of Universal Equality [of All that Exists]. Again, the World-honored One is neither pleased with desires, nor with lowly, vulgar performances, nor does he accept suffering and agony derived from wasteful toil. O World-honored One, if one wishes to eradicate the evil inﬂuences of deﬁlements, he should engage in contemplation of an object and of an act of examining,

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increasing the sense of joy and bliss, and thus abide in the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption. This method removes evil forces [such as avarice, carnal desire, desire, evil, and wrong deeds]. Your Holiness [taught in the discourses] the practice of contemplation of an object and of an act of examining, the increase of the sense of joy and bliss while abiding in the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption, and in similar manner [taught] the second, third, and fourth meditative states of absorption, respectively. Your Holiness is endowed with the power of exertion and valor and with great insight, and despite [empirical] cognition and awareness, Your Holiness sees all with the insight of universal oneness, and therefore is called One Who Has Realized the Insight of Universal Equality [of All that Exists].
The Buddha said to Śāriputra:
Suppose a heretic follower or someone of a different school comes to ask a question of you, “Could the past śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas equal the śramaṇa Gautama?’ How should you answer him? Again, if he ques- tions you, “Could future śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas equal the śramaṇa Gautama?” How should you answer him? Again, if he questions you, “Can the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas in the present equal the śramaṇa Gautama?” How should you answer him?
Śāriputra replied to the Buddha:
If someone asks me, “Were the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of the past the equals of the śramaṇa Gautama?”. I would answer, “Yes.” If he asks me again, “Are the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of the future the equals of the śramaṇa Gautama?”, I swould answer, “Yes.” If he asks, “Are the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas of the present the equals of the śramaṇa Gautama?”, I would answer, “No.”
The Buddha again said to Śāriputra:
The heretic brāhmaṇas may also ask you, “Why do you assert ‘Yes, there was or there will be’ in one case and ‘No, there is not’ in another case?”
Śāriputra replied to the Buddha:

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I would answer, “The past buddhas who were perfectly enlightened are equal with the Tathāgata of the present time. The future buddhas who will be perfectly enlightened will also be equal with the Tathāgata of the present. I have learned from the Buddha himself that despite His Holiness’ wishes and efforts, the perfectly enlightened Buddha of the present time has not been able to introduce any other equally [qualiﬁed] buddha into this world.” O World-honored One, should this answer, based on my learning, on the Dharma, and in accordance with the Dharma, be regarded as appropriate, sir?
The Buddha replied:
This answer of yours is not wrong on the basis of the Dharma and accord- ing to the Dharma. Why is this so? Because the past and future buddhas, who were and will be perfectly enlightened, are equal with me, but it is not possible to have a second perfectly enlightened buddha appear in this present world.
At that time, the venerable Udāyin was standing behind the World-honored One, fanning him. The Buddha said to Udāyin:
O Udāyin, you should contemplate the discipline of desiring less and being satisﬁed with less. Now, because I have great supernormal power and splendor, I desire less and am satisﬁed with less, and I am quite con- tent, having no desire to be fulﬁlled. O Udāyin, if any of the śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas exert themselves to accomplish this particular discipline and realize it, they will be entitled to raise their own banner and declare to all four quarters of the world, “I, the Tathāgata, have realized the dis- cipline of desiring less and being satisﬁed with less. As I observe the Tathāgata’s discipline of desiring less and being satisﬁed with less, he has great supernormal power and splendor, on the basis of which he is free from desire.”
At that time, Udāyin rearranged his outer robe, exposing his right shoulder, and kneeling down with his right knee on the ground, holding both palms together respectfully, he said to the Buddha:

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It is marvelous, sir, O World-honored One, there is hardly anyone who, like the World-honored One, desires less and is satisﬁed with less. O World-honored One, Your Holiness has little desire [precisely] because of the great supernormal power and splendor that you command. If any of the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas exercise exertion and realize this particular principle, they are entitled to raise their own banner and declare to all four quarters of the world, “From now on the World-honored One is endowed with the discipline of desiring less and being satisﬁed with less.”
O Śāriputra, you should exhort this particular discipline frequently for the sake of the bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, laymen (upāsakas), and laywomen (upāsikās). If any of them has doubt about the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha or about the path of practice, they should listen to the foregoing and thereby become free from entanglement in the net of such doubts.
At that time, the World-honored One said to Śāriputra:
You should exhort this particular discipline frequently for the sake of the bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, laymen, and laywomen.Why? If any of them has doubt about the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha or about the path of practice, he should be able to resolve his doubt by listening to what you exhort.
Śāriputra replied, “Yes, sir, World-honored One.”
Thereupon, Śāriputra often exhorted the foregoing for the sake of the bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, laymen, and laywomen. Since the words of his exhortation were pure and genuine, he called his exhortation the “Sutra of Purity.” Having listened to the Buddha’s exhortation, Śāriputra was delighted, respectfully received the doctrine, and carried it out.
[End of Sutra 18: Happiness Caused by Oneself]

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Sutra 19

A Great Assembly
(Dīgha Nikāya 20: Mahāsamaya Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was staying in the forest of Kapilavastu in the Śākya country, accompanied by an assembly of ﬁve hundred bhikṣus. All of these disciples were arhats, without exception. Heavenly spirits came from all directions (lit., “ten directions”) and assembled there to pay their respects to the Tathāgata and the assembly of bhikṣus. The four gods of Śuddhāvāsa Heaven then thought to themselves:
The World-honored One is now staying in the forest of Kapilavastu in the Śākya country, accompanied by an assembly of ﬁve hundred bhikṣus, all of whom are arhats, without exception. All the heavenly spirits of the ten directions also came to assemble and pay homage to the Buddha and the assembly of bhikṣus. Let us now also go to the place of the World-honored One and each praise the Tathāgata by composing verses.
Thereupon, the four gods of Śuddhāvāsa Heaven descended in an instant, as quickly as the time it takes for a wrestler to bend and stretch out his arm, to the forest of Kapilavastu in the Śākya country.
At that time, having reached the place, the four Śuddhāvāsa gods honored the Buddha by bowing their foreheads to his feet, and stood to one side. One of the Śuddhāvāsa gods then at once composed a verse before the Buddha, praising him:
At the great assembly on this day,
All the heavenly spirits have come to assemble here, For the sake of the Dharma and to pay homage
To this unsurpassed assembly.
Having recited this verse, the god withdrew to one side and remained standing. Another Śuddhāvāsa god then composed a verse, reciting:

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Each bhikṣu observes a host of deﬁlements,
And singlemindedly makes effort to prevent evil inﬂuences. Desire is like an ocean that swallows all ﬂows of rivers, The wise thus defends all of his senses.
Having recited this verse, the god withdrew to one side and remained standing. The third Śuddhāvāsa god then composed a verse, reciting:
Terminating the deﬁlements and ﬂattening the pits of attachment, Filling in the ditches of ignorance,
Thus abiding on the ground of purity and evenness, Just as when controlling an elephant.
Having recited this verse, the god withdrew to one side and remained standing. The fourth Śuddhāvāsa god then composed a verse, reciting:
Whoever has taken refuge in the Buddha
Will never fall into an evil course of existence. Having abandoned the human body,
He will acquire the heavenly body of purity.
When the four Śuddhāvāsa gods had completed their verses of praise, the Buddha acknowledged them accordingly. They again honored the Buddha by bowing their foreheads to his feet, and, after circumambulating him three times, they suddenly disappeared.
Soon after the disappearance of the gods, the Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Now the heavenly gods have assembled. Those spirits of the ten directions have also assembled here in great numbers to pay respect to the Tathāgata and the assembly of bhikṣus. O bhikṣus, the past buddhas, arhats, perfectly enlightened ones also attracted heavenly beings to their assemblies in like manner, just as today this assembly has attracted them to come forth into my presence. The future buddhas, arhats, perfectly enlightened ones will also attract heavenly beings to their assemblies in like manner, just as today this assembly has attracted them to come forth into my presence. O bhikṣus, now many heavenly gods have come to assemble, and the spirits of the ten directions have also come here to pay their respect to

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the Tathāgata and the assembly of bhikṣus. Therefore, I shall call the names of the gods who are present in verse. The bhikṣus should know:
Many yakṣa spirits of the earth Are hidden in the hills and valleys,
Appearing with the aura of authority, Wearing white garments, clean and spotless. Having been informed of this news,
All the gods are descending from the Brahmā heaven. I shall now call their names in due order without error, The host of gods who are now coming.
O bhikṣus, you should know that The ordinary people of the world,
Even one out of hundred, cannot see them. Why can’t they see these gods?
Looking at the host of seventy thousand yakṣa spirits, Or that of one hundred thousand spirits,
They see no one even in one direction. How much less could they see
All the spirits throughout the world?
The god of the earth is accompanied by seven thousand earth yakṣa spirits of several species. Endowed with supernormal powers, brilliant light, and the colors of their complexions and features, bearing renowned names, they have all come to this forest where the assembly of bhikṣus is held. There is the god of the Snow Mountains (Himalayas), accompanied by six thousand yakṣa spirits of several species. Endowed with supernormal powers, brilliant light, all the colors of their complexions and features, bearing renowned names, with hearts of delight and joy they have all come to this forest where the assembly of bhikṣus is held. There is the god of Mt. Śairagiri, accompanied by three thousand yakṣa spirits of several species. Endowed with supernormal powers, brilliant light, and the colors of their complexions and features, bearing renowned names, with hearts of delight and joy, they have all come to this forest where the assembly of the bhikṣus is held. These gods and their accompanying sixteen thousands

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yakṣa spirits of several species, all of them endowed with supernormal powers, brilliant light, and the colors of their complexions and features, bearing renowned names, with hearts of delight and joy they have all come to this forest where the assembly of bhikṣus is held.
There is also the god Vaiśyamitra, residing in the country of Aśvaka, accompanied by ﬁve hundred yakṣa spirits, all equally endowed with supernormal powers and the aura of authority. There is also the god Kumbhīra, residing on the hill called Vepulla near the city of Rājagṛha, accompanied by innumerable yakṣa spirits; they have all come to pay respect and are stationed around the assembly. Again, in the eastern quarter of the heaven there is the guardian god Dhṛtarāṣṭra, overseeing the gandharva demigods, endowed with a great splendor; he has ninety- one sons, all of whom are named Indra and are endowed with supernor- mal powers without exception. In the southern quarter of the heaven there is the guardian god Virūḍhaka, overseeing many nāga kings, endowed with a great splendor; he has ninety-one sons, all of whom are called Indra and are endowed with supernormal powers without excep- tion. In the western quarter of the heaven there is the guardian god Virūpākṣa, overseeing the kumbhāṇḍa demigods, endowed with a great splendor; he has ninety-one sons, all of whom are called Indra and endowed with supernormal powers. In the northern quarter of the heaven there is the guardian god Vaiśravaṇa, overseeing the yakṣa spirits, endowed with great splendor; he has ninety-one sons, all of whom are called Indra and endowed with supernormal powers. These four guardian gods who sustain the world are replete with splendor. With brilliant illu- mination, they have all come to the forest of Kapilavastu.
At that time, the World-honored One, wishing to rid their minds of subtle, deceptive, and unreal nature, invoked the following esoteric passages for incantation (dhāraṇī):
mo jiu lou luo mo jiu lou luo / pi lou luo pi lou luo / zhan tuo na jia mo shi zhi / jia ni yan dou / ni yan dou po na lu / wu hu nu nu / zhu / ti po su mu / mo tou luo / zhi tuo luo si na / jian ta po / na luo zhu du ni sha / shi he / wu lian tuo luo / bi po mi duo luo shu chen tuo luo / na lü ni he / dou fou lou / shu zhi ji po //

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In this manner, the guardian gods, the gandharva demigods, and the rākṣasa spirits, all equally endowed with supernormal powers, brilliant light, and the colors of their complexions and features, bearing renowned names, with hearts of delight and joy have come to the forest where the assembly of bhikṣus is held. At that time, the World-honored One again invoked the following esoteric incantation (dhāraṇī):
a xi / na tuo se / na tou / pi she li sha he / dai cha she po ti / ti tou lai zha / ti po sha he / ruo li ya / jia pi luo / she po na jia / a tuo na jia mo / tian ti jia / yi luo po zha / mo he na jia / pi mo na jia duo / tuo jia tuo yü / na jia luo du / po he sha he / cha ji ti / po ti luo ti / po ti luo ti/ pi mei ta ji he / pi he si po ning / a po po si / zhi duo luo / su he ni na / qiu si duo / a po yu / na jia luo qu a si / xiu ba luo / sa ti nu a jia / fo to sa / shi luo ning / po ya you luo tou po yan lou / su pan tu fo tou / she luo du / jia lei lou //
The World-honored One then invoked the following esoteric incantation for the sake of the asura demigods:
qi to / ba du he di / san wu ti / a xiu luo a shi to / po yan di / po san po si / yi di a to / ti po / mo tian di / jia li miao / mo he bi mo a xiu luo to na bi luo to bi mo zhi dou lou xiu zhi di li / po luo he li wu yi lian na po / she li a xi / ba li fu duo luo na / sa bi bi luo ya na na mi / sa na mi di / po li xi ruo / luo ya ba dou lou yi he a po luo mi san / mo you yi / tuo na / ba to ruo pi qiu na san mi di ni ba //
The World-honored One then invoked the following incantation for the sake of the various heavenly gods:
a fu / ti po bi li xi jie / ti yü / po you / duo to to ba lou du ba lou ni / shi ti su mi / ya she a tou / mi duo luo po / jie luo na yi po a luo ti po / mo tian di yü / to she ti she / jie yü / sa bi / na nan duo luo po ba na / yi di pan ta hou di ban na pan ta / ya she bi du / mu to po na a xi jian ta / pi qiu na po di po ni / bi nu ti bu she jie li / a xi di yong mi / na cha ti li fu luo xi ji ta a to man to luo po luo / bi zhan ta su po ni xiao ti po / a to zhan to / fu luo chi zhi ta / su li ya su po ni xiao ti po a to su ti ya / fu luo shi ta / mo jia to po su yin du lü a tou shi jiu fu luo ta lu / shu jia jia luo mo luo na a ta / bi mo ni po / wu po ti ji he / po luo / luo mi a ni/ mu

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he bi po / luo mi a ni / sa to mo duo a he li mi sha a ni po zhou du / tan nu a lu you ti she a xi ba sha / she mo / mo he she mo / mo du sha a / mo du shu duo mo / qi to bo dou li a / to mo du ba tou li a xi a luo ye ti po a to li to ye po si / bo luo mo he bo luo a to ti po mo tian di ye / cha mo dou lü to / ye mo / jia sha ni a / ni / lan bi / lan bi zhe ti / shu ti na mo yi li / nian mo luo ti / a to xi bo luo nian mi ta / a xi ti po ti po du lan ti / a ji / shi fu bo / mo a li to lü ya / wu mo fu fu ni po si yuan zhe po to mu / a zhou to / a ni shu dou tan ya du / a tou a li bi she men yi li //
These are the sixty kinds of gods. The World-honored One then invoked the following incantation for the sake of sixty-eight brāhmaṇas who excel in the ﬁve kinds of supernormal powers:
luo ya li she ya a xi jian ta po mo jia pi luo ba dou bi di du du a tou sha mu sa ti yang shi pi di mou ni a tou bi li ya cha jia shi li she po he ruo du a tou fan mo ti po ti na po bi di mou ni a tou jiu sa li yi ni lu mo du li yang shi luo ye ban du a lou ming yuan tou mo he luo ye a jiu to lou yi du a tou lu bi ju sa li a lou jia ling yi jia yi luo tan xi zui pi fu ye fu du lü li li xian to fu a tou ti na jia pi po / he yi jia ya luo ye duo to a jia du po luo man to du jia mu luo ye a tou yin to luo lou mi jia fu to lu mu mo jia xi a chi shang qu bi yü a tou xi lan ruo jia pi bi li mi yü li duo ta a jia du a xi po hao luo zi mi du lü duo to a jia duo po si fo li shou to luo luo yü duo to a jia duo yi li ya cha mo he luo yü xian a fu duo to a jia duo ban du po yü po li di chi a luo yü duo to a jia duo wu a lan mo he luo yü bian bei po li mo li shu po xi ta na mo a pan ti ku mo li luo yü a ju si li tuo na po di a tou shi bi luo yü shi yi ni mi ni mo he luo yü fu po lou duo tuo a jia du po tuo po li mo he luo yü ju sa li mo ti shu shi han ti shan po li luo yü xiu tuo luo lou duo ta a jia du a he yin tou lou a tou mo luo yü yü su li yü ta bi di fu a he hi li si a tou heng a ya lou po luo mu cha ya mu a yi du a tou yi mo ya she pi na po cha mo luo yü he li jian du yü pi du po zhi yü shi shu bo na lu mo su luo yü ya ci duo yu xi lan ruo su yu xi lan ruo su pan na bi chou du zhi ye shu luo she bo luo bi tuo yü tuo po he yi po he po po mou sha he sha tan fu she ta she fa du sha li luo tuo na mo ban qi shu duo duo luo jian ta po sha he po sa duo ti su bi luo yü a xi jian shu pi qiu san mi di po ni di po ni //

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At that time there were also one thousand and ﬁfty brāhmaṇas, for whom the World-honored One again invoked the [same] incantation. There was a Brahmā god of the primary rank (subrahmā paramārtha) and his retainer gods, are endowed with supernormal powers. There was a Brahmā youth, Tiṣya by name, endowed with a great supernormal power. Again, one hundred thousand lords of the Brahmā worlds, each surrounded by his retainers, have come [to that forest]. Finally, the supreme lord Brahmā, who presides over the thousand Brahmā worlds, having observed the assembly of the multitude around the World-honored One, also descended to that forest, accompanied by his retainers. At that time, the Evil One [Māra], having observed the assembly of the multitude around the World-honored One, thought with malicious intent, “I will take my army of demons and destroy all the members of that assembly
until all are driven away.”
At once [Māra] commanded the four divisions of his army and, beating the chariot with his own hands and shouting in a thunderous voice that shook everywhere, rushed toward the forest. Anyone seeing this would certainly be terriﬁed. Releasing a great rainstorm with thunder and lightning, shaking the entire world, he approached the forest of Kapilavastu and completely surrounded the assembly.
The Buddha then said to the bhikṣus in the assembly, “O bhikṣus, you should know that the lord Evil One [Māra] and his retainers are approaching with malicious intent.” He then continued in verse:
All of you, now it is time
To establish the Buddha’s Dharma ﬁrmly, With respect and obedience to the teaching, You should destroy the multitude of evil ones, Just as an elephant strikes the ﬂower bush.
Concentrate your minds, without slackening, With pure and genuine moral discipline,
Keep your mind ﬁxed, contemplate your thoughts, and Thereby protect the ﬁrm intent of your minds.
If you do not slacken [your efforts] within the right Dharma, You will cross over the ground of old age and death and Eradicate the origin of all suffering forever.

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O dear disciples, having listened to my words, You should exert yourself further.
Transcend desires even without moving a hair toward them. This assembly will become most distinguished, and Acquire great insight, and name and reputation.
With disciples as valiant [as you are],
This assembly will be respected and revered By the multitude of all beings.
At that time, many gods and spirits, including the ﬁve sages with super- normal powers, who had assembled in the forest of Kapilavastu, wondered at the strange events caused by the evil ones. When the Buddha exhorted this doctrine, the eighty-four thousand gods of the heavens removed all their deﬁlements and thus acquired genuine insight into the nature of the Dharma. The devas, nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, asuras, garuḍas, kiṃnaras, and mahoragas, all human and nonhuman beings, having listened to the exhor- tation, were delighted and respectfully received the teaching.
[End of Sutra 19: A Great Assembly]

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Sutra 20

Ambaṭṭha
(Dīgha Nikāya 3: Ambaṭṭha Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. At one time, the Buddha was sojourning in the country of Kauśala, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. On reaching the brāhmaṇa village called Icchānaṅkala, the Buddha and his disciples settled in the Icchānaṅkala Grove for an overnight stay.
At that time, a brāhmaṇa, Puṣkarasārin by name, resided in the village of Puṣkarasvādi. The village was a large and prosperous one. It had been granted by King Prasenajit to the brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasārin as his ﬁef, and was exempt from tax collection. The brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasārin had been born into a pure matrimonial lineage of seven generations and was never slighted by anyone in society. He was thoroughly versed in the [Vedas,] the three ancient collections of hymns, and had detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures. He was also well trained in the physiognomy of a great person, the sacriﬁcial rites, and the ceremonial proceedings. He had ﬁve hundred student disciples and never tired of teaching them. His most able student, who was called Ambaṭṭha, had also been born in a pure matrimonial lineage of seven gener- ations and was never slighted by anyone in society. He too was thoroughly versed in the three [Vedas] and well trained in the physiognomy of a great person, the sacriﬁcial rites, and the ceremonial proceedings, and, [like his teacher,] he had ﬁve hundred student disciples whom he never tired of teaching. [In short,] in every way he equaled his teacher.
The brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasārin then happened to hear the following:
The śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan, renounced domestic life to enter religious practice and realized the goal of enlightenment, and he has now come to the brāhmaṇa village called Icchānaṅkala in Kauśala accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. They are staying in the Ichhānaṅkala Grove for the night. Gautama is renowned everywhere with his excellent name as the Tathāgata and is endowed

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with the ten titles, such as One Liberated from Attachment (Arhat), Per- fectly Enlightened One, and so on. He has surpassed all the gods and humans, the evil ones and their lord [Māra], as well as all śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, and has himself experienced [ultimate liberation] directly and teaches his religious path to others. His teaching, whether at the beginning, the middle, or the end, is endowed with real meaning and essentials and is harmoniously balanced with the pure and genuine prac- tice of austerity. Everyone should go see this kind of superior person.
The brāhmaṇa Pokkharasādi thought to himself:
I would rather go to see the śramaṇa Gautama now. It is probably because he is endowed with the thirty-two eminent marks characteristic of a superior person that his name has become renowned. I should examine if all this is true by examining the actual person. I might see some char- acteristics that are unique to the enlightened.
Again, he thought to himself:
Now, my best disciple Ambaṭṭha was born in a pure matrimonial lineage of seven generations and is never slighted by anyone in society. He is thoroughly versed in the three [Vedas] and has detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures. He is also well trained in the physiog- nomy of a great person, the sacriﬁcial rites, and the ceremonial proceed- ings. I must ask this disciple, who alone will be able to identify the marks of a buddha, to go see Gautama.
He thus instructed Ambaṭṭha, “Go see Gautama and examine whether or not it is true that he is endowed with the thirty-two eminent marks of a great person.”
Ambaṭṭha then asked his teacher, “With what criteria should I investigate the marks of Gautama to know whether he is really endowed with them, sir?”
The teacher then informed him:
I will now tell you. If a person is endowed with the thirty-two eminent marks characteristic of a great person, there should be no doubt about his destiny, such that he will necessarily take either of two careers in life. If he remains in the householder’s career, he becomes a universal

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ruler who turns the sacred wheel (cakravartin); he will rule over all four quarters of the earth, he will rule the realm of his dominion according to the law, govern the people and material wealth, and he will be well endowed with the seven kinds of treasures: (1) the golden heavenly wheel, (2) the elephant treasure, (3) the horse treasure, (4) the divine gem treasure, (5) the jadelike queen treasure, (6) the gentleman house- holder treasure, and (7) the military commander treasure. This ruler will have a thousand sons who are all valiant, sagacious, and victorious over enemies even without [engaging in a] military campaign. With universal peace prevailing, there will be no threat to the populace or to their wealth and property. If, however, he becomes dissatisﬁed with household life and enters the path of religion, forsaking domestic life, he will become the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One, endowed with the ten supreme titles. Applying this [major] criterion, you may examine whether or not Gautama's reputation is really true.
Ambaṭṭha then, with this instruction from his teacher, readied his carriage and, accompanied by his ﬁve hundred students, he left the village early in the morning, heading toward the Icchānaṅkala Grove. On reaching the forest he dismounted from the carriage and proceeded on foot to the place of the World-honored One. Whenever the Buddha sat down Ambaṭṭha stood up, while whenever the Buddha stood up, he took his seat. In this manner the two carried out their debate on the meaning and the truth.
The Buddha spoke to Ambaṭṭha the Mānava [calling him a student], “Do you debate with your senior colleagues, teachers, and renowned brāhmaṇas in this manner?”
Mānava said to the Buddha, “What is this question?” The Buddha said to Mānava:
Whenever I sit down, you stand up, while when I stand up, you sit down. Behaving in this manner [constantly], you debate with me. Is this how your teacher discusses things with you?
Mānava answered the Buddha:
Speaking of our brāhmaṇa manner, I say that if one sits down, the other also sits down. If one stands up, the other also stands up. If one lies

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down, the other also lies down. But these days the śramaṇas look phys- ically emaciated, live without a wife, are vulgar and inferior, and learn only the manner of those who are dark and ignorant. When I debate with these people, I do not care whether I am sitting or standing.
At that moment, the World-honored One said to him, “Dear fellow, your studentship (Mānava) has not become yet civilized.”
When Mānava heard the words “Dear fellow” and “not yet civilized,” spoken by the World-honored One, he felt infuriated and accused the Buddha, “The Śākya clansmen are inclined toward malice and do not know proper manners.”
The Buddha responded to Mānava, “My dear fellow, why can’t the Śākya clansmen surpass you?”
Mānava replied:
Some years ago I was visiting the country of Kapilavastu of the Śākyas, for some minor business of my teacher. At that time, many clansmen had assembled in their meeting hall for some purpose. Though they noticed me approaching them, they treated me disrespectfully and dismissively. They neither paid me proper courtesy nor exchanged a mutual greeting.
The Buddha said to Mānava:
Those Śākya clansmen were in their home country, enjoying their freedom in the pursuit of fun. Just as when wild birds return to their nests in the forest, they can be free, ﬂying in and out of their nests, so too, can’t the Śākya clansmen behave as freely as they wish in their pursuit of fun and play?
Mānava said to the Buddha:
There are four different social classes, namely: the kṣatriyas (nobles), the brāhmaṇas (priests), the vaiśyas (householders), and the śūdras (ser- vants). Although people of [the three other castes] always treat brāhmaṇas with respect, reverence, and service, the Śākya clansmen do not conform this general norm of society. The sons of the Śākya are lowly, like menial workers, vulgar and inferior, and they do not pay reverence to brāh- maṇas.

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At that moment, the World-honored One quietly thought to himself:
This Mānava utters derogatory and abusive words repeatedly, in the way that lowly servants speak. I should now tell him the real origin of his status and thereby reform him to become more civilized.
The Buddha then asked Mānava, “What is your familial name?” He replied, “My family is Kaṅhāyana.”23
The Buddha said to Mānava, “If that is your family name, then your ances- tors must be of the caste of servants (śūdra) under the Śākya ancestors.”
At that moment, the ﬁve hundred students of Mānava loudly objected to the Buddha:
You dare not to say such a thing as that our teacher Mānava is of the descendant of the śūdras who served the Śākya ancestors. Why? Mānava is the son of a pure family lineage, endowed with superior facial featurse and complexion, with excellent rhetorical skill, extensive knowledge, well learned, and capable of arguing back and forth with Gautama.
At that moment, the World-honored One said to the ﬁve hundred students of Mānava:
If your teacher is not endowed with all [the qualities] you assert about him, I will leave him alone and debate with all of you instead. If your teacher is truly endowed with all [the qualities] that you have asserted about him, you should remain quiet and I will continue to debate with your teacher.
The ﬁve hundred students then replied to the Buddha, “Yes, sir. We will remain quiet and listen to your debate with our teacher.” They then all fell silent.
Thereupon, the World-honored One said to Ambaṭṭa:
Once in the immemorial past, there was a king, Okkāka24 by name. The king had four sons, Okkāmukha, Hatthinīya, Karaṇḍu, and Sīnipura. These four princes were exiled by the king due to some minor offense, and then traveled to the southern foothills of the Himalayas and abided in the forest of sākasaṇḍa trees. The queen mothers of these four princes

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and their families all yearned for them. They met to discuss the matter and then went to King Okkāka, requesting his permission [to go visit their sons], “Your majesty, it has been a long time since we were separated from the four princes. We wish to visit them and look after them, sir.” The king replied, “If you wish to do so, go ahead.”
Having received the king’s permission, the mothers and their relations at once traveled to the southern foothills of the Himalayas and reached the residence of the four princes. The mothers proposed [to one another], “I will give my daughter to your son. Give your daughter to my son,” and thus they arranged for the princes to marry mutually with their daughters. Later on, [as a result of these marriages] many sons were born, having handsome features and good complexions.
When it was reported to King Okkāka that the mothers of the four princes had gotten them all married with their daughters, who had then given birth to many handsome sons, he was delighted, saying:
They are truly sons of the Śākya, sons who are truly capable. They have [successfully] come into existence through their own strength. They should be called Śākya (“Capable”).25
King Okkāka was thus an ancestor of the Śākya clansmen. The king wore a navy-blue garment, called “Direction” or “Pointer,” and was endowed with handsome features and complexion. He impregnated a brāhmaṇa woman. When a son, Mānava (i.e., son of Manu) was born, the child immediately said to his brāhmaṇa mother and father, “Please bathe me and cleanse the ﬁlth from me. When I grow up I shall duly repay my indebtedness to you.”
Since the child was able to speak immediately after his birth, he was called “Voicing King.” It was just as today, if a newborn infant speaks at the moment of birth, people are fearful of the child and call him “Terrifying” [as if he were demon or goblin, and so on.] Since he spoke [immediately after his birth] the newborn child was named “Voicing King,” and from that time onward future generations of his brāhmaṇa lineage made it their familial name.
The Buddha then said to Mānava, “Haven’t you already heard from your

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senior teachers and great brāhmaṇas this story about the origin of your family name?”
Mānava, however, remained silent and did not answer. The Buddha asked him the same question but [again] he did not respond. Before asking him for the third time, the Buddha said to Mānava:
I am about to ask the same question for a third time. You should promptly reply to me. If not, the yakṣa spirits (vajira-pāṇin), who ﬂank me on both sides, holding golden pestles in their hands, stand ready to smash your head into seven pieces.
The yakṣa spirits then raised their golden pestles and stood up in midair over Mānava’s head. They were ready to smash his head with their pestles if Mānava did not answer promptly.
The Buddha said to Mānava,“Please look up to see [the yakṣas,” and he saw the yakṣa spirits in midair, raising their weapons. Terriﬁed, with his hair standing on end, Mānava stood up and moved to sit closer to the World-hon- ored One for refuge. He then asked the World-honored One for help and pro- tection, promising “I will answer the question, sir.”
The Buddha at once asked him again, “Haven’t you already heard this story about the origin of your familial name from your senior teachers and great brāhmaṇas?”
Mānava replied, “Yes, sir. I have heard that these things once happened, and I believe it, sir.”
Mānava’s ﬁve hundred students then said to each other in loud voices:
Ambaṭṭha, our teacher, is really a descendant of the śūdras that served the Śākya clans. What the śramaṇa Gautama said is true. We are guilty of committing rudeness out of our [baseless] conceit.
At that moment, the World-honored One thought to himself:
These ﬁve hundred students will surely regard Ambaṭṭha as a descendant of slaves later on. I may have to create an expediency to erase the name śūdra from their minds.
He then said to them:

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All of you, you should not regard your teacher [Ambaṭṭha] to be the descendant of slaves. Why? Because his forefather was a brāhmaṇa and a great sage, endowed with great authority and power. He revolted against King Okkāka and requested one of his princesses as his wife, and because of the king’s fear the princess was granted to him as his wife.
With these words, the Buddha helped Ambaṭṭha to escape the name śūdra.
The World-honored One then continued:
What do you think, O Mānava? If a woman is the daughter of a true kṣa- triya lineage of seven generations, she should never be slighted by people in society. If she is granted to a brāhmaṇa as his wife and bears a child, O Mānava, and if this child is handsome and of fair complexion, can he then join the class of the kṣatriyas, receive a seat and water from the hands of a brāhmaṇa [out of respect], and learn to recite the laws of the kṣatriya duties?
[Ambaṭṭha] replied, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] “Can this child inherit his father’s wealth and business?
[Ambaṭṭha answered, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha again continued,] “Can he take over his father’s livelihood?” [Ambaṭṭha again replied,] “No, sir.”
The Buddha then said:
What do you think, O Mānava? If a woman is a daughter of a true brāh- maṇa lineage of seven generations, she should never be slighted by people in society. If she is granted to a kṣatriya as wife and bears a child, and if this child is handsome with fair complexion, can he join the class of the brāhmaṇas and receive a seat and water from the hands of a brāh- maṇa [out of respect]?
Ambaṭṭha replied, “Yes, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] “Can he learn to recite the duties of a brāhmaṇa, inherit his father’s wealth, and succeed his father’s livelihood?”
[Ambaṭṭha replied,] “Yes, sir.”
[The Buddha further pressed Ambaṭṭha:]

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What do you think, O Mānava? If a brāhmaṇa dislikes being a brāhmaṇa and tries to join the kṣatriyas, can he sit and stand among them, and receive water and recite the rules of the kṣatriya duties?
[Ambaṭṭha replied,] “No, sir.”
[The Buddha continued,] “Can he inherit his father’s wealth and succeed the same livelihood?”
[Ambaṭṭha again replied,] “No, sir.” [The Buddha further pressed Ambaṭṭha:]
If a kṣatriya dislikes being a kṣatriya and tries to join the brāhmaṇas, can he sit and stand among them and receive water, recite the laws of the brāhmaṇa duties, inherit his father’s wealth, and take over the same livelihood?
[Ambaṭṭha again replied,] “Yes, sir.” [The Buddha concluded:]
Because of these laws, O Mānava, of all women, a kṣatriya woman is superior, and of all men, a kṣatriya man is superior. It is not the brāhmaṇa [class that is highest]. The god Brahmā himself made a verse to this effect:
The kṣatriya is superior among all beings; If his lineage is pure and genuine, and
Endowed with insight and harmonious practice, He is the highest among all the gods and humans.
The Buddha said to Mānava:
This verse composed by Brahmā is a good theory and not wrong. I am a good example. Why? Because I now also assert this same theory as Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Enlightened One:
The kṣatriya is superior among all beings; If his lineage is pure and genuine, and
Endowed with insight and harmonious practice,
He is the highest among all the gods and humans. 83c

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Mānava said to the Buddha, “O Gautama, who is this ‘unsurpassed one harmoniously endowed with insight and practice’?”
The Buddha said to Mānava, “Listen attentively. You should retain and consider well what I will now explain for your sake.”
[Ambaṭṭha replied,] “Yes, sir. I shall listen intently.” The Buddha said to Mānava:
If a tathāgata (“one perfected in the speech of reality”) appears into this world, he should be called [the following ten epithets]: (1) Arhat), (2) Perfectly Enlightened One, (3) Harmoniously Endowed with Insight and Practice, (4) Well-gone One, one who has transcended [and will not return to the cycle of samsara], (5) Knower of the Human World, (6) Unrivaled Leader, (7) Trainer of Human Religiosity, (8) Teacher of Gods and Humans, (9) Enlightened One, and (10) World-honored One. Among all the gods, humans, śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, heavenly guardian gods, evil ones, and the lord Brahmā, he is the only one who is enlightened by himself and has directly experienced it. When he teaches the Dharma to people his words are good at the beginning of his speech, good in the middle of his speech, and also good at the end of his speech, all equally endowed with true meaning and real essence, able to motivate the audience toward pure and genuine practices. If householders and their children, as well as others of different social classes, wish to listen to the right Dharma, the Tathāgata will motivate them to give rise to tranquil faith in their hearts. With serene faith in the Dharma, they may thus reﬂect, “Because I have been in the householder’s life until now, I am bound to my family to support my wife and children. In this situation I cannot carry out the required practice of pure and gen- uine austerity. I should now shave my hair and beard, don the three men- dicant robes, and join the practice of the path by forsaking domestic life.” Later he renounces his household and wealth, dissociates himself from his family and relations, shaves his hair and beard, and, wearing the three robes, he renounces domestic life in order to join the practice
of the path.
Like fully ordained bhikṣus, he forsakes all physical adornment and adheres to the following set of precepts: (1) With a vow not to injure

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sentient beings, one forsakes carrying a knife or stick, and, having a sense of shame [about malice, etc.], he practices compassion toward all beings. This is called the precept of abstinence from taking life. (2) For- saking the idea to take what is not given, he eradicates thoughts of theft altogether. His mind is pure and genuine, free from the slightest thought of theft, even privately. This is called the precept of abstinence from taking what is not given. (3) Forsaking sexual desire, he concentrates his mind on the genuine practice of austerity with effort. He is not affected by desire and abides in purity. This is called the precept of abstinence from sexual misconduct. (4) Forsaking false words, he upholds the prin- ciple of sincerity, neither lying to others nor deceiving them. This is called the precept of abstinence from speaking falsehoosd. (5) Forsaking duplicitous speech, even if he hears something from someone else he never conveys it to another person. Nor does he convey anything about what he hears from the latter to the former. If both are mutually estranged, he tries to help them reconcile [their differences] and thereby harmonize their relationship. Whatever he speaks is harmonious, agreeable, and well timed. This is called the precept of abstinence from duplicitious speech. (6) Forsaking using abusive, harsh sppech, he abstains from becoming rough and barbarous [in his speech and actions] and from cre- ating a sense of afﬂiction and anger in another person. One’s speech should be gentle so as not to create a sense of enmity or malice, and is beneﬁcial to anyone who hears it. Thus, people are endeared to him with respect and wish to hear his words. This is called the precept of abstinence from harsh speech. (7) Forsaking ﬂattery, one knows the appropriate time that is best suited for his use of words. He is honest and sincere, in com- pliance with law. In the case of disputes, he applies the rules of the Vinaya discipline to successfully settle them. He speaks out only when it is causally meaningful, and whatever he says is based on a real situation. This is called the precept of abstinence from frivolous sycophancy. (8) Forsaking liquor and intoxicants and distancing himself from places of dissipation. He neither uses bodily ornaments, nor does he go out to hear songs and see dancing or any kind of entertainment, nor does he use an elevated wide couch [for sleeping] or partake of food outside of the authorized period of each day. He neither receives wealth in cash or in any kind of

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the seven precious stones, nor does he use them for their monetary value. He neither marries nor lives with a woman, nor does he keep servants or maids, [nor does he keep] an elephant, a horse and carriage, a cow, hen, dog, pig, or sheep, nor does he own a rice ﬁeld or a residential house, or a grove or forest. He neither cheats others by using scales that have been illegally tampered with, nor does he engage in questionable business transactions, pulling customers with his hands, or impose loans, or make false accusations or fraudulent transactions. Forsaking all these wrong actions, he terminates various disputes and legal suits and erad- icates wrongdoing.
Whatever action he takes, he knows the approriate time, thus avoiding [making] an inappropriate action at a wrong time. Knowing [his own hunger], he partakes of an appropriate amount of food but refrains from setting aside an extra portion for later. As far as his garments are con- cerned, he takes only whatever size is needed and no more, because one’s clothing should match the size and shape of the body and be worn at all times, just as a bird’s feathers go along with it when it ﬂies through the air. Such is the general principle that a bhikṣu keeps no extra items for himself.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas receive charity from their devotees yet they also actively seek more to store extra items. They know nothing about the sense of having more than enough or of con- tentment in regard to clothing, food, and drink. Whoever joins my reli- gious order, however, should realize that all these [unwholesome qualities] are absent from the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, are engaged in various means of livelihood as well as planting seedlings [in farming], thus inviting evil spirits. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that all these [unwhole- some actions] are absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, seek to acquire various material beneﬁts through expedient means, such as ivory and other precious items, an elevated, com- fortable couch, various embroidered cloth, carpets, bamboo ﬂoor mats, and

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cushions. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that [seeking such things] does not happen in the practice of my disciples. O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, seek various means of beautifying themselves out of vanity, [in order to impress their devotees,] such as rubbing their bodies with thyme seed oil, bathing in scented water, applying scented powder on the body, applying fragrant oil to the hair, wearing a ﬂower garland, using blue eye shadow or applying make-up to their faces, wear- ing a shining clasp ring or a garment sash, or examining their appearance in a mirror. They put on a pair of multicolord shoes and a white upper garment and try to obtain a sword or stick, an attendant, a canopy, a fan, and a carriage well decorated with banners. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that all [these behaviors] are absent in
the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in various play and games, such as chess, gambling, checkers with eight-squared or ten-squared boards, or [any] of hundreds of [other types of games] in every and all ways. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that [this kind of behav- ior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in useless talk that obstructs religious pursuits, such as [gossiping about] the affairs of kings, battles, cavalry horses, or matters of how bureaucrats and ministers as ride horses on excursions, going to and from parks and pleasure gardens. Or they talk about women, or about their daily lives in lying, sitting down, or walking, or on the subjects of clothing, food, and drink, or their relations. Or they discuss sea divers and their collection of treasures from the ocean. Who- ever joins my religious order, however, should realize that all [these kinds of idle speech] are absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, seek through innumerable expedient means wrong livelihoods, using ﬂattering words and statements, or slandering each other, thereby seeking beneﬁts and an advantage over the other. Whoever

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joins my religious order, however, should realize that [such behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in disputes with each other wherever they are, whether in a pleasure grove or a bathing pond, or on the ﬂoor of a building, accusing each other as to who is right or wrong, saying “I know the text and rules but you have little knowledge about them. I am on the right course, but your course is a deviation. Your argument is confused, asserting later what ought to be asserted earlier, while asserting earlier what ought to be asserted later. I am able to tolerate you but you cannot tolerate me. Nothing you say is either true or real. When you ﬁnd some doubt in yourself, come and ask me about it. I will surely answer all your questions.” Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that [such behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, seek greater [rewards or beneﬁt] through various expedient means. For instance, on behalf of a king, or a minister of the king, or a brāhmaṇa, or a householder, they carry ofﬁcial communications or private messages, traveling from this place to that place or returning from there to here. Carrying letters for clients, they deliver them to the designated recipients in respective destinations, then carry their replies back, delivering them to their clients. Or they give instructions about the ways to conduct the business of carrying messages for themselves or others. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that [this behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage solely in learning the business of military strategy, battles, and disputes, or learning matters of armaments such as swords, canes, bows and arrows, or how to arrange ﬁghts between domestic animals such as roosters, dogs, pigs, goats, elephants, horses, bulls, or camels, or how to stage ﬁghts between men and women, or how to perform various skills to make the sound of a multitude, such as blowing conch shells, beating drums, singing, dancing, dragging and tossing streamers, and so on, in all sorts of other actions. Whoever joins my religious order,

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however, should realize that all [such behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in ignoble ways of life, learning wrong paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion], thus taking up a wrong livelihood, such as performing fortunetelling for male or female clients regarding auspicious and ominous signs, their handsomeness and ugliness, or soliciting material support by way of similar predictions regarding animals [in the business of husbandry]. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that [such behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in ignoble ways of life, learning wrong paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion], taking up wrong liveli- hoods such as performing magical incantations to call ghost spirits into one’s presence or to send them away, or causing [such spirits] to stay with various repugnant spells. Thus, in many ways, they threaten people, assembling and dispersing them, tormenting them thoroughly, or causing them enjoyment. They also use incantations to calm a pregnant woman for the safety of her unborn child, or they provide a [magical] garment to their clients, or they use an incantation to change a man into a donkey or cause him to become totally deaf and dumb. Displaying various meth- ods, they stand up facing the sun or moon, performing varieties of ascetic practice with both hands in order to solicit material gain. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that [such behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in ignoble ways of life, learning wrong paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion], thus taking up a wrong livelihood such as chanting magical spells for curing illness, or applying evil or good spells, or using medical treatments such as acupuncture, moxa cautery, or medicine to attempt to treat various illnesses [for mate- rial gain]. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that [such behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.

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O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in ignoble ways of life, learning wrong paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion], thus taking up a wrong livelihood such as performing magical spells for water or ﬁre, or a spell to call a ghost spirit, or a spell for success in a political or military cam- paign, or a spell for birds, a spell for bodily limbs, or a spell for a talisman to ensure the safety of one’s residence, a spell for swift recovery from ﬁery burns, or a spell for curing a rat bite. Or they read a written incantation to discern the life or death of the person concerned, or a written incantation for deciphering dreams, or they read palms (chiromancy) and facial fea- tures (physiognomy), chant astronomical texts, or chant alphabetical characters. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that [such behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in ignoble ways, learning wrong paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion], thus taking up a wrong livelihood such as observing the weather and seasons to predict whether or not it will rain, whether the price of crops will go up or down, whether or not there will be an epidemic, whether a fearful event will take place or if there will be peace and safety. Or they predict oncoming earthquakes, the appearance of a comet, a solar or lunar eclipse, or a stellar eclipse, or the nonappearance of such an eclipse, to determine whether it is a good or bad omen. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that all [such behvior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
O Mānava, the other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on their devotees’ charity, engage in ignoble ways of life, learning wrong paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion], thus taking up a wrong livelihood, asserting that this country is superior to that country, or that this is not true; or asserting that another country is superior to this country, and this is not true. Observing good or bad omens, they predict the for- tunes and fates of the other countries with which they are concerned. Whoever joins my religious order, however, should realize that all [such behavior] is absent in the practice of my disciples.
[Whoever joins my religious order then shall be in compliance with the following sacred precepts.] My disciples concentrate on the sacred

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rules of discipline with a mind of nonattachment, and they experience inner joy and an easeful state of existence. If the visual faculty does not see an object, the mind does not grasp the characteristic of the object. The visual faculty is neither bound nor linked to an object of form, but ﬁrmly remains in quiescence with no attachment whatsoever. Also, free from anxieties and problems, the sense faculties do not release evil inﬂu- ences. My disciples uphold the fundamental rules of the Vinaya discipline and thus protect the pure and genuine visual sense faculty. It is the same with the auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile sense faculties. Disciples should control the six kinds of sense contact and maintain good control over them, so that the sense faculties remain quiescent and at ease. It is like riding a carriage drawn by four horses: a good charioteer holds the whip in one hand and controls the reins with his other hand, so as not to let the wheels [of the chariot] leave the tracks. The practice of a bhikṣu is also like this. Thoroughly controlling the six “horses”[of his sense faculties], he does not let the wheels leave their tracks, and thus he remains safe, in an easeful state. On the basis of such sacred dis- ciplines, he has acquired the [sense] faculties transcendent [from the
objects and deﬁlements], and thus they are sacred.
As to the partaking of food, one should know contentment and also not indulge himself in the quality of its taste. He should take only enough food as is sufﬁcient to nurture his body [and keep it] free from malnu- trition and illness. He should maintain his health without costly food to the degree that he can eradicate an existing health problem without incur- ring a new one. Restoring his strength, he should make his body easeful and pleasant. Just as a person applies medicine to a wound, thereby mak- ing a [positive] difference in healing the wound, neither pursuing a false attractive appearance nor being haughty—O Mānava, a bhikṣu is also like this. It is sufﬁcient for him to partake of food in order to sustain his health, cherishing no self-pride. Just as one greases the wheel shaft of a cart in order to transport a load in the cart wherever as he wishes, a bhikṣu is also like this. One should partake of food only to the degree that it sustains one’s physical health and allows one to carry out the prac- tice of austerity.

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O Mānava, a bhikṣu is also like this. Once he realizes the sacred fac- ulties on the basis of the sacred disciplines, he should know contentment in [minimizing] the quantity of food he partakes of [daily] and should make effort toward enlightenment in the earlier and later thirds of each night. Also during the day, whether he is walking or sitting, he should always maintain mental alertness in order to eradicate the obstacles that prevent the arising of good mental elements. During the earlier third of the night, whether he is walking or sitting, he should always maintain mental alertness in order to eradicate the ﬁve kinds of obstacles.26 During the middle third of the night he should recline on his right side [to sleep]. He may awaken whenever a thought happens to arise. Since his mind is expectant of the approaching dawn, there should be no confusion in his mind. As soon as the later third of the night comes, he wakes up to practice contemplation. Whether he is just waking up or already sitting, he should maintain mental alertness always in order to eradicate the ﬁve kinds of obstacles. When a bhikṣu is endowed with this kind of sacred discipline, only then will he acquire the sacred faculties [as mentioned before] and the discipline of contentment in partaking of the proper amount of food. If a bhikṣu exerts himself toward enlightenment in the earlier and later thirds of each night and always maintains mental alertness [or the state of mindfulness in order to eradicate the obstacles], there should be no confusion in his mind. What does it mean, however, to say that if a bhikṣu maintains mental alertness there will be no confusion in his mind? Such a bhikṣu is engaged diligently in observation of his inner body or inner senses with no slackening, exerting himself, being mindful of his observations to keep them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and anxiety. He is also engaged without slackening in observing his outer body or outer senses, and also observing both inner and outer body, exerting himself, being mindful of his observations to keep them in memory, thereby removing worldly desires and anxiety. It is the same with observing one’s sense perceptions (sensation), the mind (intellect), and the psychophysical elements. This is called a bhikṣu’s mindfulness
with no confusion in his mind.
Why is it called the one mind or the total mind? Suppose that whether a bhikṣu is walking, coming and going, looking right or left, bending

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his body or stretching it, casting his eyes downward or upward, receiving alms while holding his outer robe’s sleeve and almsbowl [simultaneously], or whether he is turning to the left or right for convenience, sleeping or waking, standing or sitting, speaking or in silence—on all these occasions, he should be mindful always of his deportment in his one mind. This is the sole mind. For instance, suppose there is a man traveling with a group of his friends, walking either at the front or in the middle or at the end of the group. He is always safe and has no fear. O Mānava, a bhikṣu is also like that. Whether he is walking, coming or going, speaking or not speaking, if he is always mindful of his deportment single-mind- edly, he will have no fear. Based on this kind of sacred discipline, a bhikṣu acquires the transcendent faculties that are sacred. He knows contentment in his partaking of food, makes effort toward enlightenment, whether in the earlier or later thirds of each night, and always maintains mental alertness toward singleminded reﬂective recollection of obser- vations. There is no room for confusion in the mind.
An easeful state of existence can be found in a secluded place, such as under a forest tree, among the cemetery mounds, in mountain caves, in open passages, or among piles of cow dung. At the proper time the bhikṣu goes for almsround, then returns to his abode. Washing his hands and feet, placing his robes and almsbowl securely, sitting down in the lotus posture, keeping his body and mind upright, focusing mental alert- ness directly to the front, the bhikṣu eradicates parsimony and avarice without leaving any desire and terminates anger and malice without leaving any fetter of enmity. With a pure and genuine mind, he abides always in the mind of compassion, minimizing the hours of sleep while awaiting the approaching dawn. With no confusion in his mind, he erad- icates obsessive conceptualization and removes doubt and delusion, thereby overcoming entanglement in the net of doubt, while his mind is saturated with favorable psychophysical elements. Just as when a ser- vant boy is [adopted by his master’s family and] receives that family name, and thus is delivered [from the status of slave] to a [new state] of safety and ease; liberated from his servitude, his mind is ﬁlled with joy, having nothing more to worry about or fear. Also, suppose someone, having raised some capital for his intended business and carried out his

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business successfully, and acquired a great deal of proﬁt, then returns [to his home town]. After repaying all the loans [with interest] to his original investors, there still remains in his hand sufﬁcient resources with which to continue his business. With great joy, he thinks, “Previously, when I raised capital by persuading my investors, I was really anxious that my intended business would not be as successful as I hoped. But now, having acquired a great deal of proﬁt, even after I have repaid my investors all the capital I borrowed I still have a sufﬁcient amount of wealth remaining. I no longer have any worry or fear like I did before.”
Or again, suppose someone has been cured from a lengthy illness, and his diet and digestion as well as his complexion and strength have all improved. He thus thinks, “Previously I suffered from illness, but now I am completely cured. My diet, digestion, complexion, and strength have all improved.” He feels great joy because he no longer has any worry or fear like he did previously. [Or again,] someone who was impris- oned for a long time ﬁnally was able to safely come out from it. He is overjoyed, thinking, “Previously I was conﬁned in a prison, but now I have been delivered [from that conﬁnement]. I have no more worry and fear like I did before.” [Or again,] someone transported his own wealth through a great expanse of wilderness and successfully crossed through it without encountering a bandit. With great joy, he thinks, “Having passed through this place of great danger, I feel safe and at ease, and have no more worry and fear like I did before.”
O Mānava, a bhikṣu has ﬁve hindrances [that obstruct the arising of good mental elements], due to which he is perpetually haunted by a sense of worry and fear, like those in the stories [above]—the sense of worry and fear experienced by someone who had been heavily indebted, someone who suffered from a lengthy illness, someone who was impris- oned for a long time, and someone who had to pass through [a dangerous] wilderness carrying all his wealth. The bhikṣu sees in himself that his mind is not free from the ﬁve hindrances; his mind is still covered by these hindrances. Because of the prevailing [mental] darkness his insight is not sufﬁciently developed to see through it. He makes effort to eradicate the desires that incline toward evil and anything that is not good (i.e., contrary to good) from his mind. This eradication of desires concurs

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with the mental function of seeking an object and that of examining it in meditation. Thus he is able to enter the initial state of meditative absorption accompanied by the sense of delight and bliss, [while the twofold mental function continues]. Permeated with delight and bliss, he is totally immersed in a state of trance, just as someone who applies various medicinal substances skillfully in their bathwater and thus sat- urates it thoroughly in the middle as well as in the outer edges. It is the same with the bhikṣu who has entered the initial state of meditatiove absorption and is entirely permeated by the sense of delight and bliss. It is like this, O Mānava. This is called the initial realization of bliss in one’s present body. Why? Because he has acquired the state of bliss, quiescence, and seclusion where confusion is eliminated due to his efforts without slackening.
He [now] forsakes the [mental] function of seeking and examining and gives rise to tranquil faith or self-conﬁdence. With one-pointed con- centration he experiences neither awareness of an object nor the subjective act of examining, but abides in the constant presence of delight and bliss, and thus enters the second state of meditative absorption. He is already saturated with delight and bliss in his entire being and is totally immersed in the state of delight and trance. It is like the water of a deep spring located on the summit of a mountain. The water springs up from within, it does not ﬂow into [the spring] from outside. The [mental] state in question is like being immersed in a pond of pure springwater. O Mānava, the experience of the bhikṣu is like this. He enters the second state of meditative absorption and never fails to experience the permeation of a perpetually arising sense of delight and bliss in himself. This is called the second realization of bliss in one’s present body.
The bhikṣu [now] has already forsaken the sense of delight and abides [solely in bliss], his mind protected from falling into confusion. He expe- riences a blissful state just as described by the [ancient] sages. Abiding in this state of bliss that protects one’s mind from confusion, the bhikṣu enters the third state of meditative absorption, in which even though the sense of delight is absent he is immersed in a state of bliss that permeates the entirety of his being. For instance, it is like the case of the varieties of lotuses, such as utpala (blue), padma (pink), kumuda (red), and

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puṇḍarīka (white), grow up from the mud below the surface of the water, and yet their roots, stalks, branches, and leaves are all immersed totally in the water. The experience of the bhikṣu is like this. Entering the third state of meditative absorption, the bhikṣu discards delight but abides in bliss and is totally immersed in that state. This is called the third real- ization of bliss in one’s present body.
The bhikṣu has now abandoned not only the sense of delight but also that of bliss. With the sense of afﬂiction and delight already equally abandoned, the sense of neither suffering nor happiness should be upheld as purely and genuinely as possible. Through this practice he enters the fourth state of meditative absorption. His body and mind are equally pure and genuine throughout his entire being, just as the entire body is totally pure and clean after someone has bathed and cleansed it and put on a clean, white garment. O Mānava, the experience of the bhikṣu is like this when he enters the fourth state of meditative absorption. While his mind is puriﬁed and totally permeating his body, every part of it without fail, he enters the fourth state of meditative absorption; the mind neither increases nor decreases, nor does it incline or move. His mind abides on the ground of neither love or hatred, nor motion. For instance, when a well-insulated room is tightly sealed with additional plaster on the inside [walls] as well as the outside [walls], and the window is closed, neither wind nor ﬂying dirt [can enter] and nothing can disturb the can- dlelight. The ﬂame of the candle constantly burns upward but does not appear to move or ﬂicker at all. O Mānava, the experience of the bhikṣu is like this when he enters the fourth state of meditative absorption. His mind neither increases nor decreases, nor does it incline or move. His mind abides on the ground of neither love or hatred, nor motion. This is called the fourth realization of bliss in one’s present body. Why? Because due to his efforts without slackening he has acquired the state of bliss, quiescence, and seclusion in which confusion is eliminated. Having perfected concentration, with a pure and spotless mind the bhikṣu now has self-control and gently and patiently abides in the immovable state. He creates another mind [with supernormal power] and also another body that is perfectly endowed with all the limbs and senses, none lacking. He [then] visualizes, “This body [of mine] consists

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of four gross elements that have created that body. This body of mine is different [from that created body], and that body [is different from mine]. Due to this body, this mind [of mine] arises and has created the body itself as equipped with all its senses and limbs, none lacking.” This is like when someone pulls a sword from its sheath and thinks, “The sheath is different [from the sword], and the sword [is different from the sheath]. Yet the sword is drawn from the sheath.” Again, it is like when someone makes a rope by braiding together a number of hemp ﬁbers and thinks, “The hemp ﬁbers are different [from the rope], and the rope [is also dif- ferent from the hemp ﬁbers]. Yet the rope is made out of these hemp ﬁbers.” Again it is like when someone pulls a snake out of a box and thinks, “This box is different from the snake, and the snake is different from the box. Yet the snake comes out of the box.” Again it is like when someone takes a garment out of a bamboo basket and thinks, “The bamboo basket is different from the garment, and the garment is different from the bamboo basket. Yet the garment comes out of the basket.” O Mānava, [these examples] are like the case of the bhikṣu. This is the ﬁrst superior insight initially acquired by the bhikṣu. Why? Because due to his efforts without slackening he has acquired the state of bliss, quiescence, and seclusion in which confusion is eliminated.
Having perfected his concentration, with a pure and spotless mind, the bhikṣu has self-control and gently and patiently abides in the immov- able state. He has already given rise to another mind out of his body to create another body that is perfectly endowed with all its senses and limbs. He [then] visualizes, “This body is composed out of the four gross elements. The body [that is different from mine] has come into being [through magical power]. This body [of mine] is different from that body, and that body [is different from this body of mine]. This mind of mine abides in this body of mine. While abiding in this body, it reaches to that magically created body. This is like the luster of gems such as lapis lazuli and maṇi, which are clearly seen to be pure and spotless. When such gems are pierced with a blue, yellow, or red thread, an expert examiner, placing them on his palm, thinks, “The gems are different from the thread, and the thread is different from the gems. Yet each bead is linked with the other beads by means of the thread.” O Mānava, the

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bhikṣu envisions his mind as abiding in the body, and so his mind reaches [to abide in] that [magically] created body. This is the second superior power acquired by the bhikṣu. Why? Because due to his efforts without slackening he has acquired the state of bliss, quiescence, and seclusion in which confusion is eliminated.
Having perfected his concentration, with a pure and spotless mind, the bhikṣu has self-control and gently and patiently abides in the immov- able state. Through mental concentration he acquires the supernormal power that enables him to change his physical form into various other forms. He may multiply his single physical form into innumerable iden- tical ones or reverse the many [forms] to his original form. Flying through space, he can pass through even a stone wall without obstruction. He can ﬂy in the air like a bird, walk on the surface of water just as on the ground, blast ﬁery ﬂames out of his body like a huge bonﬁre, grasp the sun and moon in his hand, and reach the height of the Brahmā heaven. This is like a potter who can mix various types of clay and produce, as he wishes, a variety of vessels that are beneﬁcial to many; also, it is like a wood craftsman who handles wooden materials and produces, as he wishes, any kind of object that may beneﬁt many others; again, it is also like an ivory craftsman who works with the material of elephant tusks, or like a goldsmith works real gold to produce various things that are beneﬁcial to many. O Mānava, the bhikṣu is also like this. With his mind in concentration, pure and spotless, abiding in the immovable ground, the bhikṣu transﬁgures his own physical form into another as he wishes, and so forth, up to grasping the sun and moon in his hand, and stands as tall as to reach the Brahmā heaven. This is the third superior power acquired by the bhikṣu.
Having perfected his concentration, with a pure and spotless mind, the
bhikṣu has self-control and gently and patiently abides in the immovable state. Through mental concentration he acquires supernormal [power of] auditory capacity, surpassing that of an ordinary human being, and is capa- ble of hearing two kinds of voices, those of a god and of a human being. Suppose there is a lecture hall in a city, whose structure is tall, grand, and of preeminent scale. Wise people who reside in this hall can hear distinctly and understand everything spoken within the hall without relying on any

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auditory device. The supernormal auditory capacity acquired by the bhikṣu is like this. As his mind is well concentrated, his auditory capacity is pure and genuine and he is capable of hearing those two kinds of voices. O Mānava, this is the fourth superior power acquired by the bhikṣu.
Having perfected his concentration, with a pure and spotless mind, the bhikṣu has self-control and gently and patiently abides in the immov- able state. Through mental concentration he acquires the supernormal power of reading others’ minds. He knows, without exception, everything regarding the mind of another person: whether that person’s mind has desire or no desire, whether his or her mind is deﬁled or free from delu- sion, whether that person is broadminded or narrowminded, whether or not that person’s mind abides in concentration, if it is bound by or free from bondage, whether it is upright or downward, or if it has reached the highest state. This is like someone who gazes at his reﬂection on the surface of clear water to see whether he is handsome or ugly, and thus necessarily cognizes it. The power of the bhikṣu is also like this. Because his mind is pure and genuine [through concentration], he is able to know the mind of another person. O Mānava, this is the ﬁfth superior power acquired by the bhikṣu.
Having perfected his concentration, with a pure and spotless mind, the bhikṣu has self-control and gently and patiently abides in the immov- able state. Through mental concentration he recollects and records in his mind innumerable and various kinds of past events [of his own as well as those of others]. He remembers one life and so forth, up to incal- culable past lives, the numbers of eons with evolving or devolving peri- ods, where he died and where he was born, his own name and the names of his family, clans, and races; [he remembers his own] preferences of food and drink, whether he had a long or short life span, the happiness and suffering he experienced, his physical and facial features and char- acteristics, and so on—everything without exception. Suppose someone travels from his own village to another village in a different country. He remembers all things and recollects them instantly, without any mental effort: whatever he did, where he stayed, what he said or did not say; also, again, whether he traveled on from that country to another, and so on, one after another, until he returned to his homeland, as well as the

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names of all the countries through which he passed, without exception. It is like the case of such a traveler who remembers everything, not only the place he left from to travel to another place, and from that place trav- eled on to another place, and so on, but also [remembers] what he did, where he stayed, what he said and when he remained silent, and so on, entirely without exception. O Mānava, the supernormal power of the bhikṣu is also like this. With a well-concentrated mind, a pure and spotless mind, he abides in the immovable state and able to recollect and know through the supernormal power innumerable past lives throughout innu- merable eons. This is called the ﬁrst insight of great knowledge acquired by the bhikṣu. The cause of ignorance is once for all brought to cessation for the bhikṣu, in whom there arises the insight of great knowledge. When the darkness disappears the insight of bright illumination prevails. This insight means the bhikṣu’s knowledge of past lives. Why? Because due to his effort without slackening he has acquired the state of bliss, quiescence, and seclusion in which confusion is eliminated.
Having perfected his concentration, with a pure and spotless mind, the bhikṣu has self-control and gently and patiently abides in the immov- able state. Through his exertion in practice he realizes the supernormal power of knowing the future destinies of others’ lives and deaths. Through this supernormal power, he sees not only how sentient beings die here and are reborn there, then die there to be reborn here, but also their phys- ical features and complexions, their appearance as either handsome or ugly, the good and bad retributions [of their actions], their births into either noble or humble [families], and all the causal contexts through which they receive the appropriate retributions according to their deeds, entirely without exception. He is equipped to see that when someone commits wrong acts of body, speech, and mind, slanders wise and saintly disciples, and expresses perverse views, when that person’s body dissolves at the end of his life he will fall into the three evil destinies. The bhikṣu is also equipped to see that when someone does good acts of body, speech, and mind, does not slander wise and saintly disciples, and upholds right views, faith, and devotion, when his body dissolves at the end of his life he will be reborn among gods and human beings. Through his supernormal power of vision, the bhikṣu thus sees all sentient beings

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coming and going between the ﬁve destinies of the life cycle according to the causal contexts created by their deeds. For instance, suppose there is a city enclosed by high, wide, and even walls. At every intersection there is a high tower, and there is a knowledgeable person up in the tower. Looking over the streets in all directions, east, west, south, and north, this man can see all the citizens’ movements and observe their behavior, entirely without exception. O Mānava, the bhikṣu’s supernormal power is like this. Through a mind of concentration, pure and spotless, abiding in the immovable state, he acquires the supernormal power of vision, and through this power he knows all the movements of sentient beings through the ﬁve destinies of the life cycle according to the causal contexts created by their deeds, entirely without exception. This is the second insight of great knowledge acquired by the bhikṣu. The cause of ignorance is once and for all brought to cessation for the bhikṣu, in whom arises the insight of great knowledge. When the darkness disappears the insight of bright illumination prevails. This insight is the bhikṣu’s knowl- edge of the future destinies of life and death of sentient beings. Why? Because due to his exertion without slackening he has acquired the state of bliss, quiescence, and seclusion in which confusion is eliminated. Having perfected his concentration, with a pure and spotless mind, the bhikṣu has self-control and gently and patiently abides in the immov- able state. Through exertion in practice he realizes the supernormal power of knowing the truth of suffering as it really is, the truth of the causal aggregates under the inﬂuence of deﬁlement as they really are, the truth of cessation of the deﬁled causal aggregates as it really is, and the truth of the path for eradicating the deﬁled causal aggregates as it really is. The bhikṣu knows that the inﬂuence of deﬁlements in carnal desire, in the will to becoming, and in the force of ignorance should all equally be seen according to these four truths. He has realized liberation and acquired the knowledge of his liberation, namely, “Whoever has exhausted [the cause of] birth and death, accomplished the goal of the practice of austerity, and completed what should be done, for that person there will be no further rebirth after this lifetime.” For instance, in clear water there are various kinds of things, such as pieces of wood or rocks, or ﬁsh and turtles, which are moving about, to and fro. Someone who

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has the real power of vision can clearly distinguish these things: “This is a piece of wood or a rock” or “That is a ﬁsh or a turtle.” O Mānava, the capacity of the bhikṣu is like this. Through a mind of concentration, pure and spotless, abiding in the immovable state, he acquires the super- normal power of transcendent knowledge free from the inﬂuence of deﬁlement, and so on, up to liberation from further rebirth after this life. This is the third insight of great knowledge acquired by the bhikṣu. The cause of ignorance is once and for all brought to cessation for the bhikṣu, in whom there arises the insight of great knowledge. When darkness disappears the insight of bright illumination prevails. This insight is the bhikṣu’s knowledge of his eradication of the inﬂuence of deﬁlement. Why? Because due to his exertion without slackening he has acquired the state of bliss, quiescence, and seclusion in which confusion is elim- inated. O Mānava, this is called the unsurpassable endowment of knowl- edge and practice. What do you think? Is this excellent combination of knowledge and practice acceptable to you as the [supreme] good?
The Buddha continued, saying to Mānava:
When one cannot realize the unsurpassable endowment of knowledge and practice he adheres to four expedient practices [as an alternative course of practice]. What are these four? First, suppose there is someone who has not been able to realize the unsurpassable endowment of knowl- edge and practice. He carries a cutting tool and a basket on his back, enters the mountains, seeks medicinal herbs, and partakes of tree roots. O Mānava, this is called adherence to the ﬁrst alternative practice (i.e., a diet of tree roots), as he is unable to realize the unsurpassable endow- ment of knowledge and practice. What do you think? O Mānava, do you and your teacher practice this discipline?27
Mānava replied, “No, sir.” The Buddha continued:
You have degraded yourself without knowing what is true and what is not. You have accused the sons of the Śākya sage (i.e., followers of the Buddha) and verbally abused them. Because you have planted the root of this offense you will suffer in hell for a long time.

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Again, O Mānava, suppose someone cannot realize the unsurpassable endowment of knowledge and practice. He carries a water pitcher and a pole, enters the mountains, and partakes of fruits that have fallen to the ground. O Mānava, this is called adherence to the second alternative practice (i.e., a diet of seed fruits), unable to realize the unsurpassable endowment of knowledge and practice. What do you think? O Mānava, do you and your teacher practice this discipline?
Mānava replied, “No, sir.” The Buddha continued:
You have degraded yourself without knowing what is true and what is not. You have accused the sons of the Śākya sage, the followers of the Buddha and verbally abused them. Because you have planted the root of this offense you will suffer in hell for a long time.
Again, O Mānava, suppose someone cannot realize the unsurpassable endowment of knowledge and practice. He abandons the foregoing two alternative practices and, returning to the village, he relies on other people, builds a hermitage thatched with grass, and partakes of plants and leaves. O Mānava, this is called adherence to the third alternative practice (i.e., a diet of plants and leaves), unable to realize the unsur- passable endowment of knowledge and practice. What do you think? O Mānava, do you and your teacher practice this discipline?
Mānava replied, “No, sir.” The Buddha continued:
You have degraded yourself without knowing what is true and what is not. You have accused the sons of the Śākya sage, the followers of the Buddha, and verbally abused them. Because you have planted the root of this offense you will suffer in hell for a long time. This is the third expedient means.
Again, O Mānava, suppose someone cannot realize the unsurpassable endowment of knowledge and practice, but neither partakes of herbal roots nor fallen fruit nor plants and leaves. He erects a great building either in a village or town and from every person that passes by, whether they are going east, west, south, or north, he receives provisions [from

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them] according to their capacity. This is called adherence to the fourth alternative practice (i.e., begging alms), as he is unable to realize the unsurpassable endowment of knowledge and practice. What do you think? O Mānava, do you and your teacher practice this discipline?
Mānava replied, “No, sir.” The Buddha continued:
You have degraded yourself without knowing what is true and what is false. You have accused the sons of the Śākya sage, the followers of the Buddha, and verbally abused them. Because you have planted the root of this offense you will suffer in hell for a long time.
What do you think, O Mānava? Many skills have been transmitted from the ancient brāhmaṇas and the wise compilers of the sacred hymns (i.e., Vedas). They praised and propagated the hymns that were originally recited through the practice of chanting, in a similar way to how contem- porary brāhmaṇas chant and propagate these hymns. These brāhmaṇas descended from (1) Aṭṭhaka, (2) Vāmaka, (3) Vāmadeva, (4) Vessāmitta,
(5) Aṅgirasa, (6) Yamataggi, (7) Bhāradvāja-Vāseṭṭha, (8) Kāśyapa, (9) Alouna, (10) Gautama, (11) Shouyipo, and (12) Suntuoluo.28 These great sages and brāhmaṇas all dug moats and built grand pavilions and buildings. Are the residences of your teacher and colleagues like those of the ancients?
[Mānava] replied, “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
When one of the great sages and brāhmaṇas built a residence, he also built various houses and living quarters [for his people] around it, with his residence in the center. Do your teacher and colleagues reside in sim- ilar residential estates such as those of the ancients?
[Mānava] replied, “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
Those great sages and brāhmaṇas used as seats elevated comfortable couches and thick cushions made of delicate and smooth thread and ﬁne and soft cloth. Do your teacher and colleagues use anything similar to these items that were used by the ancients?

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[Mānava] replied, “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
The great sages and brāhmaṇas enjoyed many luxurious things, such as gold and silver necklaces, variegated ﬂower garlands, and beautiful women. Do your teacher and colleagues enjoy such luxuries like the ancients did?
[Mānava] replied, “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
When one of the great sages and brāhmaṇas made an excursion, he rode on a well-embellished carriage, accompanied by attendants carrying hal- berds. He was shaded by a white canopy, and held a duster in his hand, wore variegated sandals, and also a golden hat and white garments. Do your teacher and colleagues also equip themselves with such items like the ancients when they go on an excursion?
[Mānava] replied: “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Mānava, you have degraded yourself without knowing what is true and what is not. You have accused the sons of the Śākya, the followers of the Buddha, and verbally abused them. Because you have planted the root of this offense you will suffer in hell for a long time.
What do you think, O Mānava? The ancient great sages and brāh- maṇas praised and propagated the hymns that were originally sponta- neously composed and sung, in a similar way to how contemporary brāhmaṇas follow the tradition. Yet there seems to be no one today who, by transmitting these hymns composed originally by Aṭṭhaka, and so on, inspire and motivate others to wish to be reborn in the Brahmā heaven. This state of affairs, O Mānava, can be compared with a situation in which King Prasenajit consults and discusses matters with which he is concerned either with other kings or ministers, or brāhmaṇas and wealthy householders. Suppose a common person, having heard discussion of a matter, goes to the capital city of Śrāvastī and passes it on to other people he meets, saying, “King Prasenajit said such-and-such.” What do you

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think, O Mānava? Has the king consulted with that person about the matters with which he is concerned?
[Mānava replied,] “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Mānava, when this person repeats the words of the king and thereby conveys them to the people, would the king himself appoint this person as his minister?”
[Mānava replied,] “Such is impossible, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Mānava, this means that even though today you and others are engaged in transmitting and teaching people the hymns composed by the ancient sages and brāhmaṇas, it is impossible to expect that people will wish to be born in the Brahmā heaven. What do you think, Mānava, have you and others, having received support and care from others, been practicing according to the norms?
[Mānava replied,] “Yes, sir. As Gautama says, when one receives another’s support, he should practice according to the norms, sir.”
[The Buddha continued:]
Yet your teacher, the brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasārin, despite having received the king’s ﬁef, when consulted by the king replied to him with unnecessary opinions and meaningless words, and thus he did not seriously advise him by showing what is proper. You are now seeing your own faults and those of your teacher. Put this matter aside for a moment; now you should ﬁnd out whatever it is that you have been sent [by your teacher] to do.
Mānava at once raised his eyes to look at the Tathāgata’s body, seeking the eminent signs of the great person. He could see all the marks except for two, and immediately fell into doubt.
At that moment, the World-honored One quietly thought to himself, “Now this fellow Mānava does not see two of the eminent marks and immediately felt doubt.” At once, [the Buddha] stuck out his tongue and displayed the mark in question, and licked his [own] ears with his wide, long tongue that covered his entire forehead.

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Mānava still felt doubt about the last mark of the great being. The World- honored One once again thought to himself, “Now this fellow Mānava is still concerned with the ﬁnal mark that he has not seen.” By means of supernormal power, [the Buddha] then allowed Mānava to see the mark of the genital organ hidden within folds, like that of a horse. Thereupon Mānava, having seen all the eminent marks of the Tathāgata, had no more doubt in his mind. At once he stood up from his seat and, after circumambulating the Buddha, departed. The brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasārin came out to the gate of his residence and saw his disciple returning from a distance. He went forward to meet him and
asked him:
Have you seen Gautama to examine whether he really has the eminent marks? And does he have all the meritorious supernormal powers, as we have been told?
Mānava replied to his teacher:
The śramaṇa Gautama possesses all of the thirty-two eminent marks without exception, sir. And it is exactly as we have been informed that he has all the meritorious supernormal powers, sir.
The teacher again questioned him, “Did you discuss anything with him?” Mānava replied, “Yes, sir. I exchanged words with Gautama.”
The teacher again asked, “What did you discuss with him?”
Mānava then reported to his teacher in detail exactly how he had encoun- tered the Buddha and what he had discussed with him.
[Puṣkarasārin] said:
I thought that I had ﬁnally gotten a sharp-minded disciple, but as you behaved in my proxy so poorly like that, it will not be long before your deeds will cause me to fall into hell. Why? Because you desired so eagerly to accuse Gautama, making him displeased with the fact that [initially] I avoided seeing him. Because you, my ablest disciple, acted so poorly in representing me, you will surely cause me to fall into hell before long.
Thereupon, out of his anger and dissatisfaction the teacher kicked Mānava out of his carriage. [Puṣkarasārin] then took his seat in the carriage, while Mānava, falling to the ground, immediately contracted leprosy.

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The brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasārin looked up at the position of the sun and quietly thought to himself, “It is not the right time to go see the śramaṇa Gautama. I should wait until tomorrow to visit him.”
The next morning, the brāhmaṇa had his carriage prepared and, accom- panied by ﬁve hundred disciples, he proceeded to the Icchānaṅkala Grove. Reaching the forest, he dismounted from the carriage and went on foot toward the World-honored One. Upon arrival, he exchanged respectful greetings with a bow and sat down to one side. He then looked at the Tathāgata, exam- ining the eminent marks. Having observed all the marks satisfactorily except for the two that he could not see, the brāhmaṇa fell into doubt as to whether the Tathāgata really had [these two marks]. The Buddha, immediately knowing [Puṣkarasārin’s] mind, at once stuck out his wide and long tongue and licked his ears and covered his forehead with it. The brāhmaṇa still hesitated, in doubt about the last remaining mark. The Buddha, again knowing his thought, applied his supernormal power so that brāhmaṇa could see the mark of the genital organ hidden within folds, like that of a horse. The brāhmaṇa at last witnessed all the thirty-two eminent marks of the Tathāgata and was thereby totally freed from his presumption and doubt.
The brāhmaṇa made a special request to the Buddha:
When I am on the way, driving a carriage, if I meet the Buddha on the road I will stop my carriage for a short while. May Your Holiness know that, by doing so, I have already paid respect to the Buddha. Why is this so, sir? Because when I am going to receive the ﬁef of a village, if I dismount from the carriage I will lose the ﬁef and a rumor against me will surely spread, sir.
Again, he said to the Buddha:
If I dismount from the carriage I will remove my sword and put away my umbrella, as well as remove my ﬂag, pitcher, and sandals, sir. May Your Holiness know that, by doing so, I have already venerated the Tathāgata. Why is this so, sir? I am obliged to uphold the ﬁve symbols of authority for the ﬁef I am to receive. If I venerate anyone, [letting go of any of the ﬁve symbols of authority,] I will lose that ﬁef and a bad rumor against me will surely spread, sir.

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Again the brāhmaṇa said to the Buddha:
If I see the Buddha while among a group of people, I will stand up and expose my right elbow and announce my family name. May Your Holi- ness know that, by doing so, I have already venerated and paid my respect to the Tathāgata. Why is this so, sir? When I am to receive a ﬁef, if I venerate anyone I will immediately lose that ﬁef and a bad rumor against me will surely spread, sir.
Again he said to the Buddha:
I will take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May Your Holiness permit me to become a lay devotee according to the right Dharma. From now on I shall adhere to the ﬁve precepts, namely, abstinence from taking life, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from speak- ing falsehoods, and from the state of indolence arising from [the use of] intoxicants. May I request that the World-honored One as well as the members of the sangha accept my invitation for almsfood, sir.
The World-honored One, remaining silent, thus granted the brāhmaṇa’s wish. Having understood that because the World-honored One had remained silent his wish had been granted, [Puṣkarasārin] immediately arose from his seat, venerated the Buddha without awareness, circumambulated him three times, and departed.
Returning to his residence, the brāhmaṇa prepared food and drink and, hav- ing completed the preparations, he notiﬁed that everything was ready for the sangha to receive the meal. Thereupon the World-honored One, putting on his outer robe and with his almsbowl in hand, accompanied by one thousand two hundred ﬁfty bhikṣus, arrived at the residence and took their seats at the places prepared for them. The brāhmaṇa then served varieties of delicious food for the Buddha and the members of the sangha with his own hands. After the meal was over, the bowls were set aside and water for rinsing was brought.
Thereupon, [Puṣkarasārin], holding the elbow of his disciple Ambaṭṭha with his right hand, went before the World-honored One and said to him, “I earnestly entreat of you, O Tathāgata, may Your Holiness graciously pardon this student on account of his repentance, sir.”

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In this manner, he repeated these words three times, and then said to the Buddha:
It is like a well-trained elephant or horse. Even though such an animal may stumble and fall, it may yet return to the right course, sir. This man is also like that. Although he committed a ﬂaw and an offense, may Your Holiness pardon him on account of his repentance.
The Buddha replied to the brāhmaṇa, “I will pardon him, O brāhmaṇa. May you live a long life, free from troubles, and may your disciple be freed from his leprosy.
No sooner than the Buddha had spoken these words, the brāhmaṇa’s dis- ciple was cured from the illness of leprosy.
Thereupon, the brāhmaṇa brought out a small cushion and sat before the Buddha. The World-honored One began to teach the Dharma for the sake of [Puṣkarasārin]. He encouraged him, beneﬁted him, and delighted him by teaching the doctrines of charity, of morality, and of rebirth in heaven. He also taught that desires are unclean and impure, that the inﬂuences of deﬁle- ments that bind one to the rūpa realm of existence (i.e., the realm of form) are dangerous, and that the essential method of distancing oneself from both pleasure and pain is superior [as the goal of religious salvation], and then concluded by emphasizing [the qualities of] purity and genuineness.
At that time, the World-honored One observed that the mind of the brāhmaṇa had become receptive, pure and spotless, and he knew that he was ready to accept the teaching of the path. Following the norms of the buddhas, the World- honored One introduced the doctrine of the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the cause of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and the noble truth of the path of cessation (i.e., the Four Noble Truths).
The brāhmaṇa then, at that single session, exhausted all of the deﬁlements and thus acquired genuine insight into the nature of the Dharma, just as a white cloth can easily be dyed any color. The brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasārin was also like this. Having seen the Dharma he acquired it, and was destined to realize the fruit of the path. He did not believe any other doctrine and thus realized the state of fearlessness (i.e., absolute conﬁdence). He then said to the Buddha:
I now would like to repeat my statement: I take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May Your Holiness permit me to become a lay

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devotee in the right Dharma. Until the end of my body and life I will adhere to the [ﬁve] precepts of not taking life, not taking what is not given, not committing sexual misconduct, not speaking falsehoods, and not ingesting intoxicants. May I request that the World-honored One as well as the members of the sangha show compassion toward me by accepting my invitation for almsfood for seven days, sir.
The World-honored One, remaining silent, thus granted his wish. The brāhmaṇa then served the Buddha and the members of the sangha for seven days with almsfood and offerings.
After the seven days had passed, the World-honored One departed to travel through various communities. Not long after the Buddha left the Icchānaṅkala Grove, the brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasārin became ill and passed away. The bhikṣus then were informed that after serving the Buddha with almsfood and offerings for seven days, the brāhmaṇa had passed away. They all wondered where the brāhmaṇa would be reborn. Some of the bhikṣus visited the World-honored One and, after venerating the Buddha, they sat down to one side and asked him:
The brāhmaṇa [Puṣkarasārin] completed his service to the Buddha of almsfood and offerings for seven days. After his body dissolves at the end of his life, where indeed will he be reborn, sir?
The Buddha replied to them:
That son of good family [Puṣkarasārin], endowed with the meticulous discipline of collecting all good actions universally, never committed an error regarding the practice of the disciplines and thus terminated the ﬁve kinds of deﬁlement that bind sentient beings to the lower realm of desire (i.e., kāmadhātu). He will be reborn among the gods, and from there he will enter ﬁnal nirvana and will not return to this world.
Having heard the Buddha’s answer, the bhikṣus were delighted, received the teaching, and carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 20: Ambaṭṭha]

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Notes

1 Étienne Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era, trans. Sara Webb-Boin (Louvain-la-Neue: Institut Orientaliste, 1988), p. 272.
2 The ninefold or twelvefold categories of scriptures in which the Buddha’s discourses were grouped as an aid for memorization. The Tripiṭaka categories of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma were a later development.
3 Cf. Dīpavaṃsa VII, 34–43; Mahāvaṃsa V, 267–282.
4 The Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāśtra; the Sanskrit original is lost, and there is no Tibetan translation of this text. There is a Chinese translation by Xuanzang, the Api- damo da pibosha lun in two hundred fascicles (Taishō 1545). Xuanzang concludes his epilogue: “Four hundred years after [the Buddha’s] nirvana, King Kaniṣka called an assembly of ﬁve hundred arhats and Kāśmīri Tripiṭaka masters to discuss the analy- ses of Abhidharma study.” Canonical revision was accomplished on all three divisions in chapter 3 of Xuanzang’s Xi you ji (Record of the Western Regions, Taishō 2087); see Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, p. 586. An English translation of Xuanzang’s text by Li Rongxi is published under the title The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1996).
5 According to Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana, in his renowned work A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Schools (Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1931), pp. 49–50; p. 49, n. 2, the Hindu literature, the Purāṇas and Śāstras, were compiled by the brāhmaṇa assemblies in the region of Vidarbha under the leadership of Jātūkarṇya Vyāsa. This movement was inspired by the Fourth Buddhist Council that had been held in Kāśmīra half a century earlier.
6 See Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953), esp. Ch. 1, Introduction.
7 Chizen Akanuma, Kanpashibushi agon goshōroku (The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Āgamas and Pāli Nikāyas) (Nagoya: Hajinkaku-shobō, 1929), pp. 3–6.
8 The missing seven texts are: DN 6, Mahalī Suttanta; DN 7, Jāliya Suttanta; DN 10, Subha Suttanta; DN 22, Mahā-Satīpaṭṭhāna Suttanta; DN 30, Lakkhaṇa Suttanta; and DN 32, Āṭānāṭiya Suttanta; and “The Sutra on Buddhist Cosmology,” not found in the Dīgha Nikāya.

179

9 See Kaijō Ishikawa, Agon-kyō seiritsu no kenkyū (A Study on the Establishment of Āgama Sūtras (Tokyo: Gendaisha, 1982), especially the Conclusion, pp. 246–247.
10 Kumārajīva had been the king’s counselor in his native land, Kuccha. General Lüguang destroyed the state in 383 C.E. and brought Kumārajīva as a captive to the neighboring city of Liangzhou. In 401 Kumārajīva was invited to Chang’an to serve as the religious counselor to Yaoxing.
11 Genmyō Ono, et al., eds., Bussho kaisetsu daijiten (The Expositional Dictionary of Buddhist Texts in the Chinese Tripiṭaka Collection) (Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1933), Fascicle 6, pp. 45–46.
12 Faxian left Chang’an with a few co-travelers in 399 and returned alone by the sea route in 413, bringing with him copies of the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya, the Saṃyukta Āgama, and the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, among other texts.
13 The section of doctrinal commentaries: vols. 33–39; the section of Vinaya commentaries, vol. 40; the section of treatise commentaries, partially sectarian: vols. 41–44; the section of Chinese and Japanese sectarian schools, vols. 45–48; the section of historical traditions, vols. 49–52; the section of incidental and non-Buddhist texts, vols. 53–54 (which comprises both); and the section of textual catalogues, vol. 55.
14 T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols. (London: Pali Text Society, 1899, 1910, 1921).
15 “Proper region” here means the Gangetic basin in north-central India, where Śākyamuni Buddha lived and taught.
16 The term “mental and physical process” (Skt. nāmarūpa) describes the functioning of the four mental aggregates (skandhas) of sensation (vedanā), perception (saṃjñā), dispositional forces (saṃskāra), and consciousness (vijñāna) and the physical aggregate of form or materiality (rūpa).
17 This phrase is adopted from the Pāli text; the Chinese text has “Your father’s secret method.”
18 The phase “the beginning of things” that occurs in this section is from the Pāli text.
19 Śuklabhūmi is referred to as Uttarakā in the Pāli text.
20 Kalyāṇa-jātika is rendered as “One Who Has a Favorable Birth” in the Chinese text.
21 The ﬁve kinds of deﬁlement that bind sentient beings to the lower realm of desire are
(1) the heretical belief in a self, (2) attachment to practices and observances other than those approved by the Buddha, (3) doubt, (4) sexual desire, and (5) malice.
22 According to Max Weber, world religions can be grouped into four types of religion by cross-tabulating the types of asceticism, mysticism, other-worldliness, and inner- worldliness. Weber put ancient Buddhism into the category of “otherworldly mysti- cism.” While I do not agree with the term “mysticism,” I conditionally agree with

Notes

another term Weber uses, characterizing early Buddhism as a type of “otherworldly asceticism” on the grounds that Buddhism was committed to moral and religious dis- ciplines that sought to avoid subjective desires, and to the complete dissociation of the individual self from worldly concerns for the sake of religious emancipation. See Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Boston: Beacon Press, 1863), p. 51; see espe- cially T. Parson’s Introduction, pp. xlvi-lii.
The Ambaṭṭha Sutta is one of the most important sources of Buddhist critical thought on the Brahmanical caste system. The legend narrated by the Buddha attests the theory that the system of class divisions in ancient India fundamentally evolved on the principle of endogamy (rules of marriage), and the Buddha’s critical instruction is aimed at Ambaṭṭha’s caste-bound self-esteem as a brāhmaṇa, highest among the four castes, in abusing the Śākyas, kinsmen of the Buddha, as being rude and uncivilized toward him. The Buddha’s response is threefold: First, he made Ambaṭṭha recognize a Brah- manical legend explaining that brāhmaṇas were descended from the family of Kanhā- yana (“black-skinned”), whose mother was a brāhmaṇa woman in servitude who had been impregnated by the legendary Indo-Arian ruler Okkāka, while the Śākyas are descended directly from the four princes of that king. When they were exiled to the northeastern Himalayan region, they successfully built their colony as a Śākyan republic. Second, the Buddha directly referred to the family laws on which Ambaṭṭha claims his status, bringing him to recognize that these laws do not support his claim as being of the highest caste. Third, the Buddha let Ambaṭṭha know that the Śākyas renounced their status in the familial system to seek religious liberation for the goal of the unsur- passable endowment of knowledge and practice. He then questioned Ambaṭṭha as to whether his teacher as well as himself have renounced their social status in the practice
of any of the four dietary disciplines.
Śākyamuni’s renunciation and eventual formation of his sangha cannot be fully understood without taking into account the tragic ordeal of Śākya society and the destruction of their state. Descriptions of Śākya society and its tragic history were, however, preserved only in the form of legendary Jātaka (biographical) stories. Just as the present chapter of the Dīrgha Āgama, the ofﬁcial literature does not reveal the historical background of the Śākya republic, whereas the collection of Jātakas, espe- cially Bhaddasālajātaka no. 465, IV, 144–153, relates it as historical fact. Arnold Toynbee, in his theory of “historical challenge and response,” was convinced that, just like any other world religion, the beginning of Buddhism was a deliberate con- ﬁguration of social problem solutions; see Arnold Toynbee and Jane Caplan, A Study of History: The First Abridged One-Volume Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 44; Shohei Ichimura, “Revisiting the Times of Śākyamuni Buddha,” in Radhavallabh Tripathi, ed., Srutimahati Glory of Sanskrit Tradition: Prof. Ram Karan Sharma Felicitation Volume, vol. 2 (Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan, 2008), and “Śākya- muni’s Critical Spirituality and India’s Crisis,” in Shohei Ichimura, Buddhist Critical Spirituality: Prajñā and Śūnyatā (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2001).
23 The family name Kaṅhāyana is given in the Pāli text as “Dark.”
24 The name Okkāka (Pāli, “Whose Voice Emits Light) is rendered as “Shengmo” in the Chinese text and in Sanskrit as “Ikṣvāku.”

181

25 “Śākya” in Sanskrit also means “residents of the sāka tree forest.”
26 The ﬁve obstacles that prevent the arising of good mental elements are desire, anger, torpor and drowsiness, frivolity and mental disturbance, and doubt.
27 In the Buddha’s time it was a general custom that those who gave up their class status to seek different goals in life had a choice of one of four dietary methods or practices. When the Buddha himself renounced his Śākya clan membership, he is said to have traded his princely clothing for the clothes of a poor woodcutter outside the border of the Śākya teritory. It is likely that he himself followed strict dietary practices before his realization of enlightenment. In the narrative of the Buddha’s attainment of supreme enlightenment he is said to have bathed in the Nairañjana River. It happened that a village girl saw him bathing, his body emaciated from long fasting, at the river and offered rice gruel to him. Thus refreshed, he sat under the bodhi tree in the practice of austerity, seeking the ﬁnal moment of realization. The Buddha initiated almsrounds for his initial ﬁve disciples when he ﬁrst taught them at the Deer Park, near Benares, because it was possible for a few bhikṣus to collect enough alms to provide for a larger group, thus saving time for more individuals to engage in ascetic practice and study. The Buddha asks Ambaṭṭha if his teacher Puṣkarasārin, who, despite having been granted a ﬁef, had failed in his duty to counsel King Prasenajit, was engaged in the proper practice of austerity to meet the king’s expectation, and he also asks Ambaṭṭha if he himself was trying to do his best in the practice of austerity in order to be worthy of respect not simply on the basis of his birth as a brāhmaṇa. See Ichimura, “Revisiting
the Times of Śākyamuni Buddha.”
28 In the Pāli text the seventh name, Bhāradvāja-Vāseṭṭha, is divided into two, and Bhagu appears as the tenth name; the ninth to twelfth names, Alouna, Gautama, Shouyipo, and Suntuoluo, are not given in the Pāli text.

182

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Apidamo dapibosha lun (T. 1545), in two hundred fascicles. Translated by Xuanzang.
Chu sanzang ji ji (Collection of the Tripiṭaka Textual Records) (T. 405) by Sengyou (445–518). An expanded version of Dao’an’s Zhongjing mulu.
Datang Xi yu ji (T. 2087). Translated by Xuanzang. English translation in Li Rongxi, The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1996).
Dharmaguptaka-vinaya; Sifen lü (Vinaya in Four Divisions) (T. 1428), in sixty fascicles.
Translated by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian.
Dīrgha Āgama (Pāli: Dīgha Nikāya); Chang ahan jing (Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses) (T. 1), in twenty-two fascicles. Translated by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian. English translation in T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols. (London: Pali Text Society, 1899, 1910, 1921).
Dīpavaṃsa (Chronicle of the Island). English translation in B. C. Law, “Chronicle of the Island of Ceylon or the Dīpavaṃsa,” Ceylon Historical Journal 7 (1958): 1–266.
Dvādaśamukha-śāstra; Shiermun lun (T. 1568), in one fascicle. Translated by Kumārajīva in 409.
Fochui ban lüeshuo jiaojie jing (T. 389), in one fascicle. Translated by Kumārajīva in 402–412.
Gaoseng faxian zhuan (Biography of Faxian) (T. 2085), in one fascicle. English translatiion in Li Rongxi, The Journey of the Eminent Monk Faxian, in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2002), pp. 155–214.
Gezhong qinding zhongjing mulu (Buddhist Canonical Textual Catalogues) compiled by four northern dynasties: (1) Liang in 519, (2) Northern Wei in 532; (3) Northern
Qi in 570–578, and (4) Northern Chou in 563.
Jātakas (Birth Stories), e.g., Bhaddasālajātaka no. 465, IV, 144–153.
Kaiyuan shijiao mulu (Kaiyuan Record of Buddhist Textual Catalogues) (T. 2154). Com- piled in 731.
Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa-śāstra; Dazhidu lun (T. 1509), in one hundred fascicles, by Nāgārjuna (ca. 50–150). Translated by Kumārajīva.

183

Mahāvaṃsa (Great Chronicle). English translation in Wilhelm Geiger and Mabel Haynes Bode, The Mahāvaṃsa, Or, the Great Chronicle of Ceylon (London: Published for the Pali Text Society by Luzac & Co, 1964).
Mūlamadhyamakākarikā-śāstra; Zhong lun (T. 1564), in four fascicles. By Nāgārjuna with commentary by Piṅgala. Translated by Kumārajīva in 409.
Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra; Mohe banruo boluomi jing (Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-ﬁve Thousand Verses) (T. 221), in twenty-seven fascicles. Translated by Kumārajīva in 404. Generally known in China as the Dapin banruo jing (Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sutra) together with its voluminous com- mentary.
Renshou zhongjing mulu (Renshou Record of Textual Catalogues), revised upon the
Kaiyuan shijiao mulu in 602.
Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra; Miaofa lianhuajing (Sutra of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma) (T. 262), in seven fascicles. Translated by Kumārajīva in 408–409. Com- monly known as the Lotus Sutra; English translation in Tsugunari Kubo and Akira Yuyama, The Lotus Sutra (Berkeley: Numata Center For Buddhist Translation and Research, 2007, rev. second ed.)
Sui Kaihuang lidai sanbao ji (Sui Kaiyuan Record of the Threefold Buddhist Treasures of the Successive Dynasties) (T. 2034), 598.
Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra; Weimojie suoshuo jing (T. 475), in three fascicles. Translated by Kumārajīva. English translation in John R. McRae in The Sutra of Queen Srimala of the Lion’s Roar/The Vimalakirti Sutra (Berkeley: Numata Center For Buddhist Translation and Research, 2004), pp. 63–199.
Xiaopin banruo boluomi jing (Smaller Prajñāpāramitā-sutra) (T. 227), in ten fascicles.
Translated by Kumārajīva in 406.
Zhaolun (T. 1858), by Sengzhao (374–414), comprising four essays and two epistles.
Zhongjing mulu (Comprehensive Record of the Textual Catalogues) (T. 2145) by Dao’an (314–385), included in Sengyou’s Chu sanzang ji.
Secondary Sources
Akanuma, Chizen. Kanpashibushi agon goshōroku (Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Āgamas and Pāli Nikāyas). Nagoya: Hajinkaku shobō, 1929.
Edgerton, Franklin. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953.
Ichimura, Shohei. “Revisiting the Times of Śākyamuni Buddha,” in Radhavallabh Tripathi ed., Srutimahati Glory of Sanskrit Tradition: Prof. Ram Karan Sharma Felicitation Volume, vol. 2. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan, 2008.
—. “Śākyamuni’s Critical Spirituality and India’s Crisis” and “The Chinese Mādhyamika Sengzhao’s Paradoxical Method of Argument,” in Shohei Ichimura, Buddhist Critical Spirituality: Prajñā and Śūnyatā. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
Ishikawa, Kaijō. Agon-kyō seiritsu no kenkyū (A Study on How Sutras were Assembled into the Āgama Collections). Tokyo: Gendaisha, 1982.
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Lamotte, Étienne. History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era. Sara Webb-Boin, trans. Louvain-la-Neue: Institut Orientaliste, 1988.
Malalasekera, G. P. Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names, 2 vols. London and Boston: Pali Text Society, 1974.
Mettanando Bhikkhu. “After the Buddha.” Unpublished monograph.
Ono, Gemmyō, et al., eds. Bussho kaisetsu daijiten (Expositional Dictionary of Buddhist Texts in the Chinese Tripiṭaka Collection). Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1933.
Toynbee, Arnold, and Jane Caplan. A Study of History: The First Abridged One-Volume Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.
Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra. A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Schools. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1931.
Weber, Max. The Sociology of Religion. Ephraim Fischoff, trans. Boston: Beacon Press, 1863. See especially the Introduction by Talcott Parsons, pp. xlvi–lii.

185

Index

A
Abhidharma, xiv, xviii, 179n4 categorized in the Tripiṭaka, xiv, xx–
xxiii, 179n2
Mahayana and Hinayana, xx, xxii
See also commentaries/treatises, Abhidharmamahāvibhāśā-śāśtra; Tripiṭaka
Āgama(s), xiii, xv, xxiv four/fourfold, xiv, xv, xxiii, Hinayana, xxiv
See also Dīrgha Āgama; Ekkotarīka Āgama; Madhyama Āgama; Saṃ- yukta Āgama
alms/almsfood, 45, 159, 170, 175, 177, 182n27
almsbowl/almsround(s), 7, 59, 62, 64,
67, 69, 79, 93, 94, 104, 159, 175,
182n27
Alouna, 170, 182n28
Ambaṭṭha, xvii, 141, 143–145, 147–150,
176, 178, 180–181n22, 182n27
See also Mānava
anāgāmin, 6, 12, 14, 108, 114
See also nonreturner
Ānanda, 23–38, 93– 94, 114–115
Anāthapiṇḍika, monastery built by, 3, 17
See also forest/grove, Jetavana Forest Aṅgirasa, 170
Aṅguttara Nikāya, xv
See also Ekottarika Āgama; Nikāyas, ﬁvefold

animal(s), 40, 63, 72–73, 154, 155, 176
bird(s), xvii, 40, 129, 144, 152, 156, 164
bulls/cow, 64, 65, 152, 154, 159
camels, 154
dog, 152, 154
elephant(s), 40, 41, 45, 134, 139, 143,
152, 154, 164, 176
ﬁeld mice, 73
goats, 154
hen/roosters, 152, 154
horse(s), 143, 152, 153, 154, 157, 173,
174, 176
jackal, 63, 72–73
lion, 72
pig(s), 152, 154
sheep, 152
anuttara samyaksaṃbodhi. See enlight- enment, supreme
arhat(s), 7, 15, 40, 41, 63, 64, 65, 127,
128, 133, 179n4
arhatship, 6, 65
ārūpyadhātu. See realm, formless ascetic(s)/asceticism, xvii, 63–72,
180–181n22
practice, 64, 65, 155, 182n27 seven kinds of, 63
See also austerity; mendicant Aśoka, xiv
asura(s), xvii, 43, 44, 47, 55, 137, 140,
Aṭṭhaka, 170, 171
austerity, 3, 7, 10, 11, 14, 17, 41, 42, 44,
45, 50, 53, 56, 59, 60–61, 62, 96–101,

187

austerity (continued):
105, 106, 107, 109, 121, 126, 142,
151, 157, 167, 182n27
See also ascetic, practice
B
Bhagu, 182n28
Bhāradvāja-Vāseṭṭha, 170, 182n28
bhikṣu(s), xix, 3, 5, 7–15, 17, 19, 22, 23,
32–33, 35–38, 44, 46, 51–54, 59,
62, 64, 66–67, 98–106, 108–109,
113–114, 129, 132, 133–136, 137,
139, 141, 150, 152–168, 175, 177
See also disciple(s); monk(s); śra- maṇa(s); śrāvaka
bhikṣuṇī(s), 98, 99, 132
birth(s), 224, 25, 32, 107, 113, 121, 126,
146, 166, 182n27
See also rebirth(s)
birth and death, cause of, 121, 126, 167
bodhisattva, xxiii, 103
Brahmā, xvii, 23, 73–75, 139, 149, 150
birth, in Ābhāsvara Heaven, 9, 12, 37 in the guise of a youth, 57
brāhmaṇa(s), xvii, 23, 36, 37, 50, 51,
53–54, 59, 62, 63–67, 69–70, 73,
75–78, 87, 89, 90, 112, 113, 117–132,
138, 141–144, 146, 147, 148–149,
150, 152–156, 170–177, 179n5,
180–181n22, 182n27
ascetic(s), xvii, 67, 69, 70, 71
class/lineage, 146, 148, 149
heretic(s), 104, 106, 107, 109, 110
scriptures, 141, 142
See also caste(s)/class(es), four Brhamanical, 180–181n22 buddha(s), 118, 131, 176
future, 118, 131, 134
marks, 142
past, 117, 118, 131, 134

Buddha, xix, 6, 8, 75–76, 77, 107, 110,
112, 139–140, 141, 180n21,
180–181n22, 182n27
and Ambaṭṭha/Mānava, 143–173, 180–181n22, 182n27
and Ānanda, 23–38, 114–115
and Bhārgava, 59–78
and bhikṣus, 3–15, 17–22, 100–114,
134–138, 139–140
and brāhmaṇa(s), 63–78
and Cunda, 94–100 demise/nirvana, xiii, 179n4 disciples/followers, 44, 54, 169
discourses/teaching(s) of, xiv, xvi, 45, 46, 48, 50, 179n2
and the Evil One/Māra, 139 and Indra/Śakra, 39, 43–57
and Kalyāṇa-jātika, 79–92
marks of, 172–173, 174
and Pañcaśika, 42–43, 57
and Pāṭikāputra, 67, 69–72, 73
and Puṣkarasārin, 174–177
and Śāriputra, 117–131, 132
and Sunakṣatra, 59–66, 67
and the gods, 133–134, 136–138, 140
and Udāyin, 131–132
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; Gautama; Śākyamuni; Tathāgata; World-honored One
Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, 19, 61,
91, 132, 175, 176
See also Three Treasures Buddhayaśas, xvii–xviii, xix, xxi Buddhist(s), xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, xviii, xx,
xxi, xxiv, 109, 128, 180–181n22
canon/canonical tradition, xiv, xx Chinese, xviii, xix
communities, xiii, xx, xxiv Japanese, xx, xxiv
literature/scriptures/texts, xiv, xvi, xx, xxi, xxii, xxv

studies, xviii, xxiv Tripiṭaka, xxi, xxii, xxiv
Buddhist councils, four, xiii–xiv First Council, xiii
Second Council, xiii
Third Council, xiii, xiv, xv Fourth Council, xiv
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, xv
C
cakravartin. See universal ruler caste(s)/class(es), 150, 180–181n22,
182n27
four, 144, 145, 180–181n22
See also brāhmaṇa(s); kṣatriya(s); śūdra(s); vaiśya(s)
catalogues/collections, xiii, xv, xvi, xx, xxi–xxii, xxiv, 180n13
Chu sanzang ji ji (Collection of the Tripiṭaka Textual Records), xx
Gezhong qinding zhongjing mulu (Buddhist Canonical Textual Cata- logues/Complete Buddhist Tripiṭaka Library), xxi
Kaiyuan shijiao lu (Kaiyuan Record of Buddhist Textual Catalogues), xxi
Renshou zhongjing mulu (Renshou Record of Textual Catalogues), xxi
Sui Kaihuang lidai sanbao ji (Sui Kai- huang Record of the Threefold Buddhist Treasures of the Successive Dynasties), xxi
Taishō shinshū daizōkyō (Taishō New Tripiṭaka Edition), xx
Zhongjing mulu (Comprehensive Re- cord of the Textual Catalogues), xx
See also scriptures/sutras/texts causal, 9, 11
aggregates, 25, 167 concatenation/linkages/relation/series,
9, 30, 32, 35, 75–77

condition(s), 24, 127
contexts, 166, 167
dependence, 25–32
factors, eight kinds of, 10–11 origin, 36, 37
See also causality; dependent origination causality, 23–35, 39, 57, 113, 118
greater, xvi, 23–38 lesser, xvi original, xxiii twelve-limbed, 23
See also causal; dependent origination
Chang ahan jing (Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses), xiii, xxi, xxiii–xxv
categorized in the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, xx–xxi
and the Dharmaguptaka school, xix “Sutra on Buddhist Cosmology,” xv,
xvii, xix, 179n8
sutras of, correlated to the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya suttantas, xv–xvii
See also Dīgha Nikāya; Dīrgha Āgama
China, xiv, xviii, xx, xxiv, 180n13 dynasty/period:
Han/Late Han, xiv, xviii Jing, xxii
Ming, xxii
Northern Song/Song, xxii Sixteen States, xviii
Sui, xxi
Tang, xviii, xxii Yuan, xxii
Chinese, xix, xx, xxii Buddhists, xviii, xix language, xxiv, xxv, xviii
texts/translations, xv, xx, xxv, 46, 179n4, 180nn17, 20, 181n24
city(ies)/town(s)/village(s), 59, 64, 67, 69,
79, 143, 160, 164, 165, 167, 169,
174, 182

city(ies)/town(s)/village(s) (continued): Āmra, 39
Anupiya, xvii, 59, 78
Chang’an, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, xxiv, 180nn10, 12
Icchānaṅkala, 141 Liangzhou, xviii xx, 180n10 Louyang, xviii
Lushan, xix Nālandā, 117
Pāṭaliputra (Patna), xiv Pāvā, 93, 94
Puṣkarasvādi, 141
Rājagṛha (Rājgīr), xiii, 79, 136 Śuklabhūmi (Uttarakā), 64, 180n19 Vaiśālī (Vesālī), xiii, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67,
68–69
commemorative tower(s), xix, 91, 94, 95,
96
commentaries/treatises, xviii, xxiii, xxxii, 180n13
Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāśtra/Mahā- vibhāṣā-śāstra, xiv, 179n4
Apidamo da pibosha lun, 179n4
Satyasiddhi-śāstra (Cheng shi lun; Treatise on the Establishment of Truth), xix
Zhao lun, xxi
See also scriptures/sutras/texts Confucian, xviii, xx
contemplation, xix, xxiv, 3, 14, 22, 55,
129, 130, 158
contemplative recollection, xxiv
See also incantation, esoteric/magical country(ies)/region(s), xviii, 5, 90, 93,
94, 156, 165–166, 180n15
Aśvaka, 136
Central Asia(n), xvii, xviii, xix India, vii, xix, 180–181nn22
Gangetic basin, 180n15

Himalayan region, 180–181n22 Northern/north-central, xv, 180n15
Kapilavastu, 93, 133, 136, 139, 140 Kāśmīra, xiv, xviii, xviii, xix, 179n5 Kauśala, 141
Khotan, xviii, xix
Kuccha (Eastern Turkestan), xviii, 180n10
Kuru, 23 Kuṣāṇa, xiv
Magadha, 39, 46, 57
Malla/Mallan, 59, 64 Mauryan, xiv Southeast Asia, xiv
Burma, xiv Indochina, xiv Thailand, xiv
Śrāvastī, 43, 171 Sri Lanka, xiv Vidarbha, 179n5 Vṛji, 61
D
Dao’an, xx–xxi Daoist, xviii, xx, xxi
deﬁlement(s), 8, 12, 21, 36, 37, 38, 39,
46, 55, 57, 81, 107, 108, 109, 114,
120, 134, 140, 157, 176
action, four kinds of, 80
ﬁve kinds of, 108, 126, 177, 180n21
inﬂuence of, 3, 4, 5, 9–10, 32, 33, 35,
36, 75, 76, 77, 78, 121, 125, 129,
167, 168, 176
seven kinds of, 9
dependent origination, 34, 35, 113
See also causal; causality desire(s), 4, 5, 8, 9–10, 12, 13, 21,
26–29, 32, 35, 41, 42, 45, 46, 48,
49–50, 53, 54, 109, 120, 129, 131,
132, 134, 140, 151, 159, 160, 165,
176, 180–181n22, 182n26

carnal/sexual, 6, 9, 108, 126, 130, 151,
167, 180n21
cause of, 27–28
ﬁve kinds of, 105–106
realm of, 25, 108, 126, 177, 180n21
worldly, 5, 114, 158
desire, anger, and delusion, 80, 81, 126
devas, 140
See also god(s)
dhāraṇī. See contemplative recollection; incantation, esoteric/magical
Dharma, xvi, 4, 8, 14, 56, 57, 73, 88, 118,
119, 131, 133, 139, 140, 150, 176
great/highest/supreme, 3, 17
right, 91, 139, 150, 175, 177
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha Dharmaguptaka school, xiii, xiv, xv, xix
See also Vinaya texts, Dharmaguptaka- vinaya
Dīgha Nikāya (Lengthy Discourses), xix, xxv, 23, 39, 59, 79, 93, 117, 133, 141
and the Dīrgha Āgama, xiv–xvii
suttantas of, correlated with Dīrgha Āgama sutras, xv–xvi
and the “Sutra of Buddhist Cosmology” in the Chang ahan jing, xvi, xix, 179n8
See also Chang ahan jing; Dīrgha Āgama; Nikāyas, ﬁvefold
Dīrgha Āgama (Lengthy Discourses), xiii, xviii, 180–181n22
and the Dīgha Nikāya, xiv–xvii
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold;
Chang ahan jing; Dīgha Nikāya
disciple(s), xiii, xix, xxi, 15, 22, 44, 46,
54, 60, 62, 64, 77–78, 79, 88, 93,
95–100, 117, 126, 133, 139, 140,
141, 142, 152, 153–157, 173, 174,
175, 176, 182n27
female, 98, 99, 100

lay, 99, 100
saintly, 6, 14, 128, 129, 166
See also bhikṣu(s); bhikṣuṇī(s); monk(s)
E
eightfold noble path, 10, 11, 20, 101, 119
Ekkotarika Āgama (Gradually Increased Discourses), xv
emptiness, xxi, 74
of the self, 4, 18
enlightenment, 100, 109, 110, 141, 158,
159, 182n27
seven auxiliary disciplines/practices of, 8, 10, 19, 101, 108, 119, 120,
supreme, 40, 110, 182n27
eon(s), xiii, 123–124, 127, 128, 165, 166
evil(s), 11, 23, 27, 84, 130, 152, 155, 160
action(s)/conduct, 80–81, 84, 128 four bases of, 80–81
course of existence/life course, 17–21, 126, 128, 134
destinies, three, 166
inﬂuence(s), 32, 33, 35–36, 121, 125,
129, 134, 157
psychophysical elements, 10, 82 Evil One. See Māra
evil ones (deva-māras), 139, 140, 142,
150, 142
See also Māra
expediency/expedient means, 147, 152,
153, 154, 168–169
F
Faxian, xix, 180n12 ﬁve aggregates, 5, 11
See also psychophysical elements ﬁve spiritual faculties, 6, 10
ﬂower(s), 41, 91, 139, 153, 171
See also lotuses

forest/grove, 59, 70–73, 79, 93, 133, 135,
136, 137, 139, 140, 143, 144, 145,
152, 154, 159, 174, 182n25
Icchānaṅkala Grove, 141, 143, 174, 177
Jetavana Forest, 3, 17 Pāvārika’s Mango Forest, 117
four applications of mental awareness, 18 four guardians/guardian gods, xvii, 136,
150
Dhṛtarāṣṭra, 136
Vaiśravaṇa, 136
Virūḍhaka, 43, 136
Virūpākṣa, 136
Four Noble Truths, 4, 176
four quarters of the earth, 131, 132, 143 four shrines: Bahuputraka, Gautamaka,
Saptāmra, Udena, 63 Fujian, xviii, xx, xxi
G
gandharva(s), 39, 42, 44, 46, 47, 57, 137,
140
Gautama, 59, 65–71, 74, 76, 77– 78, 106,
109, 130, 141–143, 145, 147, 150,
170, 172, 173–174, 182n28
See also Buddha; Śākyamuni
god(s), 23, 39–40, 42–44, 47–57, 68–69,
125, 126, 128, 133, 134, 135, 138,
139–140, 142, 149, 150, 164, 166,
177
Brahmā, 138
of the earth, 135
gandharva, 39, 42, 46
heavenly/of the heavens, 46, 134, 137,
140, 150
of Mt. Śairagiri, 135
of the Snow Mountains (Himalayas), 135
of the Śuddhāvāsa heavens, 133–134 Trāyastriṃśa, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 54,
56, 57

See also four guardians/guardian gods; heavenly, beings/spirits/gods
Gopaka/Gopikā, 44, 46
Great Yüeji. See Kaniṣka, King
H
happiness, xvii, 11, 12, 20, 21, 53, 55,
56, 78, 86, 105, 106–108, 110, 112,
117, 127, 132, 165
heaven(s), xii, 43, 56, 80, 81, 82, 86, 140
Ābhāsvara, 9, 12, 13, 37, 46, 74, 75
Akaniṣṭha, 56, 108
Āsaṃjñika, 13
Brahmā, 74, 129, 135, 164, 171, 172
Subhakṛtsna, 9, 13, 37
Śuddhāvāsa, 133–134
Trāyastriṃśa, xvii, 39, 41, 61, 43, 44,
45, 46, 54, 57, 69
heavenly, 143
beings/spirits/gods, 8, 9, 12, 36, 46,
57, 121, 133, 134, 137, 150
body, 56, 134
maiden/nymph, 42, 43–44
See also god(s)
hell(s), xvii, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173
heretic(s), 104, 106, 109, 110, 130
See also Hindu; non-Buddhist heretical practices/belief, 105, 106, 107,
126, 180n21
Hinayana, xiv, xv, xx, xxi, xxii, xxiv
See also Theravāda Hindu, xiv, xvi
literature:
Purāṇas and Śāstras, 179n5 Three Vedas, xvii
See also heretic(s); heretical practices/ belief; non-Buddhist
householder(s), 43, 104, 142, 143, 144,
150, 154, 171
See also lay Huibian, xix

Huiyüen, xix
I
ignorance, 4, 9, 24, 91, 119, 121, 124,
125, 134, 166, 167
cause of, 166, 167, 168
impermanence/impermanent, 34, 75, 76,
109
incantation, 128, 155, 156
esoteric/magical, 136–138, 155
See also contemplative recollection Indra, xvi, 39, 42–47, 54, 57, 136, 139
See also Śakra Īśvara, 73–74
J
Jain. See Nirgrantha Jātūkarṇya Vyāsa, 179n5 Jñātiputra, 93
K
kalpa. See eon
Kalyāṇa-jātika, xvii, 79–82, 84–89, 91–92, 180n20
kāmadhātu. See realm, of desire Kaniṣka, King, xiv, 179n4 Kāśyapa, 170
Kaura, 64–66
Khuddaka Nikāya (Short Discourses), xv
See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold
kṣatriya(s), 64–66, 144, 148–149
See also caste(s)/class(es), four Kumārajīva, xviii, xix, xx–xxi, 180n10 Kumbhīra, 136
L
lay, 43, 44
devotee(s)/disciple(s)/followers, 70,
71, 89, 91, 93, 94, 99, 100, 175,
176–177
See also householder(s)

layman/laymen, 93, 132
laywomen, 132
Licchavi clanspeople, 50, 70–73
lion’s roar, 72, 73, 117, 118 Lotus Association, xix lotuses, 161–162
See also ﬂower(s) lotus posture, 129, 158
Lüguang, General, xviii, 180n10
M
Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Dis- courses), xv
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold;
Majjhima Nikāya Madhyamaka, xxiii Mahayana, xvi, xxiii
sutras/texts, xx–xxiv Tripiṭaka, xv, xix, xx–xxi, xxiv
Majjhima Nikāya (Middle-length Dis- courses), xv
See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold; Madhyama Āgama
Mānava, 143–150, 152–173
See also Ambaṭṭha Māra, 139, 142
See also evil ones (deva-māras) meditation, 14, 15, 23, 117, 127, 161
four kinds of, 40
meditative absorption, four kinds/states, 13, 101, 107, 119, 130, 161–162
mendicant, 6, 83, 150
See also ascetic(s); śramaṇa(s) mindful/mindfulness, 3, 5, 6, 8, 14, 19–20,
46, 107, 114, 158–159
four kinds of, 120 right, 11, 15, 20, 21
six kinds of, 8 six objects of, 19 wrong, 11, 15, 20

monk(s), xiii, xiv, xix, 7, 10
See also bhikṣu(s); disciple(s); śra- maṇa(s); śravaka
mountains/peaks:
Himalayas/Snow Mountains, 134, 145,
146, 180–181n22
Mount Vediya/Vediyaka, 39
Vepulla, 136
Vulture Peak, 79
N
Nikāyas, ﬁvefold, xiv–xv
See also Aṅguttara Nikāya; Dīgha Nikāya; Khuddaka Nikāya; Majjhima Nikāya; Saṃyutta Nikāya
Nirgrantha, 62–65, 93, 94
nirvana, 17, 40, 42, 96, 108, 126, 179n4
doctrinal items leading to, 18–22 ﬁnal, 53, 177
ﬁve kinds of, 108 goal of, 41, 179n4 path toward, 6, 17 See also parinirvāṇa
non-Buddhist, xvi, 180n13 nonreturner, 6, 108, 126, 127,
See also anāgāmin
Numata, Dr. Yehan, xxiv
O
obsessive conception(s)/conceptualization, 49–51, 159
Okkāka, King, 145–146, 148, 180–181n22, 181n24
four sons of (Okkāmukha, Hatthinīya,
Karaṇḍu, and Sīnipura), 145–146 once-returner, 6, 54, 126, 127
P
Pāli, xiv, xv, xvi, xix, xxiv, xxv, 141, 180nn17, 18; 181nn23, 24; 182n28
Pali Text Society, xxv

Pañcasikha, 39–43, 57
parinirvāṇa, 110
See also nirvana, ﬁnal
path(s), 17, 22, 40, 42, 46, 50, 54, 56, 64,
67, 68, 69, 75, 86, 95, 96–97, 109,
167, 176
authentic/right/true/ultimate, 12, 56,
95, 108, 155, 156
to enlightenment/nirvana, 6, 17, 40, 96
of practice/practice of, 61–62, 64, 132,
150
of religion/religious, 74, 75, 76, 120,
142, 143, 155, 156
ten direct, 21
of transcendence, 67–69
wrong, 12, 155, 156 ten kinds of, 15
See also eightfold noble path Pāṭikāputra, 67–73
Pāyāsi, xvi
pond(s), 41, 154, 161
eight qualities of, 61 Markaṭa Pond, 60, 62, 67
practice(s), xvi, xvii, xxiii, xxv, 5, 6, 7,
11, 17, 22, 40, 45, 46, 55, 56, 57, 61,
64, 77, 78, 80, 91, 93, 94, 95–96, 97,
114, 119, 120, 129, 132, 141, 150,
152–156, 157, 162, 166–170, 177
ascetic/of austerity, 3, 7, 10, 11, 17,
41, 42, 53, 62–65, 96–101, 105,
106, 107, 109, 121, 126, 142, 150,
155, 157, 167, 182n27
attachment to, 126, 180n21
of calming the mind and of analytical introspection/insight, 4, 18
of concentration/threefold concentra- tion, 4, 9, 18, 20, 121
of contemplation/introspection/mind- fulness, 10, 22, 46, 130
four alternative/dietary/expedient, 168–170, 180–181n22, 182n27

harmonious/six principles of harmony in, 7, 149
heretical, 106, 107
moral, xviii, 108
right/of the right doctrine/ten right,15, 95, 106
three forms/ways of, 114
See also enlightenment, seven auxiliary practices of
Prasenajit, King, 141, 171, 182n27
pratītyasamutpāda. See causality, twelve- limbed; dependent origination
precept(s), 5, 7, 8, 12, 18, 19, 62, 69, 87,
150–151, 156, 177
ﬁve, 19, 175
psychophysical elements, xix, 5, 6, 9, 10,
14, 18, 20, 53, 75, 76, 77, 82, 114,
120, 158, 159
See also ﬁve aggregates Pure Land, xix
Q
quiescence, 8, 9, 20, 100, 157, 161, 162,
163, 164, 166, 167, 168
R
rākṣasa, 137
realm(s), 4, 38, 59, 114
of desire, 25, 108, 126, 177, 180n21
of form, 25, 56, 108, 176
formless, 25, 108
of inﬁnite consciousness, 38, 114
of inﬁnite space, 38, 114
of neither ideation nor nonideation, 38, 114
of nothingness or nonutility, 38, 114
supramundane, 107, 121, 125
rebirth(s), 54, 120, 167, 168
among the gods/in heaven(s), 56, 86,
176
in the Pure Land, xix

river(s), 91, 134, 182n27
Nairañjanā, 42, 182n27 Yangzi, xviii
robe(s), 45, 71, 93, 94, 104, 159
outer, 115, 131, 159, 175
saṃghāṭī, 59, 62, 64, 67, 69, 79
three, ix, 74, 75, 76, 77, 150
rūpadhātu. See realm, of form
S
Śakra, 39, 41–42, 46–57
See also Indra
sakṛdāgāmin. See once-returner Śākya(s), 40, 44, 46, 54, 62, 64, 104,
106, 109, 133, 141, 144–145, 146,
147, 171, 180–181n22, 182nn25, 27
sage, 168, 169, 170
See also Śākyamuni
Śākyamuni, xiii, xvi, xix, xxiii–xxiv, xxv, 40, 46, 180n15, 180–181n22
See also Bodhisattva; Buddha; Gau- tama
Saṃyukta Āgama (Mixed Discourses), xv
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold; Saṃ- yutta Nikāya
Saṃyutta Nikāya (Mixed Discourses), xv
See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold; Saṃyukta Āgama
Sandhāna, xvi
sangha, xx, 7, 8, 175, 177, 180–181n22
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha Śāriputra, 117–132
śāstra. See commentaries/treatises Sengyou, xx, xxi
Sengzhao, xxi, xxiv, xxv
sensation(s), 6, 14, 18, 24, 26, 27, 30, 32,
33–35, 106, 113, 119, 158, 180n16
ﬁve kinds of, 125
three kinds of, 4, 33–34
See also sense(s)

sense(s), 12, 14, 38, 113, 114, 134, 162,
163
contact, 24, 30–31, 32, 33–34, 113,
115
six kinds of, 157ﬁve, 54 faculties, 3, 8, 33, 34, 52, 113, 157
ﬁve, 15
six, 113, 157
inner and outer, 5, 17, 18, 114, 158
object, 34, 113
operation, six/sixfold, 24, 32, 113
organs, 31
perception(s), 5, 158
See also sensation(s) scripture(s)/sutra(s), xiii– xvii, xix, xxii–
xxv, 6, 22, 115
brāhmaṇa, 141, 142
doctrinal, xxi, 22 esoteric, xxiii Hinayana, xxii, xxiii Mahayana, xxii, xxiii
Prajñāpāramitā/Wisdom, xx, xxi, xxiii, xxiv
twelve categories of/twelvefold, 103– 104, 179n2
See also catalogues/collections; com- mentaries/treatises; Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma; Vinaya texts
scriptures/sutras/texts:
Jātakas, 103, 180–181n22
Bhaddasālajātaka, 180–181n22
Daśabhūmika-sūtra (Sutra on the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva Career), xviii
Datang Xi yu ji (Record of the Western Regions), 179n4
Dīpavaṃsa, 179n3 Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, 180n12 Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra, xxiv
Mahāsaṃnipāta-sūtra (Great Collec- tion Sutra), xxiii

Mahāvaṃsa, 179n3
Xukongyun pusa jing (Ākāśagarbha- sūtra; Sutra on Ākāśagarbha Bodhi- sattva), xx
Shouyipo, 170, 182n28
Sikhaddi, 42
skandhas. See ﬁve aggregates; psycho- physical elements
śramaṇa(s), xvii, xviii, xix, 23, 36, 37,
41, 42, 50, 51, 53–54, 67–68, 69–70,
71, 73, 75–78, 87–90, 104, 106, 106,
112, 113, 117–129, 130–132, 142,
144, 150, 152–156
See also ascetic(s); mendicant; monk(s)
śrāvaka, 128
See also bhikśu(s); disciple(s); monk(s) srotaāpanna. See stream-winner Sthāvira/Sthāvira-Sarvāstivāda school,
xiii, xiv, xv
stream-winner, 6, 54, 126, 127 stupa. See commemorative tower(s)
Sudharma Hall, 42, 44, 46, 54, 60, 62, 67
See also heaven(s), Trāyastriṃśa
śūdra(s), 144, 145, 147, 148
See also caste(s)/class(es), four Suntuoluo, 170, 182n28
śūnyatā. See emptiness supernormal knowledge, 5, 127
supernormal power(s), 60, 64, 66–71,
98–101, 109, 110, 117–129, 131,
132, 135–136, 139, 140, 162,
164–168, 173, 174
ﬁve kinds of, 138 four kinds of, 119 six kinds of, 8
Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma, xx, 179n2
See also Tripiṭaka
T
tathāgata, 15, 22, 150

Tathāgata, 6, 33, 34, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45,
52–54, 57, 60–61, 68, 72, 73,
75–77, 91, 100, 106, 109–111,
117–128, 131, 133, 134, 141, 143,
149, 150, 172–176
See also Buddha; World-honored One Theravāda, xiv, xv
See also Hinayana
Three Treasures. See Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha
Tibetan language, xxiv, 179n4 Tipiṭaka. See Tripiṭaka
transcendent insight/knowledge/faculties, 14, 32, 33, 35, 36, 56, 108, 109,
117, 118, 121, 125, 159, 168
treasure(s), 8, 43, 153
seven, 143
tree(s), 15, 22, 104, 159, 168
bodhi, 182n27
nyagrodha, 42
śaka/sākasaṇda, 145, 182n25
tinduka, 70
Tripiṭaka, xiii, xiv, xv, xix, xxxxiv, 179nn2, 3
U
universal ruler, xvi, xvii, 142–143 upāsaka. See layman/laymen upāsikā. See laywomen
V
Vaibhāṣika. See Buddhayaśas
vaiśya(s), 144
See also caste(s)/class(es), four

Vāmaka, 170
Vāmadeva, 170
Vessāmitta, 170
Vinaya, xiii, xxi, 52, 103, 151, 157 Vinaya texts, xvii–xix, xxii, xxiii, xxiv,
180n13
Daśabhāṇavāra-vinaya, xviii
Dharmaguptaka-vinaya (Sifen lü/ Vinaya in Four Divisions), xviii–xix
Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya, 180n12
See also Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhid- harma
W
World-honored One, 3, 10, 17, 23, 39–44,
46–47, 50, 52–55, 57, 59–62, 64–66,
68, 71–73, 78, 79–81, 85, 86, 89, 91,
93–94, 100–101, 114–115, 117,
119–129, 131–132, 133, 136–139,
143–145, 147, 148, 150, 172–177
See also Buddha; Tathāgata
X
Xuanzang, xiv, xxiv, 179n4
Y
yakṣa(s), 135, 136, 140, 147
Yamataggi, 170
Yaoxing, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, 180n10 Yogācāra, xxii
Z
Zhi Faling, xix Zhu Fonian, xviii

BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series)

Abbreviations
Ch.: Chinese Skt.: Sanskrit Jp.: Japanese
Eng.: Published title

Title Taishō No.
Ch. Skt. Eng. Chang ahan jing (長阿含經) Dīrghāgama
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses
(Volume I, 2015)
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses
(Volume II, 2016) 1
Ch. Skt. Eng. Zhong ahan jing (中阿含經) Madhyamāgama
The Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Discourses),
(Volume I, 2013) 26
Ch. Dasheng bensheng xindi guan jing (大乘本生心地觀經) 159
Ch. Skt. Eng. Fo suoxing zan (佛所行讃) Buddhacarita
Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha’s Acts (2009) 192
Ch. Eng. Zabao zang jing (雜寶藏經)
The Storehouse of Sundry Valuables (1994) 203
Ch. Eng. Faju piyu jing (法句譬喩經)
The Scriptural Text: Verses of the Doctrine, with Parables (1999) 211
Ch. Skt. Xiaopin banruo boluomi jing (小品般若波羅蜜經) Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra 227

199

(勝鬘師子吼一乘大方便方廣經)

(藥師琉璃光如來本願功徳經)

(大方廣圓覺修多羅了義經)
Eng. The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment
(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)
Ch. Da Biluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing 848
(大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經)
Skt. Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi-vikurvitādhiṣṭhāna-vaipulyasūtrendra- rājanāma-dharmaparyāya
Eng. The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra (2005)
Ch. Jinggangding yiqie rulai zhenshi she dasheng xianzheng dajiao
wang jing (金剛頂一切如來眞實攝大乘現證大教王經) 865
Skt. Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṃgraha-mahāyānā-bhisamaya-mahākalparāja Eng. The Adamantine Pinnacle Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)
Ch. Suxidi jieluo jing (蘇悉地羯囉經) 893
Skt. Susiddhikara-mahātantra-sādhanopāyika-paṭala
Eng. The Susiddhikara Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)
Ch. Modengqie jing (摩登伽經) 1300
Skt. *Mātaṅgī-sutra
Eng. The Mātaṅga Sutra (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)

Ch. Skt. Mohe sengqi lü (摩訶僧祇律)
*Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya 1425
Ch. Skt. Sifen lü (四分律)
*Dharmaguptaka-vinaya 1428
Ch. Pāli Shanjianlü piposha (善見律毘婆沙) Samantapāsādikā 1462
Ch. Skt. Fanwang jing (梵網經)
*Brahmajāla-sutra 1484
Ch. Skt. Eng. Youposaijie jing (優婆塞戒經) Upāsakaśīla-sutra
The Sutra on Upāsaka Precepts (1994) 1488
Ch. Skt. Eng. Miaofa lianhua jing youbotishe (妙法蓮華經憂波提舍) Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-upadeśa
The Commentary on the Lotus Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013) 1519
Ch. Skt. Shizha biposha lun (十住毘婆沙論)
*Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā 1521
Ch. Skt. Eng. Fodijing lun (佛地經論)
*Buddhabhūmisutra-śāstra
The Interpretation of the Buddha Land (2002) 1530
Ch. Skt. Apidamojushe lun (阿毘達磨倶舍論) Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya 1558
Ch. Skt. Zhonglun (中論) Madhyamaka-śāstra 1564
Ch. Skt. Yüqie shidilun (瑜伽師地論) Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra 1579
Ch. Eng. Cheng weishi lun (成唯識論)
Demonstration of Consciousness Only
(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999) 1585
Ch. Skt. Eng. Weishi sanshilun song (唯識三十論頌) Triṃśikā
The Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only
(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999) 1586

(金剛頂瑜伽中發阿耨多羅三藐三菩提心論)

(黄檗山斷際禪師傳心法要)
Eng. Essentials of the Transmission of Mind (in Zen Texts, 2005)

Ch. Yongjia Zhengdao ge (永嘉證道歌) 2014
Ch. Chixiu Baizhang qinggui (勅修百丈清規) 2025
Eng. The Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations (2007)
Ch. Yibuzonglun lun (異部宗輪論) 2031
Skt. Samayabhedoparacanacakra
Eng. The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines (2004)
Ch. Ayuwang jing (阿育王經) 2043
Skt. Aśokāvadāna
Eng. The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka (1993)
Ch. Maming pusa zhuan (馬鳴菩薩傳) 2046
Eng. The Life of Aśvaghoṣa Bodhisattva
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Longshu pusa zhuan (龍樹菩薩傳) 2047
Eng. The Life of Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Posoupandou fashi zhuan (婆藪槃豆法師傳) 2049
Eng. Biography of Dharma Master Vasubandhu
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Datang Daciensi Zanzang fashi zhuan (大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳) 2053
Eng. A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (1995)
Ch. Gaoseng zhuan (高僧傳) 2059
Ch. Biqiuni zhuan (比丘尼傳) 2063
Eng. Biographies of Buddhist Nuns
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (高僧法顯傳) 2085
Eng. The Journey of the Eminent Monk Faxian
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)
Ch. Datang xiyu ji (大唐西域記) 2087
Eng. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (1996)
Ch. Youfangjichao: Tangdaheshangdongzheng zhuan 2089-(7) (遊方記抄: 唐大和上東征傳)

Jp. Eng. Shōji jissōgi (聲字實相義)
The Meanings of Sound, Sign, and Reality (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2429
Jp. Eng. Unjigi (吽字義)
The Meanings of the Word Hūṃ (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2430
Jp. Eng. Gorin kuji myōhimitsu shaku (五輪九字明秘密釋)
The Illuminating Secret Commentary on the Five Cakras and the Nine Syllables (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2514
Jp. Eng. Mitsugonin hotsuro sange mon (密嚴院發露懺悔文)
The Mitsugonin Confession (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2527
Jp. Eng. Kōzen gokoku ron (興禪護國論)
A Treatise on Letting Zen Flourish to Protect the State
(in Zen Texts, 2005) 2543
Jp. Eng. Fukan zazengi (普勧坐禪儀)
A Universal Recommendation for True Zazen
(in Zen Texts, 2005) 2580
Jp. Eng. Shōbōgenzō (正法眼藏)
Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume I, 2007) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume II, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume III, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume IV, 2008) 2582
Jp. Eng. Zazen yōjin ki (坐禪用心記)
Advice on the Practice of Zazen (in Zen Texts, 2005) 2586
Jp. Eng. Senchaku hongan nenbutsu shū (選擇本願念佛集) Senchaku Hongan Nembutsu Shū: A Collection of Passages on the Nembutsu Chosen in the Original Vow (1997) 2608
Jp. Eng. Kenjōdo shinjitsu kyōgyō shōmon rui (顯淨土眞實教行証文類) Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Enlightenment (2003) 2646
Jp. Eng. Tannishō (歎異抄)
Tannishō: Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith (1996) 2661
Jp. Eng. Rennyo shōnin ofumi (蓮如上人御文)
Rennyo Shōnin Ofumi: The Letters of Rennyo (1996) 2668
Jp. Ōjōyōshū (往生要集) 2682

Jp. Risshō ankoku ron (立正安國論) 2688
Eng. Risshōankokuron or The Treatise on the Establishment of the Orthodox Teaching and the Peace of the Nation (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)
Jp. Kaimokushō (開目抄) 2689
Eng. Kaimokushō or Liberation from Blindness (2000)
Jp. Kanjin honzon shō (觀心本尊抄) 2692
Eng. Kanjinhonzonshō or The Most Venerable One Revealed by Introspecting Our Minds for the First Time at the Beginning of the Fifth of the Five Five Hundred-year Ages (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)
Ch. Fumu enzhong jing (父母恩重經) 2887
Eng. The Sutra on the Profundity of Filial Love
(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)
Jp. Hasshūkōyō (八宗綱要) extracanonical Eng. The Essentials of the Eight Traditions (1994)
Jp. Sangō shīki (三教指帰) extracanonical
Jp. Mappō tōmyō ki (末法燈明記) extracanonical Eng. The Candle of the Latter Dharma (1994)
Jp. Jūshichijō kenpō (十七條憲法) extracanonical

THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES VOLUME III

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BDK English Tripiṭaka Series

THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES VOLUME III

(Taishō Volume 1, Number 1)

Translated from the Chinese by
Shohei Ichimura

BDK America, Inc.
2018

Copyright © 2018 by Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai and BDK America, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means
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First Printing, 2018
ISBN: 978-1-886439-68-9
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Published by BDK America, Inc. 1675 School Street
Moraga, California 94556 Printed in the United States of America

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka

NUMATA Yehan Founder of the English
August 7, 1991 Tripiṭaka Project

Editorial Foreword

In the long history of Buddhist transmission throughout East Asia, translations of Buddhist texts were often carried out as national projects supported and funded by emperors and political leaders. The BDK English Tripiṭaka project, on the other hand, began as a result of the dream and commitment of one man. In January 1982 Dr. NUMATA Yehan, founder of Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), initiated the monumental task of translating the complete Taishō shinshū daizōkyō edition of the Chinese Tripiṭaka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year the Translation Committee of the English Tripiṭaka was officially convened.
The initial Committee included the following members: (late) HANAYAMA Shōyū (Chairperson), (late) BANDŌ Shōjun, ISHIGAMI Zennō, (late) KAMATA Shigeo, (late) KANAOKA Shūyū, MAYEDA Sengaku, NARA Yasuaki, (late) SAYEKI Shinkō, (late) SHIOIRI Ryōtatsu, TAMARU Noriyoshi, (late) TAMURA Kwansei, (late) URYŪZU Ryūshin, and YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWA Atsushi, WATANABE Shōgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium.
After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred and thirty-nine texts for the First Series of the project, estimated to be one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected were not limited to those originally written in India but also included works composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published. Given the huge scope of this project, accomplishing the English trans- lations of all the Chinese and Japanese texts in the Taishō canon may take as long as one hundred years or more. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue until completion, even after all the present members have passed away.

Editorial Foreword

Dr. NUMATA passed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven. He entrusted his son, Mr. NUMATA Toshihide with the continuation and completion of the English Tripiṭaka project. Mr. Numata served for twenty-three years, leading the project forward with enormous progress before his sudden passing on February 16, 2017, at the age of eighty-four. The Committee previously lost its able and devoted first Chairperson, Professor HANAYAMA Shōyū, on June 16, 1995, at the age of sixty-three. In October 1995 the Committee elected Professor MAYEDA Sengaku (then Vice President of Musashino Women’s College) as Chairperson, and upon the retirement of Professor Mayeda in July 2016, the torch was passed to me to serve as the third Chairperson. Despite these losses and changes we, the Editorial Committee members, have renewed our determination to carry out the noble ideals set by Dr. NUMATA. Present members of the Committee are Kenneth
K. Tanaka (Chairperson), MAYEDA Sengaku, ICHISHIMA Shōshin, ISHIGAMI Zennō, KATSURA Shōryū, NARA Yasuaki, SAITŌ Akira, SHIMODA Masahiro, WATANABE Shōgo, and YONEZAWA Yoshiyasu.
The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established in November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publication of the translated texts. The Publication Committee was organized at the Numata Center in December 1991. In 2010, the Numata Center’s operations were merged with Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Inc. (BDK America), and BDK America continues to oversee the publication side of the English Tripiṭaka project in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo.
At the time of this writing, in February 2017, the project has completed about sixty percent of the seven thousand one hundred and eighty-five Taishō pages of texts selected for the First Series. Much work still lies ahead of us but we are committed to the completion of the remaining texts in order to realize the grand vision of Dr. Numata, shared by Mr. Numata and Professor Hanayama, to make the Buddhist canon more readily accessible to the English-speaking world.
Kenneth K. Tanaka
Chairperson
Editorial Committee of
the BDK English Tripiṭaka

Publisher’s Foreword

On behalf of the members of the Publication Committee, I am happy to present this volume as the latest contribution to the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series. The Publication Committee members have worked to ensure that this volume, as all other volumes in the series, has gone through a rigorous process of editorial efforts. The initial translation and editing of the Buddhist scriptures found in this and other BDK English Tripiṭaka volumes are performed under the direction of the Editorial Committee in Tokyo, Japan. Both the Editorial Committee in Tokyo and the Publication Committee, headquartered in Moraga, California, are ded- icated to the production of accurate and readable English translations of the Buddhist canon. In doing so, the members of both committees and associated staff work to honor the deep faith, spirit, and concern of the late Reverend Dr. Yehan Numata, who founded the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series in order to dis-
seminate the Buddhist teachings throughout the world.
The long-term goal of our project is the translation and publication of the texts in the one hundred-volume Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, along with a number of influential extracanonical Japanese Buddhist texts. The list of texts selected for the First Series of this translation project may be found at the end of each volume in the series.
As Chair of the Publication Committee, I am deeply honored to serve as the fifth person in a post previously held by leading figures in the field of Buddhist studies, most recently by my predecessor, John R. McRae.
In conclusion, I wish to thank the members of the Publication Committee for their dedicated and expert work undertaken in the course of preparing this volume for publication: Managing Editor Marianne Dresser, Dr. Hudaya Kandahjaya, Dr. Carl Bielefeldt, Dr. Robert Sharf, and Rev. Brian Kensho Nagata, Director of the BDK English Tripiṭaka Project.
A. Charles Muller Chairperson Publication Committee

Contents

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka
NUMATA Yehan v
Editorial Foreword Kenneth K. Tanaka vii
Publisher’s Foreword A. Charles Muller ix
Translator’s Introduction Shohei Ichimura xiii
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses, Volume III
Sutra 21. Brahmā’s Net 3
Sutra 22. One Who Cultivates Virtue 33
Sutra 23. Brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta 49
Sutra 24. Kevaddha 75
Sutra 25. A Naked Brāhmaṇa Ascetic 83
Sutra 26. Knowledge of the Three Vedas 93
Sutra 27. The Rewards of the Life of a Śrāvaka 107
Sutra 28. Poṭṭhapada 123
Sutra 29. Lohitya 141
Sutra 30. A Buddhist Cosmology 151
Notes 305
Bibliography 307
Index 311
A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series) 331

Translator’s Introduction

The Textual Origin and Contents of the
Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses

The complex historical context in which the textual translation of the Dīrgha Āgama took place is beyond the scope of this brief introduction. I attempt to provide here, however, an evaluation of three major features of this canonical tradition: the nature of this sutra collection and its contents, the translators and the times of translation, and the canonical legacy from the point of view of the premodern and modern contemporary Tripiṭaka Buddhist library.
The Chang ahan jing (Skt. Dīrgha Āgama), or the Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses, is one of the four canonical collections that were upheld by the orthodox Dharmaguptaka school. Since this school descended from the Sthāvira orthodoxy that had a prominent position in the few centuries around the Third Buddhist Council, held around 250 to 236 B.C.E.,1 centuries after the Buddha’s demise, the origin of this school’s canonical tradition (Āgamas) may be traced back to some scriptural matrix2 whose contents had been compiled and authenticated by the time of the Third Council.
There were three or four general councils during Buddhism’s early centuries. The First Council was held at Rājagṛha (present-day Rājgīr, Bihar) immediately after Śākyamuni’s passing (485 or 486 B.C.E.) in order to assure the oral preser- vation of the core teachings Śākyamuni Buddha taught directly to his disciples. The Second Council was held at Vaiśālī (Vesālī) a century later to settle some controversies on the Vinaya rules and disciplines set forth by Śākyamuni as the moral and spiritual codes for Buddhist monks and their communities. This council contributed to the ascertainment of legality on the nature of Vinaya codes, despite some challenges and disputes raised by changing historical and social contexts. At that time, it is said that some elder monks still remembered how some of the ﬁrst-generation disciples had upheld the discipline while remain- ing active in daily life.

Though our knowledge of it is conﬁned to Theravāda documents,3 the Third Council was held under the auspices of the Mauryan Buddhist ruler Aśoka in the seventeenth year of his reign (251 B.C.E.) at the capital city Pāṭaliputra (Patna, Bihar). Although this council failed in its intended goal of preventing schism from sectarian movements, the Third Council was pivotal to the subsequent history of the Buddhist canonical tradition for two reasons. First, since the Buddha’s teaching and organization evolved in various forms during the initial two and a half centuries of its development, Buddhist leaders were compelled to reexamine their canonical traditions and establish an authenticated standard to prevent sectarian diversion and doctrinal variation. Second, it was during this council that Buddhist scriptures were formally classiﬁed into the threefold cat- egories of Sutra (teaching), Vinaya (discipline), and Abhidharma (doctrine), i.e., the threefold canonical baskets (Skt. Tripiṭaka; Pāli Tipiṭaka). From that time on, the Tripiṭaka served as the basic categorization of Buddhist literature.
The last general conference was held in Kāśmīra under the auspices of King Kaniṣka, the Kuṣāṇa ruler (known in China as Great Yüeji), toward the end of the ﬁrst century C.E., and it centered on the Hinayana orthodoxy, the Sthāvira- Sarvāstivāda school. Though the historical veracity of this conference is not conclusive, the likelihood of its occurrence can be argued based on the detailed Abhidharma discussions recorded in the Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra,4 and especially in the epilogue left by its translator Xuanzang, as well as the historical fact of the massive Hindu reaction which spurred efforts to compile their literary legacy in the early second century C.E.5 In any case, after the Fourth Council meeting in Kāśmīra, Kuṣāṇa monks began to reach the continent of China during the Late Han period.
The Synopsis between the Sanskrit Dīrgha Āgama and the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya
The Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses was one of the four Āgamas essential to the Sutra-piṭaka that was preserved by the Dharmaguptaka school. To explain the nature of this Āgama, it is best to show the synopsis between the content of the Dīrgha Āgama and that of the Dīgha Nikāya (DN), upheld by the Theravāda school as part of the ﬁvefold sutta-piṭaka. The Theravāda school pros- pered in Sri Lanka, and its descendants in Southeast Asia (Burma, Thailand, and Indochina) preserved the ﬁvefold Nikāyas through the Pāli canonical language.

Translators and Historical Times

The translator of the Chang ahan jing was the śramaṇa Buddhayaśas, a native of Kāśmīra who moved to Khotan in Central Asia, where he resided for some

The Significance of the Text in the New Taishō Tripitaka Edition

The Chang ahan jing is placed at the very beginning of the ﬁrst volume of the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō (Taishō New Tripiṭaka Edition) compiled by Japanese Buddhists from 1924–1934 (Taishō 13 to Shōwa 9). This may represent an entirely different reorganization of the Buddhist canon from all of the preceding Tripiṭaka editions. The format of the preceding editions were based on the clas- siﬁcation order of Mahayana ﬁrst, Hinayana second, each of which was again divided into the order of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma texts. The historical legacy of the Chang ahan jing should be examined as to what the text is meant to represent in the modern Taishō edition.
The earliest reliable catalogue of Buddhist texts was due to the work of Dao’an (314–385), author of the Zhongjing mulu (Comprehensive Record of the Textual Catalogues), and Sengyou, author of the Chu sanzang ji ji. Of the two, Dao’an’s catalogues formed the core foundation of Sengyou’s enlarged record of textual catalogues. These two sets of catalogues thus mark the reliable beginning of all subsequent Chinese Tripiṭaka editions.
By the turn of the ﬁfth century, Buddhist communities in Chang’an began to exercise their own choices in the history of Buddhist affairs. This change was a natural development, because Buddhist leaders were more or less trained in Confucian academism or Daoist philosophical training. Dao’an was invited to Chang’an to serve as the religious counselor of Fujian (Yaoxing’s predecessor) from the capital of a southern state. Dao’an profoundly regretted that the Buddhist communities in China had not been properly equipped with the Tripiṭaka divisions of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma. He actively promoted study on the Mahayana Wisdom sutras, especially the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, and he recruited talented young Buddhist converts to engage in exploration of their philosophical and spiritual meaning. It is within this historical circumstance that Kumārajīva was

invited to Chang’an in 401 by Yaoxing (Fujian’s successor) as his religious coun- selor. Sengzhao (374–414), a young Buddhist convert from a Daoist background, became Kumārajīva’s dedicated disciple and quickly proved himself to be an excellent scholar-monk among the Chang’an academic community. His monograph, the Zhao lun, was praised as exhibiting superb comprehension of prajñā insight and the philosophy of emptiness (śūnyatā),second only to that of his master. Sengzhao’s introduction to the Chang ahan jing reﬂects Dao’an’s cherished objective. At the outset he calls attention to the Tripiṭaka canonical tradition:
The great teaching consisted of three [basic] divisions. For regulating physical and verbal behavior there is the collection of injunctive disciplines (Vinaya). For guiding human conduct by distinguishing good and bad there is the col- lection of doctrinal scriptures (Sutra). For differentiating subtle and delicate subject matter, there is the collection of analytical characteristics of the mental and conscious elements (Abhidharma). Thus, there came to be the three baskets of scriptures (Tripiṭaka).
Buddhayaśas’ translation of the Chang ahan jing was perhaps partial fulﬁll- ment of the goal sought by Dao’an.
Following Dao’an’s and Sengyou’s catalogues, a series of records of Buddhist textual catalogues was compiled in the Gezhong qinding zhongjing mulu (Buddhist Canonical Textual Catalogues or Complete Buddhist Tripiṭaka Library, literally, “Great Textual Storehouse”). During the sixth century, the four catalogues came to exist under the auspices of four different regimes. Unlike Dao’an’s and Seng- you’s catalogues, which placed the texts by the translators’ names in chronological order, these state-supported enterprises adopted the new order of classiﬁcation by placing the Mahayana Tripiṭaka catalogues ﬁrst, followed by those of the Hinayana Tripiṭaka. The short-lived Sui dynasty (which dissolved at the uniﬁcation of north and south into an empire in 589), twice supported the compilation of the entire inclusive catalogues of the Tripiṭaka library: ﬁrst, the Sui Kaihuang lidai sanbao ji (Sui Kaihuang Record of the Threefold Buddhist Treasures of the Successive Dynasties) in 598, followed by its revised edition, the Renshou zhongjing mulu (Renshou Record of Textual Catalogues) in 602, which streamlined the preexistent catalogues and scrutinized the authenticity of each text. The Renshou zhongjing mulu became the basic model of all subsequent Buddhist Tripiṭaka libraries.

Epilogue

I would like to make a few points regarding the way in which this translation has been accomplished. First, since the original Sanskrit text is no longer extant, I relied almost exclusively on the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya and its English translation, especially that rendered by the founding members of the Pali Text Society, as the sole corroborative references for the Chinese text.14 For instance, it is extremely difﬁcult to identify from Chinese transliteration what a given proper name or proper noun might be in the Sanskrit original. Second, I preferred a straightforward style of narration to the Chinese idiomatic deﬁnitive style. As a cognate language of Sanskrit, though to a lesser degree, Pāli has an intricate case system to specify the contextual relationships between things that are referred to by words through case indicatives, whereas Chinese expression often relies on word order alone, without case indicative changes. Hence, in my English presentation of the Chang ahan jing, I have relied on the English version of the Dīgha Nikāya presented in scholarly translations of the text. This English version of the Chang ahan jing may thus appear to be more like a translation made from the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya than a directly rendered English version vis-à-vis the Chinese original. As English is not my native language, I did not consider that presenting the textual contents only through a grammatically learned second language would be successful. This is the ﬁnal volume of the translation, containing sutras 21–30. Volume I (published in 2015) includes the Preface by Shi Sengzhao and contains sutras 1–10; Volume II (published in 2016) contains sutras 11–20.
I looked for a model narrative format to translate foundational Buddhist texts, such as the Chang ahan jing. After searching for a feasible format among various samples of translations of Buddhist texts, I ﬁnally decided that it was best to follow the traditions established by the Pali Text Society in dealing with ancient Buddhist literature by means of modern languages. I am, however, obliged to assert that this translation has been produced totally based on my own understanding of Buddhism accrued through my lifelong study and practice of the religion.
Śākyamuni’s religion began with a dialectical insight underling the fourfold truths of the life process. While engaged in ﬁnal revision of this translation, I personally encountered the messengers of old age, illness, and death, and my attention was drawn to these messagers more acutely because of my engagement in rereading the draft translation. It is my hope that readers of this text will

realize the fundamental wisdom of Buddhist spirituality in regard to these serious matters. May the reader discover from this text his or her successful pathway toward liberation.

THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES
VOLUME III

Sutra 21

Brahmā’s Net
(Dīgha Nikāya 1: Brahmājāla Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha was visiting the communities of the country of Magadha, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples (bhikṣus), he stopped at the king’s pavilion in the bamboo forest for an overnight stay. A brāhmaṇa ascetic called Suppiya, accompanied by his student Brahmadatta, always followed the Buddha on his travels. The teacher Suppiya denigrated the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha in various ways, but his student Brahmadatta praised the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha in innumerable ways. Thus, teacher and student, having different minds, were in opposition to each other. Why did they behave in this way? It was because they differed in their customs, views, and manner of making known their views.
On this occasion, a number of bhikṣus, having completed almsrounds, gathered in the lecture hall and began to talk [about current events]:
It is marvelous, indeed marvelous, that the World-honored One commands great supernormal powers and is endowed with the meritorious virtue of knowing what sentient beings wish for and their destinies. Yet this brāh- maṇa ascetic Suppiya and his student Brahmadatta always follow the Tathāgata and the assembly of his disciples. Suppiya denigrates the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha of the bhikṣus in innumerable ways, while Brahma- datta praises the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha in innumerable ways. Thus, teacher and student are of different minds and oppose one another. Why is this so? It is because they have different customs, views, and ways of making their views known.
While this was going on, the World-honored One, meditating in seclusion, heard what the bhikṣus were saying through a supernormal power of hearing exceeding the capacity of ordinary people. The World-honored One stood up from his seat, proceeded to the lecture hall, sat down before the group of

3

88b12

88c

bhikṣus, and though he already knew what they were discussing, deliberately asked them, “O bhikṣus, why have you gathered in this hall? What are you discussing?”
The bhikṣus replied to the Buddha:
Having returned from almsrounds we gathered in this hall to discuss a topic of [current] concern: “It is marvelous, indeed marvelous, that the World-honored One commands great supernormal powers and is endowed with the meritorious virtue of knowing what sentient beings wish for and their destinies. Yet the brāhmaṇa ascetic Suppiya and his student Brahma- datta always follow the Tathāgata and the assembly of disciples. While Suppiya denigrates the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha in innumerable ways, Brahmadatta praises the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha in innumer- able ways. Teacher and student are of different minds and oppose one another. Why are they different? They have different customs and views and also differ in their manner of making their views known.” We have been engaged in discussion about this matter, sir.
The World-honored One said to the bhikṣus:
Even if the person in question deliberately denigrates the Tathāgata, the Dharma, and the Sangha, you should neither become angry nor have ill intent against him. Why? If you become angry and have ill intent because he has denigrated the Tathāgata, Dharma, and Sangha, you will have become entrapped and fallen into a pit. To avoid this danger you should never generate ill intent against him. And if he were to praise the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, you should not feel delight or gratiﬁcation. Why? If you were delighted or gratiﬁed, you would have become entrapped and fallen into a pit again. To avoid this danger you should never be swayed by such sweet words. Why? When a person either denigrates or praises something, his words are brought about only by lesser factors of conduct or moral discipline. An ordinary person, with little learning, cannot reach a deeper level of understanding. He takes whatever he observes externally as real and, because of this, praises it.
What do “lesser factors of conduct or moral discipline” mean? An ordi- nary person, with little learning, cannot understand any deeper meaning.

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He takes whatever he observes externally as real. Because of this, he praises it. He may praise me: “The śramaṇa Gautama has discarded the sword and cane (i.e., weapons), removed any intent to harm life, and extin- guished every action that injures life, extending compassion in good con- science to all sentient beings.” What these words praise are only lesser factors of conduct or moral discipline. An ordinary person, with little learning, praises the Buddha because of these external factors.
A person may again praise me: “The śramaṇa Gautama has removed any intention to commit theft, extinguished every desire to take what is not given, and is totally free from any thought of theft.” Or he may offer this kind of praise: “The śramaṇa Gautama has abandoned carnal desire and adheres to the genuine practice of austerity, upholds the precepts, avoids dissolute behavior, and maintains pure and genuine conduct.” Or [he may offer this praise:] “The śramaṇa Gautama has abandoned and eradicated false speech; whenever he speaks he does so with utmost sin- cerity. Whatever he says is true and factual, and he never deceives the people of the world.” Or [he may offer this praise:] “The śramaṇa Gautama has abandoned and eradicated duplicitous speech; he never harms anyone by repeating to them another’s words, [or vice versa]. If two people are in a dispute he tries to reconcile them, and when they are reconciled he is even more greatly pleased. If he wishes to say something to either party, he does so with both of them together before him. He knows the right time for whatever he does.” Or [he may offer this praise:] “The śramaṇa Gautama has abandoned and eradicated harsh speech. When spoken, harsh words may hurt the feelings of listeners and give rise to enmity in those to whom such speech is directed. Since harsh words can aggravate feelings of afﬂiction or malice, he never utters them. He always uses good words, pleasing the one to whom they are directed. Thus he endears himself to all members of the sangha, who never tire of listening to his words. Such is the nature of whatever he says.” Or [he may offer this praise:] “The śramaṇa Gautama has abandoned and eradicated ﬂattery. He speaks when it is the right time; he utters words that correspond to facts, words that beneﬁt others, words that are in compliance with the Dharma, words that are in compliance with the rules of Vinaya discipline, and words that forbid evil. Such is the nature of whatever he says.”

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Or [he may offer this praise:] “The śramaṇa Gautama has abandoned the use of intoxicants and distanced himself from them. He uses no per- fumes or ﬂowers as ornaments, he does not attend theatrical entertainments involving song and dance, he does not use a high, wide couch [for a bed], nor does he partake of food other than at the proper time each day. He neither accepts nor keeps money in gold and silver coins, nor does he marry or live with a woman, or keep a servant or maid, or an elephant, horse, boar, sheep, hen, dog, or any other bird or animal. He does not keep an army, whether a division of elephants, or cavalry, chariots, or foot sol- diers, nor does he own rice ﬁelds or residential houses, or plant the ﬁve kinds of crops for harvest. He does not threaten others with his hands and ﬁsts, nor does he cheat others by using rigged scales for weights and quan- tities, engage in usury, or haggle over the price [for goods]. He does not neglect repayment after receiving a request for payment of a debt, nor does he conspire against anyone. He never acts at an improper time and he nurtures his health to lengthen his life span and takes only the proper amount of food for his needs. Wherever he goes his robe and almsbowl accompany him, just as a bird’s feathers never leave it when it ﬂies.” All these are lesser factors of moral discipline. An ordinary person, with little learning, praises the Buddha for such externally observable things. [Such an ordinary person may also praise the Tathāgata in regard to these minor points:] “Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having received charity from their devotees, actively seek more and more in order to store up extra goods, knowing no limit or contentment in regard to clothing, food, and drink. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in this behavior. “Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having received charity from their devotees, engage in various means of livelihood as well as planting crops, thus inviting evil spirits. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in
such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having received charity from their devotees, use expedient means to acquire various material goods such as ivory and other precious items, high and comfortable beds, embroidered cloth, carpets, bamboo ﬂoor mats, and cushions. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.

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“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having received charity from their devotees, vainly seek to improve their appearance [to impress their devo- tees], using various measures such as applying thyme-seed oil to the body, bathing in scented water, wearing scented powder on the body, applying fragrant hair oil, wearing a ﬂower garland, using blue eye shadow and applying makeup to their faces, wearing a shiny clasp ring and string on their garments, examining their appearance in a mirror, donning a pair of multicolored shoes and a white upper garment, holding a canopy over their heads, carrying a ﬂy whisk, and decorating their carriages with banners. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, [having received charity from their devotees,] engage in various games and amusements such as chess, check- ers played on boards of eight or ten squares, and gambling in as many as a hundred thousand ways. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, engage in idle talk that obstructs religious pursuits, such as gossiping about royal affairs or various battles or the uses of cavalry, or how well certain bureaucrats and ministers ride their horses when they go on excursions, going to and from parks and pleasure gardens; or they talk about the daily activities of women, such as when they are lying down, sitting, and walking; or [they talk] about clothing, food, and drink, or the behavior of relatives, or the activities of sea divers and their col- lections of treasures from the ocean. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, seek wrong livelihood through innumerable devices, such as engaging in ﬂattery or slander, thereby seeking to take advantage of one another. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior. “Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, engage in disputes wherever they may be, whether in a pleasure grove, a bathing pond, or pavilion, accusing each other as to who is right or wrong. They say, ‘I know the text and rules but you have little knowledge of them. I am on the right course but yours is a deviation. Your

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argument is confused, asserting too late what should have been stated ear- lier, while giving out too early what should have been saved for later. I am able to tolerate you but you cannot tolerate me. Whatever you say is neither true nor real. Whenever you feel some doubt about your position, come and ask me about it. I surely can answer all your questions.’ The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, seek greater [rewards or beneﬁts] by contriving various measures. For instance, they may carry an ofﬁcial communication or private message on behalf of a king or a minister, or a brāhmaṇa or a householder, going from place to place while traveling about. They may carry letters for clients, delivering them to their designated recipients, and convey the replies to their clients. Or they may even give instruction about how to conduct the business of mail delivery for their own sake or for others. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior. “Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, are engaged solely in learning the ins and outs of military strategy, warfare, and conﬂict; or learning about armaments such as swords, canes, bows and arrows; or learning how to make domestic animals, such as roosters, dogs, boars, or goats, ﬁght; or how to stage ﬁghts between men and women; or how to perform various skills, such as making the sound of a multitude [of soldiers] by blowing conch shells, beating drums, singing, dancing, brandishing streamers; and all sorts of other activities. The śramaṇa
Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, are engaged in ignoble ways of life (lit., “animalistic behav- ior”), learning false paths [that obstruct the authentic path of religion] and taking up wrong livelihoods, such as fortune-telling for male or female clients for material gain. Interpreting auspicious or ominous signs, they predict whether their clients will be handsome or ugly and make similar predictions regarding animals [for their clients in the husbandry business]. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, engage in ignoble ways of life by learning false paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion] and taking up wrong livelihoods,

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such as performing magical incantations to invoke the presence of ghostly spirits or to drive them away, or to cause them to linger with various repug- nant spells. Thus, through many strategies, they may threaten people and cause them to feel extreme fear, or draw people together or disperse them, or torment them, or bring them pleasure. They may use incantations to calm a pregnant woman, providing a [magical] garment for the safety of her fetus, or to change a human being into a donkey, or to cause someone to become totally deaf and dumb. Displaying a multitude of techniques, they may be seen facing the sun or moon, holding it in both hands, and performing various ascetic feats to solicit material gain. The śramaṇa Gau- tama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, engage in ignoble ways of life by learning false paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion] and taking up wrong livelihoods, such as chanting magical spells for curing illness or applying evil spells or good spells, or giving medical treatment, acupuncture, moxa cautery, or medicines to treat various illnesses [in order to obtain material gain]. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, engage in ignoble ways of life by learning false paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion] and taking up wrong livelihoods, such as casting magical spells for water or ﬁre, or to summon a ghostly spirit, or to assure victory in a political or military campaign, or for elephants, or bodily limbs, or a talisman to ensure the safety of a residence, or for recovery from burns, or to effect a cure from rat bites. They may intone a written incantation to discern the life or death of the concerned person, or to decipher dreams, or they may read palms (chiromancy) and facial features (physiognomy), or chant astronomical texts or the alphabetical characters. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, engage in ignoble ways of life by learning false paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion] and taking up wrong livelihoods, such as observing the weather and the cycle of the seasons in order to pre- dict whether or not it will rain, whether the price of crops will go up or down, whether there will be an epidemic, whether a fearful event will

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take place, or whether there will be peace and safety. Or they may predict earthquakes or the appearance of a comet, a solar or lunar eclipse, or a stellar eclipse, or the nonappearance of such an eclipse, in order to deter- mine whether it is a good or bad omen. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.
“Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having subsisted on charity from their devotees, engage in ignoble ways of life by learning false paths that obstruct [the authentic path of religion] and taking up wrong livelihoods, such as asserting that this country is superior to that country, or that that is not like this, or that another country is superior to this country, or that this is not like that. Observing good or bad omens, they predict the fortunes and fates of those countries with which they are concerned. The śramaṇa Gautama has never engaged in such behavior.”
O bhikṣus, all of the foregoing are invariably lesser moral virtues and factors. An ordinary person, with little learning, praises the Buddha on account of such [observable] virtues.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There is, however, a greater insight (i.e., the Dharma), most profound and subtle, and far more radiant. Only wise and saintly disciples can praise the Tathāgata by referring to this greater insight. What is this greater insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant, on account of which the wise and saintly disciples alone can praise the Tathāgata? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas have conjectured, in relation to the initial eon (kalpa) of the past and the ﬁnal eon of the future, innumerable varieties of views as freely as they may wish, but all the theories they have thus advanced, without exception, fall into sixty-two variations. All these philosophical views, insofar as they are speculative in regard to the initial eon of the past and the ﬁnal eon of the future, no matter how numer- ous and obsessively formulated, never exceed sixty-two variations. Why are these philosophical views formulated in regard to the initial eon and the ﬁnal eon, no matter how numerous and obsessively speculative, invari- ably limited to sixty-two variations, never exceeding that number? [Moreover,] regardless of the innumerable varieties of views advanced by śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, insofar as these views are speculative and

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asserted in relation to the initial eon of the world, all these theories can be classiﬁed exhaustively into eighteen variations. Any philosophical views, insofar as they are conjectured in regard to the initial eon of the past, no matter how numerous and obsessively formulated, are invariably limited to eighteen variations and never exceed that number. Why are these philosophical views formulated in regard to the initial eon, no matter how numerous and obsessively conjectured and asserted, invariably limited to eighteen variations, never exceeding that number?
Many śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, while speculating about the initial eon of the past, propose an eternalist view (śāśvata-vāda), asserting that “the self and the world are permanent.” Any theory that asserts this eternalist view falls within four variations and does not exceed those four. Why is the eternalist view proposed by those śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas concerning the initial eon of the past, namely, that “the self and the world are permanent,” limited to four variations without exceeding that number?
Again, a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa, having entered mental concentration by various means, recollects with a concentrated mind the twenty evolving and devolving eons. He then asserts his theory: “The self and the world are permanent. This theory is true while the rest is false. Why? Because I entered the state of mental concentration through various means and with a concentrated mind recollected twenty evolving and devolving eons. The sentient beings of the world have neither increased nor decreased throughout those eons. They always assembled together and never dis- persed. Because of this, I know that the self and the world are permanent. This theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the ﬁrst variation. On the basis of this assertion, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas conjectured that the self and the world are permanent. This theory is limited to four variations, however, and does not exceed that number.
Again, a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa, having entered mental concentration through various means, recollects with a concentrated mind forty evolving and devolving eons and asserts his theory: “The self and the world are per- manent. This theory is true while the rest is false. Why? Because I entered mental concentration through various means and with a concentrated mind recollected forty evolving and devolving eons. The sentient beings in the world neither increased nor decreased; they always assembled together
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90b

and never dispersed. Because of this, I know that the self and the world are permanent, and this theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the second variation. Thus, on the foregoing assertion concerning the initial eon, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas conjectured that the self and the world are permanent. But this theory is limited to four variations and does not exceed that number.
Again, a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa, having entered mental concentration through various means, recollects with a concentrated mind eighty evolving and devolving eons and asserts his theory: “The self and the world are permanent. This theory is true while the rest is false. Why? Because I entered mental concentration through various means and with a concen- trated mind recollected eighty evolving and devolving eons. The sentient beings of the world neither increased nor decreased; they always assembled together and never dispersed. Because of this I know that the self and the world are permanent, and this theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the third variation. Thus, on the foregoing assertion concerning the initial eon, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas conjectured that the self and the world are permanent. But this theory is limited to four variations and does not exceed that number.
Again, a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa with a rationally skeptical mind exam- ines the case carefully and investigates the theories in various ways through his knowledge of logic and sophistry. He says that these theories require examination. Based on his own view and on the rhetoric of reason, he theorizes: “The self and the world are permanent, and this theory has four variations.” Similar śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas have conjectured in relation to the initial eon that the self and the world are permanent. On account of there being four variations of the [eternalist] view, this theory does not go beyond them. Originally each śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa speculated about the initial eon and theorized that the self and the world are permanent. In this manner, all the theories previously advanced fall into four variations and do not exceed that number.
The Tathāgata alone, however, knows the basis of the views held by the eternalists, to which they are attached, and from which they receive [theoretical] retribution. The Tathāgata’s knowledge goes beyond these variations because he knows the very basis of these eternalist views but

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does not become attached to such views. Since he is not attached to such a view, he is in a state of quiescence and cessation (i.e., free from con- ceptualization). He knows the arising of sensation (vedanā), its dissolution (bhaṅga), its taste (āsvāda), its danger (ādīnara), and the method of tran- scending it (niḥsaraṇa). Thus he is liberated [from eternalist speculation] because of his nonattachment (anupādāya-vimukti) [to the basis of that view] through the very insight of seeing things universally as they really are ( yathābhuccaṃ samā). Therefore he is called the Tathāgata. This is the great insight, most profound and subtle, and far more radiant. In ref- erence to this insight wise and saintly disciples can properly praise the Tathāgata for the universal insight that sees things as they really are. Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant, in reference to which wise and saintly disciples can [properly] praise the Tathāgata for the universal insight that sees things as they really
are. What is this insight?
Many śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas propose an eternalist view in their speculations on the initial eon of the past and assert that “the self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent.” On the basis of this theory, other śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas speculated about the initial eon of the past and asserted that the self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent. But this theory essentially coincides with the four variations and does not go beyond them. At the beginning, when this eon began to evolve, the remaining sentient beings, having exhausted their merits, life spans, and predispositional forces, died in Ābhāsvara Heaven (the highest attainable in the second dhyāna) and were reborn in the vast empty space of Brahmā Heaven. They became fond of that abode and wished to be born there again together with other sentient beings. In this way, the [ﬁrst generation] of sentient beings there already conceived an attachment to that abode. As other sentient beings ended their life in Ābhās- vara Heaven and were reborn in the vast, empty space of Brahmā Heaven, those who were already there thought to themselves, “I am Brahmā, the great Brahmā. By nature I exist and there is no one who can create me. I am omniscient and control a thousand worlds in which I am the absolutely free presider and the noblest and most honorable, for I have the miraculous power of changing forms. I alone have been here before as father of all

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sentient beings prior to their appearance, because they appeared here after I did, and those beings are ones whom I created.”
Those who came after the ﬁrst generation thought to themselves, “He is the great Brahmā, he has created himself and no one else could create him. He is omniscient and controls a thousand worlds where he is the absolutely free and most honorable presider, for he has the miraculous power of changing forms. He alone has been here before us as the father of all sentient beings prior to our appearance. We came to be born after him and were created by him.” Some of the gods of Brahmā Heaven, hav- ing ended their life spans and exhausted all their predispositions, were then born in the human world and gradually grew to adolescence. They shaved their hair and beards, donned the three robes, and renounced domes- tic life to take up religious practice. Having entered mental concentration, some came to know with a concentrated mind their original nature and asserted, “That great Brahmā created himself; no one else could create him. He is omniscient and controls a thousand worlds where he is the absolutely free and most honorable presider. He has the miraculous power of changing forms and is the father of all sentient beings. He is the one that is permanent and, as Brahmā, he created us, we human beings who are impermanent, subject to change, and mortal, unable to exist forever.” Because of this, they asserted, “The self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent. This theory is true while the rest is false.” This is called the ﬁrst view. On the basis of this theory, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas proposed their own theories concerning the initial eon. But this “in part permanent and in part impermanent” theory is identical with the others within the four variations and does not go beyond them. Again, some sentient beings in Brahmā Heaven enjoyed amusements (lit., “played and laughed”) and wanted a leisurely life. They played games and sought amusement frequently, enjoying their [heavenly] lives. In pursuit of that life, they eventually fell into exhaustion and lost conscious- ness, and their life spans came to an end. Being reborn in the human world, they gradually grew to adolescence and shaved their hair and beards, donned the three robes, and renounced domestic life for a life of religious practice. Entering mental concentration, some of them came to know their origin with a concentrated mind and said, “Some sentient beings (i.e., the

14
gods of Brahmā Heaven) are not born in the human world as often as we are, nor do they pursue fun and amusement, and so they remain forever in that heaven, without any change at all. On the other hand, we often seek fun and engage in the pursuit of amusement, and so we are subject to change and the law of impermanence.” Because of this, they asserted, “The self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent. This theory is true while the rest is false.” This is the second variation. On the basis of this view, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas proposed theories about the initial eon and asserted that “the self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent.” Yet this theory is essentially identical with the others within the four variations and does not go beyond them.
Again, some sentient beings [in Brahmā Heaven] engaged in meditation or mutual reﬂection and, while doing so, lost consciousness. Ending their lives in this manner, they were born in the human world. Growing to ado- lescence, they shaved their hair and beards, donned the three robes, and renounced domestic life for religious practice. Entering mental concen- tration, some of them came to know their origin with a concentrated mind and said, “Some sentient beings (i.e., the gods of Brahmā Heaven) do not meditate or mutually reﬂect upon each other and so do not lose conscious- ness. They therefore remain [in that heaven], unchanged at all times. [Unlike them,] we looked at each other often and in doing so we lost con- sciousness. This was due to the impermanence of all things and in com- pliance with the law of change. Because of this, we know that the self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent. This theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the third variation. On the basis of this view, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas proposed theories about the initial eon and asserted, “The self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent.” But this theory is identical with the others within the four variations and does not go beyond them.
Again, a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa with a rationally skeptical mind examines the case carefully and investigates the theories in various ways through his knowledge of logic and sophistry. He asserts, “The self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent. This theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the fourth variation. On the basis of this view, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas proposed theories concerning the

91a

initial eon of the past and asserted, “The self and the world are in part per- manent and in part impermanent.” But this theory is identical with the others within the four variations and does not go beyond them.
Thus, in relation to the initial eon, some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas pro- posed theories that the self and the world are in part permanent and in part impermanent, and this view is limited to four variations and does not go beyond them. Only the Tathāgata, however, knows the very basis of the [common] view to which those who espouse the foregoing four theories hold fast, to which they become attached, and from which they receive its [theoretical] retribution. The Tathāgata’s knowledge goes beyond the con- ﬁnes of these variations because he knows the very basis of the eternalist view but he does not become attached to such a view. Since he is not attached to this view, he is in a state of quiescence and cessation (i.e., free from conceptualization). He knows the causal concatenation of sensation and its cessation, its gratiﬁcation and danger, and the method of transcending it. Thus he is liberated [from eternalist speculation] because of his nonat- tachment [to the basis of that view] through the very insight of seeing things universally as they really are. Therefore he is called the Tathāgata. This is the great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant. In reference to this insight, wise and saintly disciples can properly praise the Tathāgata for the universal insight that sees things as they really are. Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant, in reference to which wise and saintly disciples can [properly] praise the Tathāgata for the universal insight that sees things as they really are. What is this insight? Many śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas proposed a speculative view of the initial eon of the past and asserted, “The self and the world are limited and limitless.” Other śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas, relying on this view, speculated further about the initial eon of the past and asserted that the self and the world are limited and limitless. [Again,] this theory is essentially identical with the others within the four variations and does
not go beyond them.
For instance, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas, having entered mental concentration through various means, observed the world with a concen- trated mind and formulated the thought that there is a limit to this world. They asserted the theory, “This world has a limit, and this alone is true

16

while the rest is false. Why? Because I entered mental concentration through various means and with a concentrated mind intuited the limit of this world. Therefore this world is limited. This theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the ﬁrst variation. Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having relied on this view, speculated about the initial eon of the past and proposed the same theory that the self and the world are limited, but this theory is essentially identical with the others within the four variations and does not go beyond them.
Again, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas, having entered mental concentration through various means, observed the world with a concentrated mind and formulated the thought that this world is limitless; thus they asserted the theory “This world is limitless, and this alone is true while the rest is false. Why? Because I entered mental concentration through various means and with a concentrated mind intuited no limit to this world. Therefore this world is limitless. This alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the second vari- ation. Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having relied on this view, speculated about the initial eon of the past and proposed similar theories that the self and the world are limitless. But these theories are essentially identical with the others within the four variations and do not range beyond them.
Again, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas, having entered mental concen- tration through various means, observed the world with a concentrated mind and formulated the thought that the world is limited vertically in the upward direction but has no limit in all four horizontal directions, and thus they asserted, “The world is both limited and limitless. This alone is true while the rest is false. Why? Because I entered mental concentration through various means and with a concentrated mind intuited that this world has a limit in the upward direction but has no limit in all four hor- izontal directions. Therefore [the self and] this world are both limited and limitless. This theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the third variation. Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, having relied on this view, speculated about the initial eon of the past and proposed theories that [the self and] the world are both limited and limitless. But these theories are essentially identical with the others within the four variations and do not range beyond them.

91b

Again, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas examined the case carefully with a rationally skeptical mind and investigated the theories in various ways through their knowledge of logic and sophistry. They said, “The self and the world are neither limited nor limitless. This alone is true and the rest is false.” This is the fourth variation. On the basis of this theory, [however,] other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas proposed similar theories about the initial eon and asserted, “The self and the world are both limited and limitless.” Yet these theories are identical with the others within the four variations and do not range beyond them.
Thus the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas formulated their theories about the initial eon and asserted that the self and the world are both limited and limitless, yet all of this falls within the four variations without exceeding that number. Only the Tathāgata, however, knows the very basis of the [common] view to which those who espouse the foregoing four theories hold fast, to which they are attached, and from which they receive [the- oretical] retribution. The Tathāgata’s knowledge exceeds these variations because he knows the very basis of their views but does not become attached to such a view. Since he is not attached to this view, he is in a state of quiescence and cessation (i.e., free from conceptualization). He knows the causal concatenation of sensation and its cessation, its gratiﬁ- cation and danger, and the method of transcending it. Thus he is liberated [from eternalist speculation] because of his nonattachment [to the basis of that view] through the very insight of seeing things universally as they really are. Therefore he is called the Tathāgata. This is the great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant. In reference to this insight, wise and saintly disciples can properly praise the Tathāgata for the universal insight that sees things as they really are.
Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant, in reference to which wise and saintly disciples can properly praise the Tathāgata for the universal insight that sees things as they really are. What is this insight? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas raise inconsistent questions and reply with inconsistent answers. When one asks an incon- gruent question of another, the latter replies to the former with an incon- gruent answer. Within the four variations of this view, each theory is essen- tially identical and does not go beyond the limit of those variations. On

18

the basis of this view, śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas raise incongruent questions and reply with incongruent answers while speculating about the initial eon of the past. Any of their theories is identical with the others within the four variations and does not go beyond them.
For instance, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas formulate a theory and assert, “I have neither seen nor known whether there is a resulting effect for good or bad [conduct, respectively]. Since I have neither seen nor known [such an effect], I raise this question [in formulating the theory]: ‘Are there causal effects for good and bad [conduct], respectively?’ In this world there are śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas who are learned and erudite, saga- cious and knowledgeable, who are always delighted to stay in a secluded place, who are excellent in speech and precise in debate, and so [these śra- maṇas or brāhmaṇas] are honored in this world. With their wisdom they can analyze a multiplicity of worldly views [into some type of a system]. [They say, however,] ‘If I am asked a question that involves profound meanings, I may not be able to give an answer. I feel ashamed before the questioner and I am afraid. [So] I give my answer in a certain manner that I regard as my refuge, my island, my shelter, and my ultimate path.’ When- ever someone like that asks me a [profound] question, I answer in the fol- lowing manner: (1) ‘This fact is like this.’ (2) ‘This fact is identical (i.e., true).’ (3) ‘This fact is different.’ (4) ‘This fact is not different.’ (5) ‘This fact is neither different nor not different.’” This is the ﬁrst question-and- answer variation. Based on these responses, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas may also reply with incongruent answers to incongruent questions. These [theoretical] answers are identical with the others within the four variations, however, and do not range beyond them.
Again, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas formulate a theory and assert:
“I have neither seen nor known [personally] whether or not there is an afterlife. Many śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas are able to see things at remote distances through their supernormal vision and power of reading others’ minds. Even when they are approached by other people they do not see them. That kind of person should be able to know whether or not there is an afterlife. I myself have neither seen nor known [personally] whether or not there is an afterlife. If I were to express my view [in either the afﬁr- mative or the negative], I am afraid that my answer is bound to be false.
19
91c

92a

Therefore, I regard [‘non-assertion’] as my refuge, my island, my shelter, and my ultimate path. If such a person were to ask me a [profound] question, I would answer in the following manner: (1) ‘This fact is like this.’ (2) ‘This fact is identical (i.e., true).’ (3) ‘This fact is different.’ (4) ‘This fact is not different.’ (5) ‘This fact is neither different nor not different.’” This is the second question-and-answer variation. Based on these responses, other śra- maṇas and brāhmaṇas may reply with an incongruent answer when the question is incongruent. But these [theoretical] answers are identical with the others within the four variations and do not range beyond them.
Again, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas formulate a theory and assert: “I have neither seen nor known what is good and what is not good. I do not know nor have I encountered a theory that asserts ‘This is good’ or ‘This is bad.’ Because I do not know either one, I feel desire [for a certain thing]; because of this desire, I feel anger. Whenever there is desire and anger I am bound to have a sensation [about a certain thing]. I wish to annihilate this sensation. Therefore, I have renounced domestic life for religious practice.” [In this case,] such a person is very much afraid of incurring sensation and regards [the absence of sensation] as a refuge, an island, a shelter, and an ultimate path, saying, “If someone asks me a ques- tion [about what is good and what is bad], I shall reply to him in the fol- lowing manner: (1) ‘This fact is like this.’ (2) ‘This fact is identical (i.e., true).’ (3) ‘This fact is different.’ (4) ‘This fact is not different.’ (5) ‘This fact is neither different nor not different.’” This is the third question-and- answer variation. Based on these responses, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas may reply with an incongruent answer when the question is incongruent. Yet these [theoretical] answers are identical with the others within the four variations and do not range beyond them.
Again, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas are unintelligent and stupid. If someone questions them, they reply according to someone else’s answer, namely, (1) “This fact is like this.” (2) “This fact is identical (i.e., true).”
(3) “This fact is different.” (4) “This fact is not different.” (5) “This fact is neither different nor not different.” This is the fourth question-and- answer variation. Based on these responses, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas may reply with an incongruent answer when the question is incongruent.

20
Their [theoretical] answers are identical with the others within the four variations, however, and do not range beyond them.
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas raise inconsistent questions and reply with inconsistent answers in regard to the initial eon of the past. These theoretical answers are limited to the four variations, are [essentially] identical, and do not exceed that limit. Only the Tathāgata knows the very basis of the [common] answers to which the foregoing four theorists hold fast, to which they are attached, and from which they [theoretically] receive retribution. The Tathāgata’s knowledge exceeds these variations because he knows the very basis of their views but does not become attached to such a view. Since he is not attached to this view, he is in a state of qui- escence and cessation (i.e., free from conceptualization). He knows the causal concatenation of sensation and its cessation, its gratiﬁcation and danger, and the method of transcending it. Thus he is liberated [from eter- nalist speculation] because of his nonattachment [to the basis of that view] through the very insight of seeing things universally as they really are. Therefore he is called the Tathāgata. This is the great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant. In reference to this insight, wise and saintly disciples can properly praise the Tathāgata for the universal insight that sees things as they really are.
Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant, in reference to which wise and saintly disciples can properly praise the Tathāgata for the universal insight that sees things as they really are. What is this insight? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculate about the initial eon of the past and assert, “This world has arisen without a cause.” This view is conﬁned to two variations. When they propose that “this world has arisen without a cause,” this theory is conﬁned to two variations and does not exceed that number. But why should the theory that “the world has arisen without a cause” be conﬁned to two variations without exceeding that number?
Some sentient beings (here, “some gods,” devas) have no thought or knowledge. No sooner do they give rise to a thought than they come to the end of their life span. Once born in this human world, they gradually grow into adolescence, shave their hair and beards, don the three robes,

92b

and renounce domestic life for religious practice. Some of them, entering into mental concentration, recognize with a concentrated mind the origin of their birth and say, “I did not exist originally but now I have suddenly appeared. This world was nonexistent originally but now it exists. This theory is true, while the rest is false.” This is the ﬁrst variation. On the basis of this view, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculate about the initial eon of the past and assert that the world exists without a cause. This theory is identical with the other of the two variations.
Again, some śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas, with a rationally skeptical mind, examine the case carefully and investigate the theory in various ways through their knowledge of logic and sophistry. They assert, “This world exists with- out cause. This theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is the second variation. On the basis of this theory, other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas propose a theory concerning the initial eon of the past and assert, “This world exists without cause.” This theory is identical with the other variation and does not go beyond it. So while the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas thus formulate their theory concerning the initial eon of the past, asserting that this world exists without cause, the theory is limited to two variations and does not exceed that number. Only the Tathāgata knows the very basis of the [com- mon] view, and so on, just as has been repeatedly stated.
Other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas conjecture theories about the initial eon of the past in innumerable and obsessive ways. But all the theories thus asserted can be classiﬁed exhaustively into eighteen kinds of views. Whatever these views may be, insofar as they are speculative concerning the initial eon of the past, no matter how numerous and obsessively for- mulated, they will invariably be classiﬁed into eighteen variations without exceeding that number. Again, the Buddha alone knows the very basis of those theories, and so on, just as has been repeatedly stated.
Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant. What is this insight? While some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas form innumerable speculations about the ﬁnal eon of the future, as freely as they may wish, all the theories thus asserted can be classiﬁed exhaus- tively into forty-four kinds of views. Whatever those views may be, insofar as they are speculative concerning the ﬁnal eon of the future, no matter how numerous and obsessively theorized, they can all invariably be classiﬁed

22
into forty-four types of views without exceeding that number. Why should the theories of those śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who speculate about the ﬁnal eon of the future without limit be exhaustively classiﬁed into forty- four variations without exceeding that number?
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculate in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future and form the theory that individual consciousness exists after death, thus asserting the existence of individual consciousness in the world after death. Any theory that asserts the existence of consciousness in the world after death falls into sixteen variations without exceeding that num- ber. Why should the theories of those śramaṇa and brāhmaṇas who spec- ulate about the ﬁnal eon of the future and assert that consciousness exists in the world after death be conﬁned to sixteen variations without exceeding that number?
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculatively form this view: “After my death a consciousness that has a form (i.e., a self with form and con- sciousness) will exist. This theory alone is true while the rest is false.” This is called the ﬁrst view. Based on this view, other śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas who speculate in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future hold this theory of the existence of consciousness, asserting that consciousness will exist in the world after their death. This theory belongs to the sixteen vari- ations and does not range beyond them.
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a formless consciousness (i.e., a self without form but with consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness with both form and formlessness (i.e., a self with consciousness and with both form and nonform). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness that has neither form nor formlessness (i.e., a self with consciousness but with neither form nor nonform). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness with a limit [or end] (i.e., a self having an end). This alone is true while the rest is false.”

92c

Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness that has no limit (i.e., a self with no limit or end). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness that has both a limit and no limit (i.e., a self with consciousness that also has both a limit and no limit). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness that has neither a limit nor no limit (i.e., a self with con- sciousness that also has neither a limit nor no limit). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness that is one-sidedly happy (i.e., a self with a one- sidedly happy consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.” Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness that one-sidedly suffers (i.e., a self with a one- sidedly suffering consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.” Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a consciousness that both is happy and suffers (i.e., a self with a consciousness that is happy and that suffers). This alone is true while the
rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there be a consciousness that neither is happy nor suffers (i.e., a self with a con- sciousness that neither is happy nor suffers). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a singular consciousness ( yi xiang; ekatta-saṃjñī ātmā, i.e., a self with a uniﬁed consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.” Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death, there will be a multiple consciousness (re gan xiang; nānatta-saṃjñī ātmā, i.e., a self with equivocal or multiple consciousness). This alone is true while
the rest is false.”
Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be a small consciousness (shao xiang; parītta-saṃjñin, i.e., a self with a small separate consciousness).”

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Some other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert, “After my death there will be an immeasurable consciousness (i.e., a self with an immeasurable consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
The foregoing groups of śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas all formulate theories in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future, asserting that there will be con- sciousness after death, but all their theories fall into sixteen variations without exceeding that number. Once again, only the Buddha knows the very basis of their theories, and so on, just as has been repeated before. Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant. What is this insight? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas for- mulate various theories in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future and assert that there will be no consciousness in the world after death. Any theories that speculate about the ﬁnal eon of the future can be classiﬁed exhaustively into eight variations without exceeding that number. Why should the theories of those śramaṇa and brāhmaṇas who speculate about the ﬁnal eon of the future, asserting that there is no consciousness in the world after death, be conﬁned to only eight variations? Why don’t they exceed that number? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculatively form this view: “After my death there will be no consciousness other than a form [of a self] (i.e., a self with a form but no consciousness). This alone is true while the rest
is false.”
A second group of śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas asserts, “After my death there will be neither consciousness nor a form [of a self] (i.e., a self with no form and no consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.” A third group asserts, “After my death there will be no consciousness other than [a self] that has both form and formlessness (rūpī ca arūpī ca ātmā asaṃjñī, i.e, a self with form and nonform and no consciousness).
This alone is true while the rest is false.”
A fourth group asserts, “After my death there will be no consciousness other than a self that has neither form nor formlessness (n’eva rūpī nārūpī ca ātmā asaṃjñī, i.e., a self that does not have form, nonform, or con- sciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
A ﬁfth group asserts, “After my death there will be no consciousness other than a self with a limit [or end] (i.e., a self that has an end or limit but no consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.”

93a

A sixth group asserts, “After my death there will be no consciousness [other than a self] with no limit or end (i.e, a self with no end or limit and no consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
A seventh group asserts, “After my death there will be no consciousness [other than a self] with both an end and no end (i.e., a self with both an end and no end, and no consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
An eighth group asserts, “After my death there will be no consciousness [other than a self] with neither an end nor no end (i.e., a self with neither an end nor no end, and no consciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
The foregoing are the eight variations of the theories with which śra- maṇas and brāhmaṇas speculate in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future, asserting that there will be no consciousness in the world after death. All the theories fall into these eight variations and do not exceed that number. Once again, only the Buddha knows the very basis of these theories, and so on, just as has been repeated before.
Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant. What is this insight? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas spec- ulate about the ﬁnal eon of the future and frame a theory of “neither con- sciousness nor nonconsciousness,” asserting that there will be neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness in the world after death. These theories too can be classiﬁed exhaustively into eight variations without exceeding that number. On what basis can the speculative theories about the ﬁnal eon of the future be classiﬁed exhaustively into eight variations without exceeding that number? On what basis can the theories of those śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who speculate in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future, asserting that there is neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness in the world after death, be conﬁned to only eight variations? Why don’t they exceed that number?
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculatively form this view, “After the end of my life there will be [a self] with neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness (i.e., a self with a form but with neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness). This alone is true while the rest is false.”

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A second group of śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas asserts, “After my death there will be [a self] with no form and neither consciousness nor noncon- sciousness. This alone is true while the rest is false.”
A third group asserts, “After my death, there will be [a self] with both a form and no form and with neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness. This alone is true while the rest is false.”
A fourth group asserts, “After my death, there will be [a self] with nei- ther form nor no form and with neither consciousness nor nonconscious- ness. This alone is true while the rest is false.”
A ﬁfth group asserts, “After my death, there will be [a self] with an end (i.e., a limit) but with neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness. This alone is true while the rest is false.”
A sixth group asserts, “After my death, there will be [a self] with no end (i.e., no limit) and with neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness. This alone is true while the rest is false.”
A seventh group asserts, “After my death, there will be [a self] with both an end and no end and with neither consciousness nor nonconscious- ness. This alone is true while the rest is false.”
An eighth group asserts, “After my death, there will be [a self] with neither an end nor no end and with neither consciousness nor non con- sciousness (n’eva antavā-anantavā ātmā n’eva saṃjñi-nāsaṃjñi). This alone is true while the rest is false.”
These are the eight variations of speculative theories held by śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future, asserting that there will be neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness in the world after death. They all form eight variations and do not exceed that number. Once again, only the Buddha knows the very basis of these theories, and so on, just as has been stated repeatedly.
Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant. What is this insight? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculate in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future and form a theory of annihilationism, asserting that living beings are completely destroyed after their deaths [or after the dissolution of their bodies], without remainder. This kind of theory can be classiﬁed into seven variations without exceeding that number. On

93b

what basis can the theories of the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who speculate in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future, asserting that there is no self after death, be classiﬁed into seven variations and not exceed that number? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculatively form this view, “My body consists of four material principles and six cognitive faculties, and it was born of my father and mother, reared initially by milk, and later sustained by food and clothing and physically protected. The result, however, is subject to change and will eventually be destroyed and obliterated. As it is like this,
it is called annihilation.” This is the ﬁrst theory of annihilationism.
A second group of śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas asserts, “This may not be total annihilation [of a sentient being]. Only when one reaches the heaven in the realm of desire (kāmadhātu) is the body totally annihilated after death.” A third group asserts, “This may not be total annihilation [of a sentient being]. The body that takes shape in the realm of form (rūpadhātu) is endowed with all cognitive faculties. Only when these faculties are destroyed and obliterated after one’s death can the dissolution of faculties
be regarded as total annihilation.”
A fourth group asserts, “This may not be total annihilation [of a sentient being]. Only when one reaches the formless realm (arūpyadhātu) of inﬁnite space can it be regarded as total annihilation.”
A ﬁfth group asserts, “This may not be total annihilation [of a sentient being]. Only when one reaches the formless realm of inﬁnite consciousness can it be regarded as total annihilation.”
A sixth group asserts, “This may not be total annihilation [of a sentient being]. Only when one reaches the formless realm of nothingness can it be regarded as total annihilation.”
A seventh group asserts, “This may not be total annihilation [of a sentient being]. Only when one reaches the formless realm, namely, the realm of neither thought nor nonthought, can it be regarded as total annihilation.” These are the seven variations of the theories held by those śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who speculate in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future, asserting that there is total destruction and obliteration of living beings after their death. The theories all fall into seven variations and do not exceed that number. Once again, only the Buddha knows the very basis
of these theories, and so on, as has been stated repeatedly.

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Again, there is another great insight, most profound and subtle and far more radiant. What is this insight? Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who speculate about the ﬁnal eon of the future assert a theory of nirvana and hold that living beings should acquire nirvana in their present lives. This kind of theory can be classiﬁed into ﬁve variations without exceeding that number. On what basis, however, do the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who speculate about the ﬁnal eon of the future assert that living beings should acquire nirvana in their present lives? How can this theory be classiﬁed into ﬁve variations and not exceed that number?
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculatively form this view, “Since I am able to enjoy all ﬁve senses as freely as I wish, I regard this as the realization of nirvana in this present life.” This is the ﬁrst variation.
A second group of śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas asserts, “I think that this is the nirvana acquired in the present life and I cannot deny this subtle state. You may not understand this as I alone have experienced it. If you forsake all evil desires and all that is not good, even though there may be awareness of an object ( you jia; vitarka) and the act of examining ( you guan; vicāra), you will acquire the sense of joy ( prīti) and bliss (sukha) that removes the cause of birth. You will enter the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption (dhyāna). This may be regarded as nirvana acquired in the present life.” This is the second variation.
A third group asserts, “I think that this is the nirvana acquired in the present life and I cannot deny this subtle state. You may not understand it as I alone have experienced it. If you eliminate awareness of an object and the subjective act of examination, with increasing tranquility or self- conﬁdence (Pāli saṃpasādana) and continual application of mental con- centration, you will proceed to the second meditative state of absorption. According to my experience, this may be regarded as nirvana acquired in the present life.” This is the third variation.
A fourth group asserts, “I think that this is the nirvana acquired in the present life and I cannot deny this state of subtlety. You may not understand it as I alone have experienced it. If you eliminate deﬁled affectations and forsake the feeling of delight while remaining mindful of the blissful state and experience it in the body, which the wise and saintly disciples commend, you will then enter the third meditative state of absorption. According to

93c

my experience, this may be regarded as nirvana acquired in the present life.” This is the fourth variation.
A ﬁfth group asserts, “I think that this is the nirvana acquired in this present life and I cannot deny this subtle state. You may not understand it as I alone have experienced it. If you eradicate feelings of happiness and suffering and remove sorrow and joy, as I have done, you will realize the state of equanimity in which neither suffering nor pleasure is experi- enced, and thus enter the fourth meditative state of absorption, which is primary nirvana.” This is the ﬁfth variation.
When śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas speculate in regard to the ﬁnal eon of the future and assert these views of nirvana that may be acquired in the present life, their theories can be classiﬁed into ﬁve variations without exceeding that number. Once again, only the Buddha knows the very basis of these theories, and so on, just as has been stated repeatedly.
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas obsessively assert innumerable spec- ulative views about the ﬁnal eon of the future, but the various theories they advance about the ﬁnal eon of the future can invariably be classiﬁed into forty-four variations without exceeding that number. Once again, only the Buddha knows the very basis of these theories, and so on, just as has been stated repeatedly.
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas obsessively assert innumerable views about the initial eon of the past and the ﬁnal eon of the future, but the var- ious theories they advance about the initial eon of the past and the ﬁnal eon of the future can be classiﬁed exhaustively into sixty-two variations without exceeding that number. Once again, only the Buddha knows the very basis of these theories, and so on, just as has been stated repeatedly. Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, speculating about the initial eon of the past, assert a theory of eternalism and hold that the self and the world are permanent. On the basis of this theory, these śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas acquire knowledge, namely, heretical notions of belief, desire, learning, [causal] conditions, sensation, view, concentration, and acknowledgment.
They then acquire knowledge from these [heretical notions], namely, the notion of sensation and so on, up to the notion of nirvana as well.
Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, speculating about the initial eon of the past, assert a theory of eternalism and hold that the self and the world

30
are permanent. Since these theories are invariably occasioned by the contact of the senses [with their respective objects], it is impossible to advance any of these theories apart from the fact of sense contact. This holds true even with the theory of nirvana acquired in the present life. Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas assert innumerable views about the initial eon of the past and the ﬁnal eon of the future. Whatever theories they advance concerning the initial eon of the past and the ﬁnal eon of the future are invariably accomplished within these sixty-two variations. Therefore, whatever speculative view one may assert as a theory is conﬁned to these sixty-two variations [and can never be accomplished outside these variations]. This state of affairs can be compared to the situation of a skillful ﬁsherman who casts a ﬁne-meshed net over a small pond and covers it entirely. It should be understood that whatever creatures exist within that small pond will invariably be trapped in the net and cannot escape from it; they are all contained within it and cannot go beyond it. The śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas are also like this. All the various speculative theories they hold concerning the initial eon of the past and the ﬁnal eon of the future are invariably conﬁned within the ﬁne-meshed net of these sixty-two variations
and may equal but never go beyond them.
If a bhikṣu acquires insight into the causal concatenation of the six senses and contact with their objects (i.e., sensation, its cessation, its grat- iﬁcation, its danger, and the method of its transcendence), universally as they really are, this would be his highest achievement, [precisely] because this insight goes beyond the theories contained within the sixty-two vari- ations. The Tathāgata has directly experienced in the present life that the cause of birth and death has been exhausted. The only reason he continues to appear in this world is because of his [resolution] to help gods and humans realize the goal of nirvana. Without this [great] resolution, there would be no one in this world on whom gods and humans can rely as their refuge. Such a state of affairs can be compared to the tāla tree: if the top is chopped off, the tree never revives. In case of the Buddha, too, because he has already terminated the cause of life and birth, once he enters nirvana he will never again return to this world.
The time this discourse was completed must have been the right time for the Buddha, because the entire earth quaked three times in six different ways.

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At that moment Ānanda was standing behind the Buddha, fanning him. He rearranged his outer robe to expose his right shoulder and, kneeling with his palms joined, he said to the Buddha, “The foregoing discourse is very profound, sir. What title should be given to this discourse? And how can this discourse be sustained and carried out, sir?”
The Buddha said to Ānanda, “This sutra should be called the net of mean- ings, the net of insights, the net of views, the net of catching evil ones, and the net of Brahmā.”
At that, having heard the Buddha’s teaching, Ānanda was delighted to receive it, and he reverentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 21: Brahmā’s Net]

Sutra 22

One Who Cultivates Virtue
(Dīgha Nikāya 4: Soṇadaṇḍa Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha was traveling through the com- munities of the country of Aṅga, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples, he stopped overnight by the bank of Queen Gaggarā’s lotus pond near the city of Campā.
A brāhmaṇa called Soṇadaṇḍa resided in Campā, a well-populated and prosperous city with abundant greenery. King Prasenajit [of Kauśala]15 had granted the city to the brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa as a ﬁef, exempting it from tax- ation. This brāhmaṇa had been born into a pure family line of seven gener- ations and had never been slighted by anyone in society. He was thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and had detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures as well as a comprehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature. He was also well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. He had ﬁve hundred student disciples and never tired of teaching them.
On this occasion, many of the brāhmaṇas and wealthy householders of the city were duly informed:
The śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan, having renounced domestic life and realized the ultimate goal of religion, has been traveling through the communities of the country of Aṅga and has [now] reached the bank of Queen Gaggarā’s lotus pond in the city of Campā. Gautama’s good name is renowned and [his accomplishment] has been proclaimed every- where, in all lands under the sky, as worthy of the ten supreme titles, namely One Perfected in Practice (Tathāgata), One Liberated from Attach- ment (Arhat), Perfectly Enlightened One (Samyak-saṃbuddha), and so on. Among all the gods and humans, as well as all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced

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94c

the realization of enlightenment and has been teaching others [how to realize that goal]. When he expounds on religion his words are good in the begin- ning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with true meanings and real essences, and they are in accord with his practice of pure and genuine austerity.
[Each of them was struck by the same thought:] “I too have heard that we should visit this sage and pay our respects. I will go to see this man together with the others.” Thereupon, all of the citizens, brāhmaṇas and wealthy householders alike, immediately departed to go to the place where the Buddha was resting, [resulting in a great exodus from the city].
The brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa, observing from atop his high tower the passage of a multitude of citizens [through the streets], asked his attendants, “Why are all these people gathered together and where are they going?”
The attendants replied:
I have heard, sir: “The śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan, having renounced domestic life and realized the ultimate goal of religion, has been traveling through the communities of the country of Aṅga and has [now] reached the bank of Queen Gaggarā’s lotus pond in the city of Campā. Gautama’s good name is renowned and [his accomplishment] has been proclaimed everywhere, in all lands under the sky, as worthy of the ten supreme titles, namely, One Perfected in Practice (Tathāgata), One Liberated from Attachment (Arhat), Perfectly Enlightened One (Samyak- saṃbuddha), and so on. Among all the gods and humans, as well as all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced the realization of enlightenment. When he expounds on religion his words are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with true meanings and real essences, and they are in accord with his pure and genuine practice of austerity.”
The brāhmaṇas and wealthy householders all wish to see the śramaṇa Gautama and pay him their respects. The crowds are nothing other than the procession of those who wish to go see the śramaṇa Gautama, sir.
The brāhmaṇa then instructed his attendants: “Go quickly and carry my

34
message to the people. Tell them: ‘Gentlemen, please wait for a moment while I come to join you. Let us all go together to Gautama’s resting place.’” One of the attendants immediately went out and said to the people: “Good people, please wait for a moment for [the brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa] to join you.
He wishes to accompany you to Gautama’s resting place.”
The townspeople responded to the attendant: “Please return quickly to the brāhmaṇa and tell him: ‘The most auspicious moment is at hand. Let us [now] go together.’”
The attendant returned and reported: “The people are waiting, sir. They say, ‘The most auspicious moment is at hand. Let us [now] go together.’” The brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa right away descended from the high tower and went to the middle gate. It so happened that his ﬁve hundred students had gathered at the gate, attending to a minor matter. Seeing their [teacher] brāh- maṇa Soṇadaṇḍa approaching, they stood up in unison and greeted him, “O
great brāhmaṇa, where are you going, sir?” Soṇadaṇḍa replied:
The śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan, is here. Having renounced domestic life and realized the ultimate goal of religion, he has been trav- eling through the communities of the country of Aṅga and has [now] reached the bank of Queen Gaggarā’s lotus pond in the city of Campā. Gautama’s good name is renowned and [his accomplishment] has been proclaimed everywhere, in all lands under the sky, as worthy of the ten supreme titles, namely, One Perfected in Practice (Tathāgata), One Lib- erated from Attachment (Arhat), Perfectly Enlightened One (Samyak- saṃbuddha), and so on. Among all the gods and humans, as well as all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced the realization of enlightenment. When he expounds on religion his words are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with true meanings and real essences, and they are in accord with his pure and genuine practice of asuterity. Everyone should go to see this sage, and I too wish to visit the śramaṇa Gautama and pay my respects.
The ﬁve hundred student disciples then spoke to Soṇadaṇḍa, advising him:

35
May you not be so bold as to visit him. Why? Sir, he will come here instead, and so Your Reverence need not go to him.
A great brāhmaṇa like Your Reverence, who comes from a line of pure parentage of seven generations, should never be slighted by anyone in society. If you uphold [the prestige of] your pure family line, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Therefore, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Moreover, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is well established: you are thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and have detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures, as well as a comprehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature. Your Reverence is also well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in conducting cere- monial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. If you uphold [the preeminence of] one who possesses such [extraordinary] abilities, [the śramaṇa Gau- tama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is reﬂected in your handsome countenance, which bears the likeness and coloring of the god Brahmā. If you uphold [the prestige of] this [extraordinary] likeness, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is proven by the ﬁne moral quality of your ever-increasing virtues and store of acquired wisdom. If you main- tain [the dignity inherent in] this [extraordinary] achievement, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is apparent in your gentle manner of speech and you are endowed with the highest rhetorical skill, as every word is imbued with pure and genuine meanings and essences. If you rest in [the propriety ﬂowing from] this [extraordinary] ability, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is evidenced in your position as a great master with many disciple followers. If you afﬁrm this [extraordinary]

36
attainment, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is shown in your ability to teach ﬁve hundred students at all times. If you afﬁrm this [extraordinary] quality, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is reﬂected in your capacity to give consultation to scholars seeking it from all quarters of the continent, and to provide them with clear, detailed answers to questions about sac- riﬁcial rites and proceedings. If you afﬁrm this [extraordinary] quality, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is reﬂected in the respect and recognition accorded you by both King Prasenajit (of Kauśala) and King Bimbisāra (of Magadha). If you uphold [the status conveyed by] these [extraordinary] honors, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is conﬁrmed by your wealth and your storehouses ﬁlled with treasure. If you maintain [the standing of] one so [extraordinarily] endowed with wealth, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is revealed in your intelligence; you possess complete understanding and command the power of univer- sally beneﬁcial speech that is totally free from inconsistency. If you rest on [the preeminence given by] this [extraordinary] quality, [the śramaṇa Gautama] will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Soṇadaṇḍa then replied:
Yes, it is as you have said. What you have just said is indeed correct. I do possess the qualities you have enumerated; I do not deny it. Listen to me, however. [You should know that] the śramaṇa Gautama is replete with every [excellent] meritorious virtue, and also that I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.

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The śramaṇa Gautama was born into a line of pure parentage of seven generations, which must not be slighted by anyone in society. Since he is from such a pure family, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama was born into a kṣatriya family and has a handsome appearance. As he is marked by this excellence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama was born into a noble family, but having renounced his worldly fortune he has realized the ultimate goal of religion. Since he has realized this goal, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, born from a pure family line and endowed with a fair, bright complexion, has renounced domestic life and engaged in religious practice. Since he has decisively taken up the path of religion, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama was born into a wealthy and privileged family, yet despite the strength of that position, he has renounced domestic life and realized the goal of religious practice. Since he has realized this goal, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is endowed with all [moral and spiritual] precepts (śīlavant ārya-śīlin kuśala-śilena samannāgata) and has attained the perfection of transcendental insight. Since he has realized this excel- lence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is skilled in the use of appropriate language and [his manner] is gentle, harmonious, and reﬁned. Since he has realized this excellence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is a teacher of teachers and has a multitude of disciples (bahūnām ācārya-prācarya). Since he has realized this excel- lence, we should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama has [thoroughly] terminated all desires and passions with no inconstancy whatsoever (kṣīṇa-kāma-rāga-vigata- cāpalya). Having eradicated all anxiety and fear, his bearing is neither stiff nor artiﬁcial but pleasingly harmonious and delightful. He praises the good- ness in others, teaches the principle of moral retribution (karma-vādin kriyā- vādin), and honors [the practice of] non-harm (Pāli apāpa-purekkhāra).

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Since he has realized this excellence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is respected, adored, given offerings, and shown tender concern by King Prasenajit and King Bimbisāra. Since he has been accorded this status, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is respected, adored, given offerings, and shown tender concern by the brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasvādi (Pokkharasādi), and also by brāhmaṇas such as Brahmā, Tārukkha, Kūṭadanta, and Suka- māṇavatodeyya. Since he has attained this eminence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is revered, respected, adored, given offer- ings, and shown tender concern not only by the saintly disciples (śrāvaka- antevāsika) but also by the gods and other legions of spirits, and is followed with devotion by clanspeople from the Śākya, Kaulya, Uttarakā, Vṛji, Malla, and Somanā clans. Since he has attained this eminence, we should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama convinced both King Prasenajit and King Bimbisāra to receive lay ordination by taking refuge in the Three Treasures (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha) and adhering to the ﬁve moral precepts. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama convinced the brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasvādi and others to receive lay ordination by taking refuge in the Three Treasures and adhering to the ﬁve moral precepts. Since he has attained this distinc- tion, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama not only granted his disciples the higher ordination that consists of taking refuge in the Three Treasures and adhering to the ﬁve precepts, but also offered the invariable refuge of the Three Treasures and the ﬁve precepts to the gods, to the Śākya and Kaulya clans- people, and so on. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, whenever and wherever he is traveling through our communities, has always been respected, given offerings,

95b

and shown tender concern by all the people. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, in whatever town or village he happens to visit, is always respected, given offerings, and shown tender concern by the townspeople and villagers. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, wherever he travels, has never been dis- turbed by nonhuman spirits. Since he is constantly accompanied by this miracle, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, wherever he happens to be, empowers the people of that locality to perceive a heavenly radiance and hear celestial music. Since he is always accompanied by this miracle, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, wherever he sojourns on his travels, invariably endears himself to the people so that when he departs they weep when parting from him, wishing that he would stay longer. Since he has always endeared himself to everyone, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, when the śramaṇa Gautama ﬁrst renounced domestic life, his loving father and mother were brought to tears and they grieved bitterly at his departure and yearned for him to return. Because he has attained the goal of his renunciation, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here. Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, on renouncing domestic life, cast away all his jewelry, elephants, horses, chariots, and every object of gratiﬁcation for the ﬁve senses even though he was in the youthful prime of life. Since he has fulﬁlled the path of renunciation, I should go to him; he will not
come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama abandoned the throne of universal kingship (cakravartin) to enter religious practice. Had he pursued the life of a house- holder he would have reigned over the four quarters of the earth as the sovereign of all people and all worldly things, and we all would have been his subjects. Since he has fulﬁlled the path of religion [instead of that other path of glory,] I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama thoroughly understands the reforming principle of excommunication ( fanfa; brahmādaṇḍa) as practiced in

40
Brahmā Heaven; he communicates with Brahmā and commends the efﬁ- cacy of this principle to others. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is endowed with the thirty-two eminent marks of a great person without exception. Since he is endowed with all these excellent marks, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama possesses the penetrating intelligence of complete understanding and is totally free from any mental unsteadiness. Since he is endowed with this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama has just now arrived on the bank of Queen Gaggarā’s lotus pond. He is the Honored One for me and a cherished guest [of this region]. I should go to him to form a close association.
The ﬁve hundred students then said to Soṇadaṇḍa:
This is truly marvelous—indeed, truly marvelous, sir! Can [the śramaṇa Gautama] possess all of the meritorious virtues? If he possessed just one of them, he could not be expected to come to us. How much less could he be expected to come to us when he is so fully endowed with every dis- tinction! Will Your Reverence allow us to accompany you to greet the Tathāgata?
Soṇadaṇḍa replied, “If you wish, now is the time to come along with me.” The brāhmaṇa’s carriage was prepared and, surrounded by his ﬁve hundred students and the brāhmaṇas and householders of the city of Campā, he jour- neyed to Queen Gaggarā’s [lotus] pond.
Not far from the pond, Soṇadaṇḍa thought to himself:
If I ask Gautama something, I could be admonished if my question is inappropriate and counter to the way he thinks. He may say, “You should ask me that question in this way, and not like that.” Those who are in attendance on this occasion will then surely think of me as ignorant and my reputation will be damaged. If the śramaṇa Gautama asks me a question about the meaning of my doctrines and my answer does not appear to conform to his thinking, he may say, “You should reply in this manner, and not like that.” Those who are in attendance on this occasion will then

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surely think of me as ignorant and my reputation will be damaged. Yet if I return from this occasion without exchanging any words with Gautama, those who have accompanied me may say, “The [brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa] has little knowledge. He did not dare to exchange words with the śramaṇa Gautama.” My reputation will thus be damaged. If, however, the śramaṇa Gautama should ask me about the meritorious virtues that brāhmaṇas are obliged to fulﬁll, then I can answer in a way that I hope will be in accord with his line of inquiry.”
Having run through these thoughts while approaching Queen Gaggarā’s [lotus] pond, the brāhmaṇa dismounted from his carriage and went on foot to the resting place of the World-honored One, where he bowed and took a seat to one side. The brāhmaṇas and householders of Campā also sat down, some of them venerating the Buddha before doing so. Some greeted him with a bow, while others called out their names or simply joined their palms together to pay their respects, quietly without a word.
When they had all settled in their seats, the Buddha at once knew the mind of the brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa and said to him, “What you have thought is in accordance with your wish.”
The Buddha then asked Soṇadaṇḍa:
O brāhmaṇa, how many meritorious virtues must you, as a brāhmaṇa, be endowed with so that whatever a brāhmaṇa such as yourself may say is said with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood?
At that moment, Soṇadaṇḍa thought to himself:
Quite marvelous—indeed, marvelous! The śramaṇa Gautama evidently has the great supernormal power of reading the minds of others as easily as I know my own thoughts: he has put a question about exactly what I wish to be asked about!
[Soṇadaṇḍa] then assumed a correct posture and, looking out over the audience with a smile, replied to the Buddha:
As a brāhmaṇa I have fulﬁlled the ﬁve meritorious virtues, so whatever I say is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood, sir. What are these ﬁve virtues? First, a brāhmaṇa must be from a pure family line

42
of seven generations, and must not be slighted by anyone in society. Sec- ond, he should be thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and have detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures as well as a comprehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature; moreover, he should be well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. Third, he should be endowed with a handsome countenance [with a fair and bright com- plexion]. Fourth, he should uphold perfect adherence to the moral precepts. Fifth, he should possess the wisdom of complete understanding. These are the ﬁve meritorious virtues. O Gautama, a brāhmaṇa must be endowed with these ﬁve meritorious virtues so that whatever he says is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood, sir.
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
Very good, O brāhmaṇa. [Now] of these ﬁve virtues, can someone who has accomplished four of them while not fulﬁlling one still be called a [true] brāhmaṇa, such that whatever he says is spoken with utmost sin- cerity, involving no falsehood?
The brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa replied:
Yes, sir. Why? O Gautama, a brāhmaṇa is not required to fulﬁll any condition related to the lineage of his birth. One who fulﬁlls the remaining four [virtues] can be called a [true] brāhmaṇa, and whatever he says is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood. [First,] such a brāhmaṇa must be thor- oughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and possess detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures as well as a com- prehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature; he must also be well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. [Second,] such a brāhmaṇa must be endowed with a handsome countenance [with a fair and bright complexion]. [Third,] such a brāhmaṇa must uphold perfect adherence to the moral precepts. [Fourth,] such a brāhmaṇa must possess the wisdom of complete understanding.

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The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa:
Very good. [Now] of those [remaining] four virtues, can one who has accomplished three of them while not fulﬁlling one still be called a [true] brāhmaṇa, such that whatever he says is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood?
The brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa replied:
Yes, sir. Why? O Gautama, just as a brāhmaṇa is not required to fulﬁll any condition of lineage related to his birth, he also is not required to fulﬁll any condition related to various forms of chanting. One who fulﬁlls the remaining three [virtues] may be called a [true] brāhmaṇa, and what- ever he says is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood. [First,] such a brāhmaṇa must be endowed with a handsome countenance, [with a fair and bright complexion]. [Second,] such a brāhmaṇa must uphold perfect adherence to the moral precepts. [Third,] such a brāhmaṇa must possess the wisdom of complete understanding.
The Buddha continued:
Very good. [Now] of these three virtues, can one who has accomplished two of them while not fulﬁlling one still be called a [true] brāhmaṇa, such that whatever he says is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood?
The brāhmaṇa replied:
Yes, sir. Why? O Gautama, just as a brāhmaṇa is not required to fulﬁll any conditions related to his birth lineage or to various forms of chanting, he also need not fulﬁll the condition requiring a handsome countenance with a fair complexion.
At that moment, the ﬁve hundred brāhmaṇa students shouted out in protest to Soṇadaṇḍa:
Why does Your Reverence cast aside fulﬁllment of the conditions of birth [from pure lineage], of [proﬁciency in scriptural] chanting, and of pos- sessing physical attractiveness [due to heredity]?
At once, the World-honored One said to them:

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If the brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa, your teacher, was unbecoming in his facial features, if he came from a humble family background and was unable to chant the scriptures, or speak intelligently and eloquently, and hence unable to exchange words with me, then you could speak out [on his behalf]. If, however, Soṇadaṇḍa does have a handsome countenance, comes from an appropriate family background, and is not only proﬁcient in chanting scriptures but also able to exchange arguments intelligently and eloquently, and capable of engaging in debate with me, you should remain silent and listen to what he says.
At that moment, the brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa said to the Buddha, “May I request, O Gautama, that you not press [my disciples] for a moment. I shall teach them myself.” Soṇadaṇḍa then asked the ﬁve hundred brāhmaṇas:
Aṅgamāṇava is among this multitude of students, like yourselves. He is one of my nephews from my wife’s side. Do you all see how handsome he is? With the singular exception of the World-honored One, [whose noble appearance is beyond comparison,] there is no one in this assembly whose attractiveness can match that of this young fellow Aṅgamāṇava. Yet he is a moral degenerate—he commits murder, theft, and sexual abuse; he is rude and engages in falsehood and deceit. He has committed evil by transgressing norms and has murdered people by burning them with ﬁre. O brāhmaṇas, this man Aṅgamāṇava concentrates within himself all evils. So even though he is capable and proﬁcient in chanting scriptures, of what use is that?
The ﬁve hundred brāhmaṇas remained silent, [raising no objections].
Soṇadaṇḍa then said to the Buddha:
Sir, with one who upholds perfect adherence to the moral precepts and also possesses the wisdom of complete understanding, whatever he says is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood. Such a person can be called a [true] brāhmaṇa, sir.
The Buddha said:
Very good. How do you reply [now], O Soṇadaṇḍa? If one of the two virtues is not fulﬁlled but the other is perfected, and if whatever is said

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is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood, can such a person be called a [true] brāhmaṇa?
Soṇadaṇḍa replied:
No, sir. Why? Perfect moral discipline is wisdom, and wisdom means the perfection of moral conduct. He who has perfected adherence to the moral precepts is in possession of wisdom. As a result, whatever he says is spoken with utmost sincerity, involving no falsehood. Thus I assert that such a person is a [true] brāhmaṇa, sir.
The Buddha said:
Very good. It is exactly as you have said. One who is endowed with moral perfection is endowed with wisdom; one who possesses wisdom is morally perfect. Moral discipline can purify wisdom, and vice versa. O Soṇadaṇḍa, just as all people use both hands when they wash their hands, so is it with moral discipline and wisdom. With the left hand, one cleans the right hand; with the right hand, one cleans the left hand. It is the same with wisdom and moral discipline. One who possesses wisdom is also endowed with moral discipline; one who is morally disciplined also possesses wis- dom. Moral discipline can purify and perfect wisdom, and perfect wisdom can purify and perfect moral discipline. O brāhmaṇa, one who possesses both moral discipline and wisdom, I call that person a bhikṣu.
Soṇadaṇḍa then said to the Buddha, “What are the moral precepts [to which you refer], sir?”
The Buddha said, “Listen carefully and keep in mind what I explain. I shall explain each one analytically.”
Soṇadaṇḍa replied, “Yes, sir. This is what I have come to hear.” The World-honored One then said to the brāhmaṇa:
When the Tathāgata appears in this world, he bears the [ten] epithets of
(1) One Liberated from Attachment, (2) Perfectly Enlightened One, (3) One Harmoniously Endowed with Insight and Practice, (4) Well-gone One (who will not be reborn into the cycles of rebirth), (5) Knower of the World, (6) Unrivaled Leader, (7) Trainer of Human Devotion, (8) Teacher of Gods and Humans, (9) Enlightened One, and (10) World-honored One.

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Among all the gods and humans, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced the realization of enlightenment and teaches others [how to realize it]. [When he expounds on religion] his words are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with true meanings and real essences, and they are in accord with his pure and genuine practice of austerity.
When householders and their offspring listen to the right Dharma, they will be motivated to give rise to pure and genuine tranquil faith [in the Tathāgata]. Having given rise to faith [in the Tathāgata], they will reﬂect upon their lives:
The life of a householder is not easy, it is [like being bound in] a rack of chains. Even as I wish to pursue the path of austerity, I cannot be free [as long as I am bound to a householder’s life]. I should now shave my hair and beard, don the three robes of a mendicant, and renounce domestic life for religious practice.
Later, such a person may abandon his household and wealth, dissociate himself from his family and relations, shave his hair and beard, and don the three robes. Casting aside all ﬁnery, chanting the precepts and disci- plines in the Vinaya texts, adhering to the rule of abstaining from taking life, and so on, even up to the realization of the fourth meditative state of absorption, he may thereby acquire supreme bliss. How is this so? This realization is only possible through a sustained effort of concentration, comprising constant mindfulness of enjoying practice as a recluse. O brāhmaṇa, this is regarded as the endowment of the higher ordination consisting of adherence to the Vinaya precepts and disciplines.
The brāhmaṇa then asked, “What is the wisdom [to which Your Reverence refers], sir?”
The Buddha replied:
When a bhikṣu realizes a pure and genuine state of mental concentration that is gentle, well controlled, able to abide in immovability, and so on, it opens up three kinds of supernormal powers: knowledge of past lives, knowledge of future destinies, and the eradication of deﬁlements. It thus

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terminates the state of ignorance, causing insight to arise together with the light of wisdom, the eradication of darkness, and the supreme illumi- nation—all by going beyond the insight gained from the eradication of deﬁlement. How is this so? This realization is only possible through a sustained effort of concentration, comprising constant mindfulness of one’s point of observation and the acquisition of a state of equanimity accompanied by an increasingly subtle sense of bliss. O brāhmaṇa, this is regarded as the endowment of perfect knowledge of the Vinaya precepts and disciplines.
Thereupon, the brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa said to the Buddha:
Now I am resolved to take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and the holy bhikṣus’ Sangha. I earnestly request to be permitted to become a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this moment until the dissolution of the body and end of life, I will uphold the ﬁve precepts, refraining from taking life, refraining from taking what is not given, refraining from immoral sexual conduct, refraining from speaking falsehoods, and refrain- ing from ingesting intoxicants.
Having heard the Buddha’s teaching, the brāhmaṇa Soṇadaṇḍa was delighted to receive it and carried it out as taught by the Buddha.
[End of Sutra 22: One Who Cultivates Virtue]

Sutra 23

Brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta
(Dīgha Nikāya 5: Kūṭadanta Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha was visiting the communities in the country of Kauśala, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty disciples, he stopped overnight in a śiṃśapā tree forest to the north of a brāh- maṇa village called Khānumata. A brāhmaṇa named Kūṭadanta resided in the village, which was well populated and verdant with groves of [shade] trees and bathing ponds giving off a welcome coolness to any observer. King Prasenajit had given this village to Kūṭadanta as a ﬁef, exempting it from taxation. The brāhmaṇa was from a pure family line of seven generations and had never been slighted by anyone in society. He was thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas), and had detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures as well as a comprehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature. He was also well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. He had ﬁve hundred student disciples and never tired of teaching them. To conduct a grand sacriﬁcial rite, he would obtain no fewer than ﬁve hundred bulls, ﬁve hundred cows, ﬁve hundred male calves, ﬁve hundred female calves, ﬁve hundred ewes, and ﬁve hundred rams.
On this occasion, many of the brāhmaṇas and wealthy householders of the village were duly informed:
The śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan, having renounced domestic life and realized the ultimate goal of religion, has been visiting the commu- nities of the country of Kauśala and has [now] arrived at the śiṃśapā tree forest north of the village of Khānumata for an overnight stay. Gautama’s good name is renowned, and [his accomplishment] has been proclaimed everywhere, in all countries, as worthy of the ten supreme titles, namely, One Perfected in Practice (Tathāgata), One Liberated from Attachment

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(Arhat), Perfectly Enlightened One (Samyak-saṃbuddha), and so on. Among all the gods and humans, as well as all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced the realization of enlightenment and has been teaching others [how to realize that goal]. When he expounds on religion his words are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with true meanings and real essences, and they are in accord with his practice of pure and genuine austerity.
[Everyone who heard this had the same thought:] “I have heard that we should visit this sage and pay our respects. I will go to see this man together with the others.” Thereupon, all of the villagers, brāhmaṇas and wealthy householders alike, immediately departed together, [resulting in a great exodus].
The brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta, observing from atop his high tower the passage of the villagers, asked his attendants, “Why have these people gathered and where are they going?”
The attendants replied:
I have heard, sir: “The śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan, having renounced domestic life and realized the ultimate goal of religion, has been visiting the communities of the country of Kauśala and has [now] reached the śiṃśapā forest north of the village. Gautama’s good name is renowned, and [his accomplishment] has been proclaimed everywhere, in all countries, as worthy of the ten supreme titles, namely, One Perfected in Practice, One Liberated from Attachment, Perfectly Enlightened One, and so on. Among all the gods and humans, as well as all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced the realization of enlightenment and has been teaching others how to realize [that goal]. When he expounds on religion, his words are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with true meanings and real essences, and they are in accord with his practice of pure and genuine austerity.”
The brāhmaṇas and wealthy householders of the village all wish to visit the śramaṇa Gautama and pay him their respects. The crowd is nothing but the procession of those who wish to see the śramaṇa Gautama, sir.

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The brāhmaṇa then instructed his attendants, “Go quickly and carry my message to the people. Tell them ‘Please wait for a moment while I come to join you. Let us all go together to Gautama’s resting place.’”
One of the attendants immediately went out and said to the people, “Good people, please wait for a moment [for the brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta] to join you. He wishes to accompany you to Gautama’s resting place.”
The townspeople responded to the attendant, “Please return quickly to the brāhmaṇa and tell him ‘The most auspicious moment is at hand. Let us [now] go together.’”
The attendant returned and reported: “The people are waiting, sir. They say, ‘The most auspicious moment is at hand. Let us [now] go together.’” The brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta came down from the high tower immediately and went to the middle gate. It so happened that his ﬁve hundred students had gathered outside the gate to assist him in the preparations for a great sac- riﬁcial rite. Seeing their [teacher] approaching, they stood up in unison and
greeted him, “O great brāhmaṇa, where are you going, sir.” The brāhmaṇa replied:
I have heard about the śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan. Having renounced domestic life and realized the ultimate goal of religion, he has been visiting the communities of the country of Kauśala and has [now] reached the śiṃśapā forest to the north of this village. Gautama’s good name is renowned, and [his accomplishment] has been proclaimed every- where, in all countries, as worthy of the ten supreme titles, namely, One Perfected in Practice, One Liberated from Attachment, Perfectly Enlight- ened One, and so on. Among all the gods and humans, as well as all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced the realization of enlightenment and has been teaching others [how to realize that goal]. When he expounds on religion, his words are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with true meanings and real essences, and they are in accord with his practice of pure and genuine austerity. Everyone should go to see this sage.
O brāhmaṇas, all of you, I have also heard that Gautama is knowl- edgeable concerning the threefold sacriﬁcial rite [as to cattle, calves, and

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sheep] as well as the sixteen sacriﬁcial requisites. Even my senior colleagues and elders have little knowledge of these subjects. Now, it is my wish that we [successfully] carry out the great sacriﬁcial rite that is approaching. Since we have enough cattle and sheep, I will visit the śramaṇa Gautama to inquire further about the threefold sacriﬁcial rite and the sixteen requisites. By fulﬁlling what is required on that occasion, I will acquire new merit and my name will be renowned even to the farthest distances.
The ﬁve hundred student disciples then spoke to Kūṭadanta, advising him:
May you not be so bold as to visit him. Why? Sir, he will come here instead, and so Your Reverence need not go to him.
A great brāhmaṇa like Your Reverence, who comes from a pure line of seven generations, should never be slighted by anyone in society. If you uphold [the prestige of] your pure family line, he will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Therefore, Your Reverence should not go to him. Moreover, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is well known. You are thor- oughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and have detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures as well as a com- prehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature. Your reverence is also well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous person- alities, in divining good and bad omen, and in conducting ceremonial pro- ceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. If you uphold [the preeminence of] one who possesses this [extraordinary] knowledge, he will [eventually] come to
see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is reﬂected in your handsome countenance, which bears the likeness and coloring of the god Brahmā. If you uphold [the prestige of] this [extraordinary] likeness, he will [even- tually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is proven by the ﬁne moral quality of your ever-increasing virtues and store of acquired wisdom. If you maintain [the dignity inherent in] this [extraordinary] achievement, he will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is apparent in your gentle manner of speech and you are endowed with the highest rhetorical skill, as every word is imbued with pure and genuine meanings and essences. If you rest

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in [the propriety inherent in] this [extraordinary] ability, he will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is evidenced in your position as a great teacher of teachers (ācarya-prācārya). If you maintain [the dignity associated with] this [extraordinary] standing, he will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is shown in your ability to teach ﬁve hundred students at all times. If you afﬁrm this [extraordinary] quality, he will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is reﬂected in your capacity to give consultation to scholars seeking it from all quarters of the continent, and to give them clear detailed answers to questions about sacriﬁcial rites and proceedings. If you afﬁrm this [extraordinary] quality, he will [even- tually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him. Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is reﬂected in the respect and recognition accorded you by King Bimbisāra (of Magadha) and King Prasenajit (of Kauśala). If you uphold [the status conveyed by] these [extraordinary] honors, he will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence,
Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is conﬁrmed by your wealth and your storehouses ﬁlled with treasure. If you maintain [the standing of] one so [extraordinary] endowed with wealth, he will [eventually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him.
Again, your greatness as a brāhmaṇa is revealed in your intelligence; you possess complete understanding and command the power of univer- sally beneﬁcial speech that is totally free from inconsistency. If you rest in [the preeminence given by] this [extraordinary] quality, he will [even- tually] come to see you, sir. Hence, Your Reverence should not go to him. O great teacher, since you are endowed with all eleven of these meritorious virtues, he will come to see you, and Your Reverence should not go to him.
Kūṭadanta then replied:
Yes, it is as you have said. What you have just said is indeed correct. I do possess the qualities you have enumerated; I do not deny it. Listen to me,

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however. [If you know] the kinds of meritorious virtues the śramaṇa Gau- tama is endowed with, together with what he has accomplished, you will also know that I should go to him; he will not come to see us here. The śramaṇa Gautama was born into a pure line of seven generations, which must not be slighted by anyone in society. Since he is from such a
pure family, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama was born into a kṣatriya family and has a handsome appearance. As he is marked by this excellence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama was born into a noble family, but having renounced his worldly fortune he has realized the ultimate goal of religion. Since he has realized this goal, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, born from a pure family line and endowed with a fair, bright complexion, has renounced domestic life and engaged in religious practice. Since he has decisively taken up the path of religion, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama was born into a wealthy and privileged family, yet despite the strength of that position, he has renounced domestic life and has realized the goal of religious practice. Since he has realized this goal, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is endowed with all [moral and spiritual] precepts (śīlavant ārya-śīlin kuśala-śilena samannāgata) and has attained the perfectionof transcendental insight. Since he has realized this excel- lence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is skilled in the use of appropriate language and [his manner] is gentle, harmonious, and reﬁned. Since he has realized this excellence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is a teacher of teachers and has a multitude of disciples (bahūnām ācārya-prācarya). Since he has realized this excel- lence, we should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama has [thoroughly] terminated all desires and passions with no inconstancy whatsoever. Having eradicated all anxiety and fear, his bearing is neither stiff nor artiﬁcial but pleasingly harmonious and delightful. He praises the goodness in others, teaches the principle of

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moral retribution, and honors [the practice of] non-harm. Since he has real- ized this excellence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here. Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is respected, adored, given offerings, and shown tender concern by King Bimbisāra and King Prasenajit. Since he has been accorded this status, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here. Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is respected, adored, given offerings, and shown tender concern by the brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasvādi, and also by brāh- maṇas such as Brahmā, Tārukkha, and Sukamāṇavatodeyya. Since he has attained this eminence, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here. Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is revered, respected, adored, given offer- ings, and shown tender concern not only by the saintly disciples but also by the gods and other legions of spirits, and is followed with devotion by clanspeople from the Śākya, Kaulya, Uttarakā, Vṛji, Malla, and Somanā clans. Since he has attained this eminence, we should go to him; he will
not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama convinced both King Bimbisāra and King Prasenajit to receive lay ordination by taking refuge in the Three Treasures and adhering to the ﬁve moral precepts. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here. Again, the śramaṇa Gautama convinced the brāhmaṇa Puṣkarasvādi and others to receive lay ordination by taking refuge in the Three Treasures and adhering to the ﬁve moral precepts. Since he has attained this distinc-
tion, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama not only granted his disciples the higher ordination that consists of taking refuge in the Three Treasures and adhering to the ﬁve precepts, but also offered the refuge of the Three Treasures and the ﬁve precepts to the gods, to the Śākya and Kaulya clanspeople, and so on. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, whenever and wherever he is visiting in our communities, has always been respected, given offerings, and shown tender concern by all the people. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, in whatever town or village he happens to visit, is always respected, given offerings, and shown tender concern

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by the townspeople and villagers. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, wherever he travels, has never been dis- turbed by nonhuman spirits. Since he is constantly accompanied by this miracle, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, wherever he happens to be, empowers the people of that locality to perceive a heavenly radiance and hear celestial music. Since he is always accompanied by this miracle, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, wherever he sojourns on his travels, invariably endears himself to the people so that when he departs they weep when parting from him, wishing that he would stay longer. Since he has always endeared himself to everyone, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, when the śramaṇa Gautama ﬁrst renounced domestic life, his loving father and mother were brought to tears and they grieved bitterly at his departure and yearned for him to return. Because he has attained the goal of his renunciation, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here. Again, the śramaṇa Gautama, on renouncing domestic life, cast away all his jewelry, elephants, horses, chariots, and every object of gratiﬁcation for the ﬁve senses even though he was in the youthful prime of life. Since he has fulﬁlled the path of renunciation, I should go to him; he will not
come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama abandoned the throne of universal kingship (cakravartin) to enter religious practice. Had he pursued the life of a house- holder he would have reigned over the four quarters of the earth as the sovereign of all people and all worldly things, and we all would have been his subjects. Since he has fulﬁlled the path of religion [instead of that other path of glory,] I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama thoroughly understands the reforming principle of excommunication ( fanfa; brahmādaṇḍa) as practiced in Brahmā Heaven; he converses with Brahmā and commends the efﬁcacy of this principle to others. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.

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Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is knowledgeable concerning the threefold sacriﬁcial rite and the sixteen requisites; all my senior colleagues and elders lack this knowledge. Since he has attained this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama is endowed with the thirty-two eminent marks of a great person without exception. Since he is endowed with all these excellent marks, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama possesses the penetrating intelligence of complete understanding and is totally free from any mental unsteadiness. Since he is endowed with this distinction, I should go to him; he will not come to see us here.
Again, the śramaṇa Gautama has just now arrived at the śiṃśapā forest north of this village. He is the Honored One for me and a cherished guest [of this region]. I should go to him and form a close association.
The ﬁve hundred students then said to Kūṭadanta:
This is truly marvelous—indeed, truly marvelous, sir! Can [the śramaṇa Gautama] possess all of the meritorious virtues? If he possessed just one of them he could not be expected to come to us. How much less could he be expected to come to us when he is so fully endowed with every distinc- tion! Will Your Reverence allow us to go with you to greet the Tathāgata?
Kūṭadanta replied, “If that is your wish, now is the time to come along with me.” The brāhmaṇa’s carriage was made ready, and surrounded by his ﬁve hundred students and the brāhmaṇas and householders of the village of Khānumata, he journeyed to the śiṃśapā forest. Upon his arrival, he dis- mounted from his carriage and went on foot to the resting place of the World- honored One, whom he greeted with a bow before taking a seat to one side. The brāhmaṇas and householders of the village also sat down, some of them venerating the Buddha before doing so. Some greeted him with a bow, while others called out their names or simply joined their palms together to
pay their respects, quietly without a word.
When they had all settled into their seats, the brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta said to the Buddha, “I have a question, sir. If Your Reverence will permit me, I would like to ask it.”

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The Buddha replied, “O brāhmaṇa, you may ask your question, as you please.”
Thereupon, the brāhmaṇa said to the Buddha:
I have been informed that Gautama is knowledgeable concerning the three kinds of sacriﬁcial rites and the sixteen sacriﬁcial requisites. Sir, of these matters, neither myself nor my senior colleagues and elders are well informed. In order to fulﬁll a [longstanding] wish to conduct the great sacriﬁcial rite, I have so far obtained ﬁve hundred bulls, ﬁve hundred cows, ﬁve hundred male calves, ﬁve hundred female calves, ﬁve hundred ewes, and ﬁve hundred rams. Today I have come to ask Your Reverence how the three kinds of sacriﬁcial rite are to be conducted and the nature of the sixteen sacriﬁcial requisites. If fortune is with me and I can complete a great sacriﬁcial rite, I will gain great merit and my name will be renowned far and wide, and will even be respected by the heavenly gods, sir.
At once, the World-honored One said to the brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta, “Listen carefully and keep in mind what I explain. I shall answer your question.” The brāhmaṇa replied, “Yes, sir. This is what I have come to hear.”
Thereupon, the Buddha said to Kūṭadanta:
In the immemorial past, there was once a kṣatriya king, [properly] anointed for his throne. As he wished to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, he assembled his brāhmaṇa ministers and said to them: “I have amassed great wealth and treasure. However, while enjoying all the faculties of the ﬁve senses, I have also been growing old. My soldiers are strong and valiant without any cowardice, and my storehouses are ﬁlled with treasure. It is now a good time for me to conduct a universal sacriﬁcial rite. Please explain how we may proceed. What will be required?”
The ministers replied, “It is true, O great king. As Your Majesty has said, our country’s wealth has increased, along with the might of its army. But, sire, much of that wealth is squandered and constantly being misap- propriated by those who harbor ill intent. If a great sacriﬁce should now be conducted, we cannot expect the intended result to occur. It would be like sending a band of robbers to chase away another band of robbers; it will not serve, sire. O great king, do not think that you can rely on your

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subjects to apprehend the robbers in order to stop and punish them, or even have them executed. Instead, you must try to provide the faithful who serve Your Majesty’s interest with all the things they need: see to it that those who aspire to conduct trade and business are supplied with suf- ﬁcient capital, give those who farm the ﬁelds and cultivate the land both seeds to plant and breeding cattle, and let all of them manage their affairs by themselves. O Your Majesty, if one refrains from oppressing the people with taxes and regulations, they will feel safe and secure and be able to raise their offspring and enjoy their lives.”
The Buddha continued:
Listening to his ministers’ advice, the king made sure to provide his closest subjects with regular supplies of food and clothing, furnished capital from the royal coffers to those who aspired to operate various businesses, and gave seeds and cattle to those who wished to cultivate the land. Thereafter, the citizens ceased to interfere with each other through criminal acts; they managed their own affairs, raised their children, and enjoyed their lives.
The Buddha went on:
The king once again called his ministers and said, “My country is pros- perous, my army is strong, and my storehouses are ﬁlled with treasure. I have provided the citizens with whatever they needed and enabled them to feel free from any kind of deprivation. They are raising their families and enjoying their own lives. Therefore, I now wish to conduct a great sac- riﬁcial rite. Please explain how we should proceed. What will be required?” The ministers replied, “It is exactly as Your Majesty has said. The country is prosperous, the army is strong, and the treasury is full. Your majesty has provided the people with whatever they needed and freed them from any kind of deprivation. They are raising their families and enjoying their own lives. O great king, if Your Majesty wishes to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, this may be announced in the queens’ palace quarters.” Following the ministers’ advice, the king announced his intent before his queens and their palace ladies, “My country is prosperous, my army is strong, and my storehouses are ﬁlled with treasure. I plan to conduct a
great sacriﬁcial rite.”

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The queens responded, “Yes, sire. As Your Majesty has said, the country is prosperous, the army is strong, and the storehouses are ﬁlled with money and treasure. If Your Majesty wishes to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, this is now the right time.”
Returning from the queens’ palace, the king reported to his ministers, “My country has been prosperous, my army continues to be strong, and my storehouses are replete with treasure. I have provided the citizens with what- ever they needed and enabled them to feel free from any kind of deprivation. They are raising their families and enjoying their own lives. As I now wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, I have announced my intent to my queens in their quarters. Please explain how we can proceed. What will be required?”
The ministers replied, “It is exactly as Your Majesty has said. Wishing to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, Your Majesty has announced the matter in the queens’ palace quarters. Sire, it must still be announced before the crown prince and princes, the ministerial ofﬁcials, and your generals and their ofﬁcers. May it please Your Majesty to make the announcement before them.”
Listening to the advice of his ministers, the king said to the crown prince and princes, the ministerial ofﬁcials, and the generals and their ofﬁcers, “My country is prosperous, my army is strong, and my storehouses are ﬁlled with treasure. I plan to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite.”
The crown prince and princes, the ofﬁcials, and the generals and ofﬁcers responded, “Yes, sire. It is exactly as Your Majesty has said. The country is prosperous, the army is strong, and the storehouses are ﬁlled with treas- ure. If Your Majesty wishes to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, this should now be the right time.”
Once again, the king said to the ministers, “My country is prosperous, my army is strong, and my storehouses are ﬁlled with treasure. I wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite. I have announced the matter to my queens in their quarters, to the crown prince and princes, and so on, including to my generals and their ofﬁcers. It is now the right time to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite. What will be required?”
The ministers replied, “It is exactly as Your Majesty has said. If Your Majesty wishes to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, this must now be the right time.”

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Having received the king’s decree, the ministers at once constructed a new pavilion in the eastern part of the capital. The king entered the new pavilion covered in deer hide, his body rubbed with scented butter oil; on his head he wore a cap with deer’s antlers, and he sat on the ground where cow dung had been plastered. The ﬁrst queen and a brāhmaṇa minister selected a yellow cow. A portion of its milk became the king’s food, a second portion the queen’s food, a third portion the minister’s food, and a fourth portion was offered to the multitude, with the remainder given to its calf. The king was then to fulﬁll eight norms, while the minister had to qual- ify with four norms. What were the eight norms the king was obliged to fulﬁll? A king of the kṣatriya class had to be from a pure family line of seven generations, and could not be slighted by anyone in society. This fulﬁlled the ﬁrst norm. The king had to have a handsome appearance as beﬁts the kṣatriya class. This fulﬁlled the second norm. The king had to be endowed with ever-increasing wisdom and virtue. This fulﬁlled the third norm. The king had to be trained in martial arts such as elephant riding and driving a horse-drawn chariot, and he had to be skilled in using the sword, spear, bow and arrow, and other methods of combat, in detail without exception. This fulﬁlled the fourth norm. The king had to possess a regal presence so as to command the allegiance of subject kings. This fulﬁlled the ﬁfth norm. The king had to be skilled in speech, gentle and patient in his manner of persuasion, and use words endowed with true meanings and real essences. This fulﬁlled the sixth norm. The king had to possess great wealth and storehouses ﬁlled with treasure. This fulﬁlled the seventh norm. The king had to be valiant and decisive, endowed with strate- gic brilliance and wisdom, and without inﬁrmities at all. This fulﬁlled the eighth norm. Indeed, the kṣatriya king was well qualiﬁed in all eight norms. What were the four norms required of the brāhmaṇa minister? The brāh- maṇa minister had to be from a pure family line of seven generations and could not be slighted by anyone in society. That was the ﬁrst norm. The minister had to be thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and have detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scrip- tures as well as a comprehensive command of the subtleties of secular lit- erature. He also had to be well trained in reading the physiognomy of mag- nanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in conducting

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ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. That was the second norm. The minister had to be skilled in the use of language, gentle and patient in his manner of persuasion, and use words endowed with true meanings and real essences. That was the third norm. The minister had to be valiant and decisive, endowed with strategic brilliance and wisdom, and without inﬁrmities at all. Insofar as the sacriﬁcial rite was concerned, his knowledge had to be comprehensive. That was the fourth norm.
Thus, the king proved to be well qualiﬁed in all eight norms, and the minister in four norms. In addition, the king was required to be in command of the four assistances, the threefold sacriﬁcial rite, and the sixteen sac- riﬁcial requisites. The brāhmaṇa minister had to understand the king’s frame of mind and eradicate the king’s doubt in respect of the sixteen req- uisites. What are the sixteen requisites?
(1) Suppose the minister said to the king: “If someone says, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class wishes to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he was not born into a pure family line of seven generations and is always slighted by others’—even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king truly was born into a pure family line of seven generations and is never slighted by others.
(2) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but his countenance is unat- tractive since he is not of the kṣatriya class.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king’s countenance is handsome as beﬁts the kṣatriya class.
(3) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he is not endowed with ever-increasing virtue or wisdom.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king’s virtues are ever increasing, as is his wisdom.
(4) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he is not well trained in the martial arts, is incapable of riding an elephant or driving a horse-drawn chariot, and cannot understand various military strategies.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because

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the king is skilled in various martial arts, and there is nothing he does not know about military and battleground strategy.
(5) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but despite his great authority, he is unable to command the allegiance of lesser kings.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king commands great authority and the allegiance of those subject kings.
(6) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he is not skilled in language, is rough and impatient when trying to persuade, and uses words that are not endowed with true meanings and real essences.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king is skilled in language, gentle and patient in his manner of persuasion, and uses words endowed with true meanings and real essences.
(7) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he has little treasure.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king has a great deal of wealth and storehouses ﬁlled with treasure.
(8) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he has little strategic bril- liance or wisdom and is plagued by inﬁrmities regarding the goal of his striving.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king is valiant and decisive, endowed with strategic brilliance and wisdom, and without any inﬁrmities whatsoever.
(9) [The following four are the four assistances:] “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he has not announced his intent in his queens’ quarters.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king, wishing to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, has already announced it in his queens’ quarters.
(10) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he has not announced his intent before the crown prince and princes.’ Even if there were such a

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rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king, wishing to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, has already announced it before the crown prince and princes.
(11) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he has not announced his intent before his ofﬁcials.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king, wishing to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, has already announced it before his ofﬁcials.
(12) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class wishes to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but he has not announced his intent before his generals and their ofﬁcers.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because the king, wishing to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, has already announced it before his generals and their ofﬁcers.
(13) “Again, someone might say, “Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but his brāhmaṇa minister is not from a pure family line of seven generations and is always slighted by others.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because I was born into a pure family line of seven gen- erations that has never been slighted by others.
(14) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but his brāhmaṇa minister, while thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas), does not understand them, nor can he distinguish the various brāhmaṇa scriptures or say anything about the subtleties of secular literature. He is not trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities or in divining good and bad omens, or in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because I am thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and have detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures as well as a comprehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature. I am also well trained in reading the phys- iognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites.

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(15) “Again, someone might say, ‘Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but his brāhmaṇa minister is not skilled in the use of language, is rough and impatient in his manner of persuasion, and his words not endowed with any true meanings or real essences.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because I am skilled in the use of language, gentle and patient in persuasion, and my words are endowed with true meanings and real essences.
(16) “Again, someone might say, “Now the king of the kṣatriya class may wish to conduct a great sacriﬁcial rite, but his brāhmaṇa minister is not endowed with strategic brilliance or wisdom, he has no knowledge of the sacriﬁcial rite, and is plagued by inﬁrmity.’ Even if there were such a rumor, that cannot disgrace the king. Why? Sire, it is because I am valiant and decisive, endowed with strategic brilliance and wisdom, and without any inﬁrmities at all. Insofar as the sacriﬁcial rite is concerned, there is no aspect of it that I do not know.”
The Buddha said to Kūṭadanta:
As you see, when the king experienced doubt concerning the foregoing sixteen requisites, the brāhmaṇa minister resolved his doubt by conﬁrming that the king was fully qualiﬁed to fulﬁll all the conditions for the success of his sacriﬁcial rite.
The Buddha continued:
Then the minister encouraged and delighted the king further by describing the ten norms of conduct. What are the ten norms of conduct? The minister said, “When the king conducts a sacriﬁcial rite, his beneﬁcence should be extended equally to all those who have come for the occasion, irre- spective of whether they live by way of killing (i.e., hunting, ﬁshing, etc.) or of non-killing (i.e., farming, trading, etc.). If the former sort come, gen- erosity should be extended while educating them to reﬂect upon the wrong- ness of their lifestyle. If the latter sort come, benefactions should be given to encourage them in the rightness of their livelihood. In this manner, the king’s beneﬁcence should consist not only of material gifts but also of

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moral ediﬁcation. If again some people should come to participate in the sacriﬁcial rite while persisting in immoral conduct such as theft, sexual misbehavior, false speech or double-talk, or speaking harshly, or using ﬂattery, and thus conveying a covetous mind, or malicious intent, or attach- ment to wrong views, material gifts should still be given to them while simultaneously encouraging reform in their way of life. On the other hand, if some people should participate in the assembly while upholding proper moral standards such as non-theft and so forth, so as to engender the right view, material gifts should be given to them to commend their good conduct and to support and encourage the awakening of their conscience.”
The Buddha went on, “By instructing the king about the ten norms of beneﬁcence, the brāhmaṇa minister indeed encouraged, beneﬁted, and delighted him.”
Again, the Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta:
The kṣatriya king was troubled by three kinds of regret during his stay in the new pavilion [during the course of the sacriﬁcial rite], and it was the minister’s task to resolve them. What were the three regrets that troubled the king? At various moments, as the king thought to himself, “I will [soon] conduct the rite,” “I am now conducting the sacriﬁcial rite,” and “I have just completed the great sacriﬁcial rite,” [his awareness of the enormous expenditure for the rite] caused each thought to be followed by a pang of regret: “I will lose . . . ,” “I am losing . . . ,” “I have just lost a great portion of my wealth and treasure because of this sacriﬁcial rite.” Each time the king felt such a regret, the minister eradicated it from his mind by saying, “Sire, do not regret the meritorious rite through which Your Majesty will perform . . . , is now performing . . . , and has performed such a great benev- olence. O great king, Your Majesty has just completed the great sacriﬁcial rite.” Thus did the minister assist the king to resolve his three regrets.
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
On the ﬁfteenth night, under a full moon, the kṣatriya king came out of the new pavilion properly anointed for his throne and built a great bonﬁre in the open area before the building. He held a pitcher of oil in his hand and poured it over the ﬁre and loudly announced: “Now is the time of

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beneﬁcence, it is the time for beneﬁcence!” Hearing this announcement, the queens and palace ladies, carrying various articles from the palace in their hands, appeared before the king and said, “Sire, may these riches and treasures be of assistance in Your Majesty’s benevolent sacriﬁcial rite.” O brāhmaṇa, the king replied to his queens and palace ladies, “Please go no further. Your assistance has already been provided in the mere offer. I possess enough wealth and treasure for this benevolent rite.” But the queens and palace ladies thought to themselves: “We must not take these treasures back to our quarters. When the king conducts another rite in the eastern region, his majesty will be able to use our assistance in his benevolence.” O brāhmaṇa, when the king came to conduct another rite in the eastern region, his queens and palace ladies did indeed assist his rite with their
treasures.
[Again,] on the ﬁfteenth night, under a full moon, the king came out of a new pavilion and built a great bonﬁre in the open area before the building. He poured oil over the ﬁre from a pitcher in his hand and loudly proclaimed: “Now is the time of beneﬁcence, it is the time for beneﬁcence!” Hearing the king’s announcement, the crown prince and princes, carrying their riches and treasures, appeared before the king and said, “Sire, let these things provide assistance in Your Majesty’s benevolent rite.” The king replied, “Please go no further. Your assistance has already been pro- vided in the mere offer. I possess enough wealth and treasure for this benevolent rite.” But the crown prince and princes thought to themselves, “We must not take back these treasures. When the king conducts another rite in the southern region, his majesty will be able to use our assistance in his benevolence.”
In a similar manner, the ministers [and ofﬁcials] assisted the king when he later conducted a sacriﬁcial rite in the western region, and so did the generals and their ofﬁcers when the king conducted another rite in the northern region.
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa:
At the time of the great sacriﬁcial rite the king did not slaughter cattle and sheep or any other living beings; he only used butter and milk, hemp oil, honey, black raw sugar, and molasses to perform the rite.

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The Buddha continued:
When the king conducted the great sacriﬁcial rite there was delight at the beginning, there was delight in the middle, and there was delight at the end of the rite. This became the standard method of preparing and per- forming the sacriﬁcial rite.
The Buddha went on:
The kṣatriya king, having completed the sacriﬁcial rite, shaved his head and beard, put on the three robes of a mendicant, abdicated his throne to pursue the path of religion, and engaged in the practice of the four immea- surables of the mind (catur-apramāṇas); when he died, he was reborn in the highest realm of Brahmā Heaven. The brāhmaṇa minister too, having assisted the king in performing sacriﬁcial rites in the four regions, con- ducted a sacriﬁcial rite on his own and then shaved his head and beard, put on the three robes of the mendicant, renounced domestic life to practice the four kinds of austerity, and when he died, he was reborn in the highest realm of Brahmā Heaven.
The Buddha then said to the brāhmaṇa:
The king performed the great sacriﬁcial rite by following the practices of the threefold sacriﬁcial rite and observing the sixteen requisites. Now, what do you think about these matters that I have explained?
Kūṭadanta had listened to what the Buddha had explained, but he remained silent and did not reply immediately. His ﬁve hundred student disciples said to him, “The words of the śramaṇa Gautama are indeed subtle. Sir, why does Your Reverence not reply to his words and only remain silent?”
Kūṭadanta then said to the Buddha:
What the śramaṇa Gautama has explained is truly subtle. I agree with the other brāhmaṇas; I do not differ from them at all. I have only remained silent because I have been deep in thought. The śramaṇa Gautama has explained everything, but not in the way of one that has learned from others through tradition. I have been wondering, “Could it be that the śra- maṇa Gautama was himself that king of the kṣatriya class? Or was he the brāhmaṇa minister?”

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Thereupon, the World-honored One said:
Good, very good, you have rightly perceived the Tathāgata in the most appropriate terms. The kṣatriya king who conducted the great sacriﬁcial rite was no one other, and in no way different, than myself. At that time, a great deal of universal charity was produced [for all sentient beings].
Kūṭadanta said to the Buddha, “Is there any deed that can produce merit superior to that of the threefold sacriﬁcial rite and sixteen requisites?”
The Buddha replied, “Yes, there is.” The brāhmaṇa asked, “What is it, sir?” The Buddha replied:
While performing the threefold sacriﬁcial rite with the sixteen requisites, if one can continue to serve the bhikṣus’ sangha with offerings without hiatus, the merit acquired would be superior to that of the sacriﬁcial rite.
The brāhmaṇa again asked:
Is there any deed that can produce merit superior to that of offerings and continual service to the sangha combined with that of the sacriﬁcial rite and sixteen requisites?
The Buddha replied, “Yes, there is.” Again, he asked, “What is it, sir?” The Buddha replied:
Even if one served the sangha through the sacriﬁcial rite and the sixteen requisites without hiatus, it would be far more meritorious for a person to build a monastery consisting of rooms, pavilions, and halls [with an open door to bhikṣus coming from any region] for the sake of the universal sangha. This contribution would be the best of all for acquiring merit.
Again, Kūṭadanta asked:
While performing the threefold sacriﬁcial rite with the sixteen requisites, if one continues to serve the sangha with offerings without hiatus, and if one also builds a monastery consisting of rooms, pavilions, and halls for the sake of the universal sangha, one would thereby acquire the best and

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highest merit, as I have understood. But is there another way to acquire superior merit, sir?
The Buddha replied, “Yes, there is.” Again, he asked, “What is it, sir?” The Buddha replied:
Even while performing the threefold sacriﬁcial rite with the sixteen req- uisites, and continuing to serve the sangha with offerings without hiatus, and building a monastery consisting of rooms, pavilions, and halls for the sake of the universal sangha, it surely would be better if one could also raise a thought of joy and delight and utter the words: “I take my refuge in the Buddha, I take my refuge in the Dharma, and I take my refuge in the Sangha.” The merit from that would be higher still.
Again, Kūṭadanta asked:
I understand that the threefold resolution combined with the sacriﬁcial rite, and so on, would bring about a higher merit, but is there anything superior to that, sir?
The Buddha replied, “Yes, there is.” [Kūṭadanta] then asked, “What is it, sir?” The Buddha replied:
If one upholds the ﬁve precepts—namely, refraining from taking life, refraining from taking what is not given, refraining from indulging in sexual pleasure, refraining from speaking falsehoods, and refraining from ingesting intoxicants— until the dissolution of the body and end of life, the merit acquired is higher.
Again, Kūṭadanta asked:
I understand that by combining the threefold sacriﬁcial rite, and so on, up to adhering to the ﬁve precepts, one may acquire superior merit, but is there another way to bring still higher superior merit, sir?
The Buddha replied, “Yes, there is.” [Kūṭadanta] then asked, “What is it, sir?”

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The Buddha replied:
Extending one’s compassion universally toward all sentient beings, as if one were pulling cow’s milk into a bucket and pouring it out to all the sentient beings [in the world]—the merit from that is still higher.
Again, Kūṭadanta asked:
I understand that by combining the threefold sacriﬁcial rite and so on, up to extending universal compassion, one may acquire even higher superior merit, but is there another way to bring still higher superior merit, sir?
The Buddha replied, “Yes, there is.” [Kūṭadanta] then asked, “What is it, sir?” The Buddha replied:
When the Tathāgata, who is totally free from deﬁlement and perfectly enlightened, appears in this world, those who renounce domestic life, enter into practice of the Buddhist religion, become endowed with all the meri- torious virtues without exception, and so on, up to being endowed with three kinds of supernormal power (knowledge of past lives, knowledge of future destinies, and total eradication of deﬁlements), can terminate all igno- rance and delusion and acquire wisdom and illumination. Because they are in a state of seclusion and transcendence, their merit is indeed the highest.
Again, Kūṭadanta said to the Buddha:
O Gautama, now I have put together all the requisites of the sacriﬁcial rite. I shall forsake all my cattle and sheep, ﬁve hundred of each, and let them each go in their own way to seek their grass and water. I shall take my refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May Your Reverence per- mit me to become a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this moment until the dissolution of the body and end of life, I shall uphold the ﬁve precepts, refraining from taking life, refraining from taking what is not given, refraining from indulging in sexual pleasure, refraining from speak- ing falsehoods, and refraining from ingesting intoxicants. May I request that Your Reverence and the members of the sangha accept my invitation for almsfood [tomorrow].

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The World-honored One remained silent, granting his wish. Seeing the World-honored One remaining silent, the brāhmaṇa stood up, venerated the Buddha, circumambulating him three times, and went away. Returning home, he prepared many varieties of delicious food, and in the early morning when everything was ready, he sent word to the Buddha and the sangha. Thereupon, the World-honored One put on his outer robe, took up his almsbowl, and proceeded to the brāhmaṇa’s residence accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. There he took a seat where it had been prepared and was served, along with the members of the sangha, with various foods out of the brāhmaṇa’s own hand. At the conclusion of the meal, after the serving vessels had been taken away, cleansing water was served.
[Thereupon], the Buddha recited these verses for the brāhmaṇa:
In the sacriﬁcial rite, ﬁre is of the highest rank, In chanting, reading is of the highest rank, Among humans, the king is of the highest rank, Among rivers, the ocean is of the highest rank, Among stars, the moon is of the highest rank,
Among all that shines bright, the sun is of the highest rank, In all four directions, and above and below,
Among all sentient beings, and humans and gods, The Buddha alone is of the highest rank.
If one wishes to acquire the greatest merit,
One should make offerings for the Three Treasures.
Kūṭadanta then brought out a small cushion and took his seat before the Buddha. The World-honored One gradually began his teaching, and with it, he encouraged, beneﬁted, and delighted the brāhmaṇa. He taught him the doctrine pertaining to charity, the doctrine pertaining to morality, the doctrine pertaining to rebirth in heaven, the doctrine that being bound to craving and desire is the greatest danger, and that impure deﬁlements are the obstruction, and that the right method of practice to transcend obstacles is of primary importance. He detailed the varieties of practice, those that are pure and gen- uine, and explained them to satisfy the brāhmaṇa’s understanding.
Then the World-honored One, observing the brāhmaṇa’s mind becoming receptive, the ﬁve kinds of obstacles becoming lighter to the point of vanishing

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in him, and his whole being turning ripe for conversion, followed the practice of the buddhas by introducing [the Four Noble Truths]: (1) the doctrine of the noble truth of suffering, explaining it in detail and opening it to his under- standing. He then set forth the remaining three truths, each in turn, giving appropriate commentary: (2) the noble truth of the cause of suffering, (3) the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and (4) the noble truth of the path to the cessation of suffering. At that moment, the brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta erad- icated all deﬁlements and acquired genuine insight into the nature of the Dharma, just as a white cloth can be dyed any color.
Exactly like that, the brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta saw the Dharma, acquired the Dharma, and abided there. Without need for any other assurance, he realized the state of absolute conﬁdence, and then said to the Buddha:
May I once again repeat my vow: I take my refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May Your Reverence permit me to become a lay devotee in the right Dharma, and from this moment until the dissolution of the body at the end of life I shall uphold the ﬁve precepts, refraining from taking life, refraining from taking what is not given, refraining from indulging in sexual pleasure, refraining from speaking falsehoods, and refraining from ingesting intoxicants.
Then he added, “May I also request Your Reverence and the members of the sangha to accept my invitation for almsfood for the duration of seven days.”
The World-honored One remained silent, granting his wish.
For seven days the brāhmaṇa served the Buddha and the members of the sangha with provisions out of his own hand, until the World-honored One departed to visit other communities. Not long after the Buddha’s departure the brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta fell ill and passed away.
The members of the sangha soon heard that the brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta, who had served them with provisions for seven days, had fallen ill and passed away. All of the bhikṣus wondered, “At the end of his life, where has that brāhmaṇa gone for his rebirth?”
Some of the bhikṣus went to the World-honored One. After bowing their heads to ground at his feet, they sat to one side and said, “The brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta has passed away. Sir, where would such a person be reborn?”
The Buddha replied:

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That person, by practicing pure and genuine austerity, realized the truth of the Dharma and can never again be subject to doubt. He terminated the ﬁve kinds of deﬁlement that bind sentient beings to the lower realm of desire16 and will enter ﬁnal nirvana ( parinirvāṇa) from the heaven where he is reborn, not returning to this world.
Having heard the Buddha’s teaching, all the bhikṣus were delighted to receive it, and they reverentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 23: Brāhmaṇa Kūṭadanta]

Sutra 24

Kevaddha
(Dīgha Nikāya 11: Kevaṭṭa Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha sojourned in the Pāvārikamba forest near the town of Nālandā, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus, a son of a wealthy family, who was called Kevaddha, visited the Buddha’s resting place. After bowing his head at the Buddha’s feet he took a seat to one side. Then Kevaddha, the son of a wealthy family, said to the Buddha:
Very good, sir. O World-honored One, I beseech Your Reverence to com- mand the venerable bhikṣus to manifest their superhuman faculties and demonstrate their supernormal powers before the brāhmaṇas and sons of wealthy families and householders who have come to visit you.
The Buddha replied:
[O Kevaddha,] I do not give my disciples any superhuman faculties or supernormal powers so that they can demonstrate them before brāhmaṇas, sons [or daughters] of wealthy families, or householders. I only teach them how to contemplate the path in seclusion, and if they make progress [in the path], to keep it to themselves, and if they should transgress while on the path, to explicitly acknowledge it [in public].
Kevaddha, son of the wealthy man Changxiao, again said to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, I beseech Your Reverence to command the ven- erable bhikṣus to manifest their superhuman faculties and demonstrate their supernormal powers before the brāhmaṇas, the sons [and daughters] of wealthy families, and householders who have come to visit you, sir.
The Buddha again replied:
[O Kevaddha,] I do not give my disciples any superhuman faculties or supernormal powers so that they can demonstrate them before brāhmaṇas,

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the sons [and daughters] of wealthy families, or householders. I only teach them how to contemplate the path in seclusion, and if they make progress [in the path], to keep it to themselves, and if they should transgress while on the path, to explicitly acknowledge it [in public].
Kevaddha, son of the wealthy man Changxiao, said to the Buddha:
I have no doubt whatsoever about the superhuman faculties [that have been attributed to Your Reverence and the venerable bhikṣus], sir. However, in this town of Nālandā, which is prosperous and whose populace is large, I thought it would be beneﬁcial to show your supernormal powers to the peo- ple, since the propagation of the Dharma can be accomplished [far more quickly] when such demonstrations convince the people to convert, sir.
The Buddha again replied:
I do not give my disciples any superhuman faculties or supernormal powers so that they can demonstrate them before brāhmaṇas, the sons [and daugh- ters] of wealthy families, or householders. I only teach them how to con- template the path in seclusion, and if they make progress [in the path], to keep it to themselves, and if they transgress while on the path, to explicitly acknowledge it [in public].
Why? Because there are three kinds of supernormal power (prātihārya): namely, (1) magical performance (ṛddhi-pāda-prātihārya), (2) reading others’ minds while preaching (ādeśanā-prātihārya), and (3) the miracle of teaching (anuśāsanī-prātihārya, destroying the vices of the admonished). What is magical performance? O son of the wealthy, some bhikṣus acquire this supernormal power in order [to change their physical form into other forms]. From their one body, they can generate multiple identical bodies or collapse the many back to one. They can [instantaneously] cross rivers and hills as freely as they wish, be it near or far, and go through walls and rocks without obstruction, just like ﬂying through the air. They can leap up and fold their legs to sit in the lotus posture in midair, like a ﬂying bird. They can disappear into the ground or reappear out of it, as if it were the surface of water. They can walk on water as if walking on the ground, or emit ﬁery ﬂames from their body like a huge bonﬁre, or

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grasp the sun and moon by the hand and reach to the height of Brahmā Heaven. To wealthy people or householders endowed with devotion and good faith, such a bhikṣu could demonstrate the innumerable kinds of supernormal power even to the point of reaching up to Brahmā Heaven. He could inﬂuence a devotee to say to another householder, a nonbeliever, “I have seen a bhikṣu demonstrate his supernormal power even to the point of reaching up to Brahmā Heaven.” The nonbeliever, however, could reply, “I have heard of a Gāndhārī magic that enables a person, as you have witnessed, to show off innumerable magical transformations, even to the point of reaching up to Brahmā Heaven.”
The Buddha continued, “Don’t you ﬁnd the words of the nonbeliever to be derogatory in nature?”
Kevaddha replied, “Yes, I do indeed regard his words as derogatory, sir.” The Buddha said:
For this very reason, I have not permitted the bhikṣus to reveal supernormal capacities to anyone. I only teach them how to contemplate the path in seclusion, and if they make progress [in the path], to keep it to themselves, and if they should transgress on the path, to explicitly acknowledge it [in public]. This is how it has been.
O son of a wealthy family, their [compliance with my teaching] is itself a manifestation of their supernormal power.
What is the second supernormal power, that of reading others’ minds while preaching (ādeśanā-ṛddhipāda)? Through this power, bhikṣus can manifest innumerable ways to read the mind of others. They can know the entire content of their thoughts, even their hidden, undisclosed deeds, with- out exception. To wealthy people or householders endowed with devotion and good faith, such a bhikṣu could offer to demonstrate the innumerable kinds of supernormal power by reading the minds of others. He could thus inﬂuence a devotee to say to another householder, a nonbeliever, “I have seen a bhikṣu demonstrate his supernormal power by reading the minds of others.” The nonbeliever, however, could reply, “I have heard of a Gān- dhārī magic that enables a person, as you have witnessed, to exhibit super- normal power by reading the minds of others, so that everything, even hid- den, undisclosed deeds, is known without exception.”

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What do you think, O son of a wealthy family? Don’t you ﬁnd these words to be derogatory in nature?
Kevaddha replied, “Yes, I do indeed regard those words as derogatory, sir.” The Buddha said:
For this very reason, I have not permitted the bhikṣus to reveal supernormal capacities to anyone. I only teach them how to contemplate the path in seclusion, and if they make progress [in the path], to keep it to themselves, and if they should transgress while on the path, to explicitly acknowledge it [in public]. This is how it has been. O son of the wealthy, their [compliance with my teaching] is itself a manifestation of their supernormal power. What is the miracle of teaching? O son of a wealthy family, suppose that a Buddha who is recognized with the ten supreme titles, such as One Perfected in Practice, One Liberated from Attachment, Perfectly Enlight- ened One, and so on, should appear in this world, and that among all the gods and humans, and all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced the realization of enlightenment and has been teaching others [how to realize that goal]. When he expounds on religion, his words should be good in the beginning, good in the middle, and also good in the end. All the words he utters should invariably be endowed with true meanings and real essences, and in accord with his practice of pure and genuine austerity. If anyone, whether a wealthy person or a householder, is inspired to hold a serene conviction in the Buddha’s words after listening to this teaching, and having acquired that conviction, looks to the substance of his life and thinks, “I should not remain a householder. If I continue in domestic life, I will always have to deny my convictions and will never take up the practice of pure and genuine austerity—no, I would rather shave my head, moustache, and beard, put on the three robes of a mendicant, and leave the householder’s life to follow the discipline of the path. I will strive to attain all the mer- itorious virtues, even up to realizing the three supernormal powers, so that the state of darkness and ignorance can be annihilated to produce the great wisdom and illumination. Why? Because this ﬁnal realization can only be achieved through the mindfulness and concentration found in diligent endeavor, practice in seclusion, and freedom from worldly mentality”—if

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one should think in this way, O son of a wealthy family, that is the miracle of teaching as manifested by the bhikṣus.
Thereupon, Kevaddha, the son of a wealthy family, said to the Buddha, “Sir, supposing that is the case, is every bhikṣu endowed with these three supernormal powers?”
The Buddha replied:
I did not say that I have many bhikṣus and some of them have acquired the three supernormal powers, O son of a wealthy family. Among the members of the sangha there are some bhikṣus who think to themselves, “How can the four material elements, namely, earth, water, wind, and ﬁre, be brought to cessation?” One of the bhikṣus immediately set out for heaven, and at the abode of the four guardian princes asked them the same question, “How can the four material elements, namely, earth, water, wind, and ﬁre, be brought to cessation?” O son of a wealthy family, the four guardian princes replied, “We do not know how the four material elements can be brought to cessation. There is another heaven above us, called Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, whose resident gods are known for their subtle intelligence and great wisdom. [We are certain] they would know how the four material elements can be brought to cessation.”
After receiving this answer, the bhikṣu once again set off toward a higher heaven. Upon reaching Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, he asked the resident gods, “How can the four material elements of this body be brought to ces- sation?” The Trāyastriṃśa gods replied, “I do not know how the four material elements can be brought to cessation. There is another heaven above us, called Yama Heaven, where the resident gods are known to have subtle intelligence and great wisdom. [We are certain] they would know how the four material elements can be brought to cessation.”
At once, the bhikṣu went up higher [to Yama Heaven] and asked the same question, only to receive the same reply: they did not know. In this manner, he continued to travel upward, questioning the gods of Tuṣita Heaven, Nirmāṇarati Heaven, and Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven. All of them made the same reply, including the last, “We do not know how the four material elements can be brought to cessation. There is another heaven above us, called Brahmakāyika Heaven, whose resident gods are known

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to have subtle intelligence and great wisdom. They are called the Brah- makāyika gods, and [we are certain] they would know how the four mate- rial elements can be brought to [total] cessation once for all.”
The bhikṣu promptly set off again to reach Brahmā Heaven, and upon his arrival he asked the same question to the residents of that heaven, “How can the four material elements, namely, earth, water, wind, and ﬁre, be brought to total cessation?” The resident gods replied, “We do not know how the four material elements can be brought to cessation. But the great Brahmā, who rules a thousand worlds and has no equal, who is honorable, heroic, rich, and noble and has absolute freedom as the creator of all things and the one ancestor of all sentient beings, [certainly] must know how the four material elements can be brought to total cessation.” So the bhikṣu asked, “Where is the great lord Brahmā?” And the resident gods of Brahmā’s realm replied, “We do not know where he is right now.
We expect that he will appear before too long.”
In a moment, the great lord Brahmā suddenly appeared. O son of a wealthy family, the bhikṣu approached Brahmā and asked the same ques- tion, “Sir, how can the four material elements of this body, namely, earth, water, wind, and ﬁre, be brought to total cessation?”
Lord Brahmā replied, “I am Lord Brahmā, whom no one can surpass. I rule a thousand worlds as the honorable, heroic, rich, and noble creator of all things, who is endowed with absolute freedom and is the one ancestor of all sentient beings.”
The bhikṣu said to Lord Brahmā, “That was not the answer to my ques- tion, sir. I asked, ‘How can the four material elements, namely, earth, water, wind, and ﬁre, be brought to total cessation?’”
O son of a wealthy family, Lord Brahmā once again made the same reply, “I am Lord Brahmā, whom no one can surpass. I rule a thousand worlds as the honorable, heroic, rich, and noble creator of all things, who is endowed with absolute freedom and is the one ancestor of all sentient beings.”
The bhikṣu said again, “That was not the answer to my question, sir. What I asked was, ‘How can the four material elements, namely, earth, water, wind, and ﬁre, be brought to total cessation?’”

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O son of a wealthy family, even on the third exchange, Lord Brahmā could not tell the bhikṣu how the four material elements could be brought to total cessation.
The great lord Brahmā then took the bhikṣu by his right hand and led him to a secluded place, where he said, “O bhikṣu, since the residents of this Brahmā Heaven all say in unison that I have supreme wisdom and there is nothing I do not know, I cannot tell you in public that I do not know how the four material elements can be brought to total cessation, nor can I say in public that I cannot tell you that.”
Again, he continued, “You are foolish to have left the Tathāgata behind while coming to pose this question to the heavenly gods. You should return to the Tathāgata and ask him your question. Whatever the Buddha may say in reply you must keep it in mind.
Again, he went on, “The Buddha is now at rest in Anāthapiṇḍika Monastery in Prince Jeta’s Grove near the city of Śrāvastī. You should go there and ask him your question.”
O son of a wealthy family, that bhikṣu immediately disappeared from Brahmā Heaven and in an instant, as swiftly as a wrestler can bend his arm and straighten it, returned to Anāthapiṇḍika Monastery in Prince Jeta’s Grove near the city of Śrāvastī. He came to me, and after bowing his head to my feet, he took a seat to one side and asked, “O World-honored One, how can those four material elements, namely, earth, water, wind, and ﬁre, be brought to total cessation?”
I replied, “O bhikṣu, you have acted like a merchant who carries a falcon perched on his elbow and to practice falconry he takesa boat out to sea and releases it from the middle of the ocean. When the bird is released it will ﬂy to the east, west, north, and south, and once it ﬁnds land it will stop; if there is no land, it will return to the boat. O bhikṣu, you are just like that—you went higher and higher to pose an inquiry to Brahmā, yet you were unable to obtain the right answer and now you have come back to me. I shall let you come to rest with your question.”
I then composed a verse for the bhikṣu:
How can the four material elements,
Earth, water, wind, and ﬁre, be brought to total cessation?

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How can anything that is neither rough nor ﬁne, Neither long nor short, neither beautiful nor ugly, Be brought to total cessation?
How can anything that is neither sentient nor material Be brought to total cessation, without remainder?
The answer should be given:
Consciousness has no form and is immeasurable and self-luminous. When consciousness ceases to be,
The four material elements also cease, and
So do rough and ﬁne, beautiful and ugly, equally cease to be. Here both sentient principle and material elements cease to be. When consciousness ceases to be, the rest also ceases to be.
Kevaddha, the son of a wealthy family, said to the Buddha, “O World- honored One, what is that bhikṣu’s name? Under what title should I keep this sutra, sir?”
The Buddha replied, “That bhikṣu is called Ashiyi, and under that name you should keep this sutra in mind.”
Then, having heard the Buddha’s teaching, Kevaddha, the son of a wealthy family, was delighted to receive it, and he reverentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 24: Kevaddha]

Sutra 25

A Naked Brāhmaṇa Ascetic
(Dīgha Nikāya 8: Kassapa-sīhanāda Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha was staying in the Deer Forest near Kaṇṇakaṭṭha in the country of Ujuññā, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus, a naked brāhmaṇa ascetic whose family name was Kāśyapa (Pāli Kassapa) came to visit the World-honored One. He bowed cordially and took a seat to one side. Then he said:
Sir, I have heard the following: “The śramaṇa Gautama rejects any and all kinds of sacriﬁcial rites and disparages those engaged in ascetic practice as vulgar and impure.” O Gautama, when someone says, “The śramaṇa Gautama rejects any and all kinds of sacriﬁcial rites and disparages those engaged in ascetic practice as vulgar and impure,” is he really speaking the truth and demonstrating the truth of the Dharma, or is he slandering the śramaṇa Gautama?
The Buddha replied:
O Kāśyapa, if anyone says, “The śramaṇa Gautama rejects any and all kinds of sacriﬁcial rites and disparages those engaged in ascetic practice as vulgar and impure,” he is neither speaking truth nor demonstrating the truth of the Dharma and is entirely intent on slandering me. It is not true. Why? O Kāśyapa, when I observe those engaged in ascetic practice, I know that some will fall into a hell after the dissolution of the body at the end of life, while others who have a good destiny will be reborn in a heaven. I also see that even though some might enjoy their ascetic practice, after the dissolution of the body at the end of life, they are still destined for a hell, while others who enjoy their ascetic life and have a good destiny will be reborn in one of the heavens after the dissolution of the body at the end of life.
O Kāśyapa, I have observed and comprehended those born with two opposing destinies as their reward for life on earth. How could I criticize

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those ascetics as vulgar and impure? When I assert correctly that something is right, someone may say that it is not right, and if I assert correctly that something is not right, he will say that it is right.
O Kāśyapa, in speaking of the truth of religion, śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas have something in common, yet there is a difference between their religious truths.
O Kāśyapa, I have not spoken about the difference between their two truths because śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas do not see that aspect of the truth in the same way.
Those who are learned may think to themselves, “As to the elements [of the mind] that the śramaṇa Gautama and teachers of other schools agree are evil (akuśala), ignoble, corrupt, and unﬁt for the wise and saintly, which of them (i.e., the Buddha or the teachers of other schools) can really terminate those evils?”
O Kāśyapa, when people of intelligence examine the problem in this manner and arrive at a conclusion ( jian; dṛṣṭi), they say, “The śramaṇa Gautama alone can terminate those evils.” O Kāśyapa, when people of intelligence observe the problem, make deductions, and arrive at their conclusion in this manner, my name is praised.
Again, O Kāśyapa, those who are learned may think to themselves, “As to the elements [of the mind] that the disciples of the śramaṇa Gautama and the disciples of teachers of other schools agree are evil, ignoble, cor- rupt, and unﬁt for the wise and saintly, which group of disciples can really terminate those evils?”
O Kāśyapa, when people of intelligence examine the problem in this manner and arrive at a conclusion, they say, “Only the disciples of the śramaṇa Gautama can terminate those evils.” O Kāśyapa, when people of intelligence observe the problem, make deductions, and arrive at their conclusion in this manner, it is my disciples whose names are praised.
Then, O Kāśyapa, those who are learned may think to themselves, “As to the elements [of the mind] that the śramaṇa Gautama and teachers of other schools agree are clean, genuine, subtle, and ﬁt for the wise and saintly, which of them (i.e., the Buddha or the teachers of other schools) can really promote the good [elements] in the disciplines they practice?”

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O Kāśyapa, when people of intelligence examine the problem in this manner and arrive at a conclusion, they say, “The śramaṇa Gautama alone can promote those good [elements].” O Kāśyapa, when people of intel- ligence observe the problem, make deductions, and arrive at their con- clusion in this manner, my name is praised.
Again, O Kāśyapa, those who are learned may think to themselves, “As to the elements [of the mind] that the disciples of the śramaṇa Gautama and the disciples of teachers of other schools agree are clean, genuine, subtle, and ﬁt for the wise and saintly, which of the two [groups of disciples] can really promote the good [elements] in the displines they practice?” O Kāśyapa, when people of intelligence examine the problem in this manner and arrive at a conclusion, they say, “Only the disciples of the śra- maṇa Gautama can promote the good [elements].” O Kāśyapa, when people of intelligence observe the problem, make deductions, and arrive at their conclusion in this manner, it is my disciples whose names are praised. O Kāśyapa, when there is a path, there are corresponding methods of practice. When a bhikṣu follows the [prescribed] methods of practice on the path, he will know and see for himself that the śramaṇa Gautama is “one who speaks the truth,” “one who speaks at the proper time,” “one who speaks with useful words,” “one who speaks in accord with the doc-
trine,” and “one who speaks in accord with the rules of conduct.”
However, there are impure forms of ascetic practice through which some obtain the title of brāhmaṇa or śramaṇa. What are the impure forms of ascetic practice through which some obtain the title of brāhmaṇa or śramaṇa? O Gautama, some of them go about naked, cover the front of their bodies with both hands, and accept neither evening food nor leftover food, or food placed within a threshold, or between two people, two canes, or two plates (a mortar and pestle?), or from a family who have eaten together, or from any house with a pregnant woman inside, or a dog in front, or where ﬂies are swarming; they will not take food to which they have been invited or from a family that is acquainted with any other ascetic, and they will not accept ﬁsh, meat, intoxicants, or anything placed on two plates.
They will accept a meal and a drink, and so on, up to the seventh (i.e., to swallow), and then they stop. When they accept almsfood or other helpings,

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they do not go beyond the seventh (i.e., swallowing the food). They may partake of one meal a day or a single meal every two or three or four or ﬁve or six or seven days. In addition to berries, they may partake of potherbs, rice scum, sesame seeds (or hemp grain), wild rice, cow dung, or antelope dung. From plants, they may partake of roots, leaves, and branches, and hanging fruit or windfall.
They will wear any clothing of poor quality, including those made from sha grass (kuśa grass?) ﬁbers; they will wear bark garments, cover the body with grass, or put on an antelope hide; they will let their hair grow until it covers the body, or wear discarded clothing from a corpse. Some will keep their arms raised at all times, and never sit on a couch or chair, squatting instead; some will retain both moustache and beard even when their head is shaved, or lie down on a bed of thorns or a ﬂoor strewn with plant shells, or lie naked on cow dung, or bathe three times a day or three times in a night. Thus do they torture their bodies with extreme phys- ical pain and suffering. O Gautama, these are the ascetic practices that are vulgar and impure, on account of which some obtain the title of śra- maṇa or even that of brāhmaṇa.
The Buddha said:
O Kāśyapa, those naked ascetics who wear no clothing torture their bodies with innumerable practices. In their way of life no one is endowed with moral virtue or credited with doctrinal insight. In their way of life they are unable to exercise the mind of endeavor, nor can they propagate that way of life universally.
Kāśyapa said to the Buddha:
Sir, what is the [true] state of the śramaṇa and brāhmaṇa endowed with moral virtue and doctrinal insight who seem to surpass all ascetic practices and to abide in the utmost subtlety?
The Buddha said to Kāśyapa, “Listen attentively to what I say and examine it carefully. I will explain them.”
Kāśyapa replied, “Yes, O Gautama. It is an opportune time.” The Buddha said:

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When the Tathāgata, One Who is Free From Deﬁlement (Arhat), appears in this world, he directly experiences the subtle bliss that is present through- out the four meditative states of absorption. Why? Through his own efort he maintains concentrated mindfulness, enjoying the transcendence within his mind without slackening in his discipline. O Kāśyapa, this is the state of being endowed with moral virtue and doctrinal insight, and it is of the utmost subtlety, far surpassing all ascetic practices.
Kāśyapa said to the Buddha:
O Gautama, even though a bhikṣu endowed with moral virtue and doctrinal insight may surpass all ascetic practices, which discipline is more difﬁcult, that which we have spoken of or that of the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, which itself is reputed to be very difﬁcult?
The Buddha replied:
O Kāśyapa, the truths of this world are incommensurate with the Dharma of the Tathāgata. The so-called disciplines of the śramaṇa and brāhmaṇa appear to be difﬁcult, and ascetic practices are obviously difﬁcult, as even a laywoman can know, since the naked ascetics live without clothing and so on, torturing their bodies in every possible way. But what ordinary people cannot know is whether the minds of those ascetics are free of anger or deﬁled by it whether from hatred or malice. If they should come to know the minds of the ascetics they would not call them śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas. Instead, they simply assume that ascetic practices are difﬁcult to do, and because they do not know the minds of the practitioners, they accept that the way of life of the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas must also be difﬁcult.
Thereupon, Kāśyapa said:
Then, sir, please tell me about the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who are endowed with moral virtue and doctrinal insight and regarded as superior beings of the utmost subtlety.
Then the Buddha said to Kāśyapa, “Listen attentively and consider what I say carefully. I shall explain it to you.”

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Kāśyapa replied, “Sir, I am ready to hear it.” The Buddha said:
O Kāśyapa, with a concentrated mind and so on, a bhikṣu comes to realize three kinds of supernormal knowledge; and with the eradication of various forms of ignorance and delusion comes the acquisition of insight, bringing with it the awareness of the total eradication of deﬁlements. How so? Because in the solitary quiescence of a concentrated mind, when discipline and effort do not slacken, this is the result. O Kāśyapa, this is called the acquisition of moral virtue and doctrinal insight by a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa, and it is of the highest and utmost subtlety.
Kāśyapa said:
O Gautama, although this is why the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who acquire moral virtue and doctrinal insight as you have explained are said to be superior to the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who follow ascetic practice, the latter’s discipline is extremely difﬁcult, so much so that a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa can hardly tell how difﬁcult it is.
The Buddha replied:
Some lay devotees also practice asceticism. They say, “I shall wear no clothing from this day forward, and so on, and subject this body of mine to all kinds of torture.” Someone who subjects his body to austerities, however, cannot be called a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa just on that basis. If, because of his ascetic practice, he can be called a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa, then it cannot be said that the way of life of a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa is very difﬁcult at all. Instead, it is because no one can be called a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa on account of their ascetic practice that the way of life of a śramaṇa and brāhmaṇa is said to be difﬁcult.
The Buddha continued:
Once, long ago, I was in the city of Rājagṛha. In the Saptaparvata cave on the high hill, I taught the brāhmaṇa ascetic Nyagrodha the practice of pure and genuine austerity. He was delighted and knew the serenity of genuine faith. He served me offerings with tender care and praised me, and his praise was the primary offering.

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Kāśyapa said:
O Gautama, who would not be delighted, have genuine faith, and praise and serve Gautama with offerings? I too am enraptured and wholeheartedly savor this genuine faith in Gautama. With offerings and praise I will take my refuge in Gautama!
The Buddha said:
Know that there is no moral virtue of any kind or in any human world that can match this most efﬁcacious moral virtue, let alone surpass it. There is no realization of mental concentration, perfect knowledge, appre- hension of deliverance, and culminating insight that can be compared to the mental concentration, perfect knowledge, apprehension of deliverance, and culminating insight that is imbued with the most efﬁcacious moral virtue, let alone surpass it.
O Kāśyapa, the lion is a metaphor for the Tathāgata, who has eradicated all deﬁlements and is perfectly enlightened. The Tathāgata is called a lion because when he teaches the Dharma to the assembly of bhikṣus he is totally free of self-regard and free from any fear whatsoever.
What do you think, O Kāśyapa? Do you say it is not valiant when the Tathāgata expresses the lion’s roar in teaching the Dharma? Do not dare to think so. For the [lion’s] roar of the Tathāgata when he teaches is valiant and totally without fear.
O Kāśyapa, do you say that when the Tathāgata valiantly expresses the lion’s roar he does not stand within the assembly? Do not dare to think so. For the Tathāgata valiantly expresses the lion’s roar from within the assembly of bhikṣus.
O Kāśyapa, do you say that the Tathāgata cannot valiantly express the lion’s roar to teach the Dharma from within the assembly of bhikṣus? Do not dare to think so. For the Tathāgata can valiantly express the lion’s roar very well to teach the Dharma from within the assembly of bhikṣus.
What do you think, O Kāśyapa? Do you say that when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar to teach the Dharma very well to the assembly of bhikṣus, the audience has no uniﬁed mind? Do not dare to think so. Why? Because when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar to teach the Dharma very well to the assembly of

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bhikṣus, the minds of those who have come to the assembly have listened to the teaching as with one uniﬁed mind.
What do you think, O Kāśyapa? Do you say that when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar to teach the Dharma very well to the assembly of bhikṣus, the minds of those who have come to the assembly and listened to the teaching with one uniﬁed mind are neither enraptured nor capable of receiving the teaching and faithfully putting it into practice? Do not dare to think so. Why? Because when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar to teach the Dharma very well to the assembly of bhikṣus, the minds of those who have come to the assembly and listened to the teaching with one uniﬁed mind are [thor- oughly] enraptured to receive the teaching and faithfully put it into practice. O Kāśyapa, do you say that when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar to teach the Dharma very well to the assembly of bhikṣus, those who have come to the assembly and been enraptured to faithfully receive the teaching do not then serve the Tathāgata with offer- ings? Do not dare to think so. For when the Tathāgata valiantly and fear- lessly expresses the lion’s roar and so forth, [those who have come to the assembly] and been enraptured to faithfully receive the teaching do estab-
lish an occasion to make offerings.
O Kāśyapa, do you say that when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar and so forth, [those who have come to the assem- bly] and faithfully received the teaching and established an occasion to make offerings do not then shave their hair and beards, or don the three robes of a mendicant, or renounce domestic life for the path of religion? Do not dare to think so. Why? Because when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar and so forth, [those who have come to the assembly] shave their hair and beards, don the three robes of a men- dicant, and renounce domestic life for the path of religion.
O Kāśyapa, do you say that when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar and so forth, [those who have come to the assem- bly] and renounced domestic life for the path of religion neither perfect the practice of austerity to reach the ultimate abode of peace and safety, nor realize ﬁnal nirvana? Do not dare to think so. Why? Because when the Tathāgata valiantly and fearlessly expresses the lion’s roar and so

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forth, [those who have come to the assembly] and renounced domestic life for the path of religion perfect the practice of austerity to reach the ultimate abode of peace and safety, where they realize ﬁnal nirvana.
Thereupon, Kāśyapa said to the Buddha:
What does Your Reverence think, O Gautama? May I renounce domestic life to live in accord with this teaching (i.e., the Dharma), and may I receive higher ordination?
The Buddha replied:
When a follower of a different religious order comes to my sangha and wishes to renounce domestic life to pursue the path in accordance with my teaching, he must remain a probationer for a period of four months, observ- ing [how to conduct the life of the sangha] and must receive the appraisal of its members. After that, he may be allowed to renounce domestic life and receive higher ordination. O Kāśyapa, this is the regular proceeding, and it is simply for the sake of examining the character of a new convert.
Kāśyapa said:
[I understand that] when a follower of a different religious order comes to the sangha of the Buddha and wishes to renounce domestic life to pursue the practice of austerity in accordance with his teaching, he must remain a probationer for a period of four months, observing [how to conduct the life of the sangha] and receive the appraisal of its members. After that, he may be allowed to renounce domestic life and receive higher ordination. Now I am willing to take four years to observe [how to conduct the life of the sangha] and receive the appraisal of its members, and only after that will I forsake domestic life and accept higher ordination.
The Buddha said to Kāśyapa, “I have already said that it [this process] is only to appraise the character of a new convert.”
At the right time, Kāśyapa renounced his former way of life and received higher ordination. Not long after he began his matchless practice of austerity, which he pursued with a pure and faithful mind, he directly experienced the termination of the cause of birth and death in the present life; his practice of

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austerity was complete; that which must be done [for religious salvation] was accomplished; and, having realized the ultimate state of arhatship, there was for him no more [re]birth.
Then, having heard the Buddha’s teaching, Kāśyapa was delighted to receive it, and he reverentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 25: A Naked Brāhmaṇa Ascetic]

Sutra 26

Knowledge of the Three Vedas
(Dīgha Nikāya 13: Tevijja Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha was visiting the communities of the country of Kauśala, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus, he stopped overnight in a brāhmaṇa village called Icchānaṅkala. There was a brāhmaṇa called Puṣkarasvādi in that village. It happened that a fellow brāhmaṇa called Tārukkha was visiting Icchānaṅkala at that time to take care of some business. Puṣkarasvādi had been born into a pure family line of seven generations and had never been slighted by anyone. He was thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and had detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures as well as a compre- hensive command of the subtleties of secular literature. He was also well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. He had ﬁve hundred student disciples and never tired of teaching them. His most able student, called Vāseṭṭha, had also been born into a pure family line of seven generations and was never slighted by anyone. He too was thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas), well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacrificial rites, and [like his teacher] he also had five hundred student disciples and never tired of teach-
ing them.
The brāhmaṇa Tārukkha too was from a pure family line of seven gen- erations and was not slighted by anyone in society. He was thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and had detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures as well as a comprehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature. He was also well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens,

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and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites. He had ﬁve hundred student disciples and never tired of teaching them.
His most able student, called Bhāradvāja, was also from a pure family line of seven generations and was never slighted by anyone. He too was thor- oughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas), well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities and in conducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites, and [like his teacher] he also had ﬁve hundred student disciples and never tired of teaching them.
One morning, the two students Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja got together in a [nearby] grove and engaged in argument, mutually criticizing each other as to whose doctrine was right and whose was wrong. Vāseṭṭha said to Bhāradvāja:
The path I follow must be right because it will enable us, when we leave this world, to reach Brahmā Heaven. That is the doctrine [my great teacher] Puṣkarasvādi teaches.
Bhāradvāja said:
The path I follow must be right because it will enable us, when we leave this world, to reach Brahmā Heaven. That is the doctrine my great teacher Tārukkha teaches.
Vāseṭṭha resolutely maintained the absolute truth of his path, while Bhāradvāja too resolutely maintained the absolute truth of his path. Arguing in this manner, they could not determine who was right and who was wrong.
Vāseṭṭha then said to Bhāradvāja:
The śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan, having renounced domestic life and realized the ultimate goal of religion, has been visiting the com- munities of Kauśala and is staying over in the forest outside the village. Gautama is renowned and [his accomplishment] has been proclaimed everywhere, in all lands under the sky, as worthy of the ten supreme titles, namely, One Perfected in Practice (Tathāgata), One Liberated from Attach- ment (Arhat), Perfectly Enlightened One (Samyak-saṃbuddha), and so on. Among all the gods and humans, as well as all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experi- enced the realization of enlightenment. When he expounds on religion,

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his words are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with true meanings and real essences, and they are in accord with his practice of pure and genuine austerity. We should visit this sage and pay him our respects. I have also heard that the śramaṇa Gautama knows the path that leads to Brahmā Heaven and can teach it to others, since he is always conversing with Lord Brahmā. Why don’t we visit him to settle our dispute? Whatever the śramaṇa Gautama tells us, we will accept it with due respect and carry it out.
After walking out to the forest together, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja reached the World-honored One and greeted him with a bow, then sat to one side. The World-honored One immediately knew the thoughts in their minds and said to Vāseṭṭha:
You two have been in the grove since early this morning engaging in argu- ment and criticizing each other as to who is right and who is wrong. When one of you asserted, “The path I follow must be right, because it will enable us, when we leave this world, to reach Brahmā Heaven. That is the doctrine [my great teacher] Puṣkarasvādi teaches,” the other also asserted, “The path I follow must be right, because it will enable us, when we leave this world, to reach Brahmā Heaven. That is the doctrine my great teacher Tārukkha teaches.” In this manner, both of you have repeat- edly criticized each other as to whose path represents the absolute truth. Is this not so?
Hearing these words of the Buddha, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja were fright- ened, and every hair on their bodies stood on end. They thought to themselves, “The śramaṇa Gautama has supernormal powers and knows the minds of others. He has already stated the subject of our dispute.”
Then Vāseṭṭha said to the Buddha:
The path that I follow and the path that [my colleague] follows each claim to be absolutely true, giving us the ability to reach Brahmā Heaven when we leave this world. Sir, should the doctrine that Puṣkarasvādi teaches be regarded as absolutely true, or should the doctrine that the brāhmaṇa Tārukkha teaches be regarded as absolutely true?

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The Buddha replied:
O Vāseṭṭha, since it is you who asks if this path and the other path each claim to be absolutely true, enabling anyone who leaves this world to reach Brahmā Heaven, why did you two have to go off into a grove from early this morning to engage in repeated argument as to whose path is true and whose is false?
Vāseṭṭha replied:
The brāhmaṇas who are well versed in the three Vedas teach different paths, such as the path willed by the omnipotent Īśvara (chizaiyudao), or the path of self-will (chizuodao), or the path of Brahmā, and these paths are regarded as equally leading to Brahmā Heaven. O Gautama, the dif- ferent paths are like roads maintained by different villages, yet they all eventually reach the capital.
The Buddha said, “Are you sure that the different paths are really depicted as equally reaching Brahmā Heaven?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, all of them [eventually] reach Brahmā Heaven, sir.” The Buddha repeated the question, “Do the different paths really lead to
Brahmā Heaven without exception?” Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, sir.”
After verifying his answer, the Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha, “Among the brāhmaṇas who are well versed in the three Vedas, is there anyone who has really seen Brahmā?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, no one has seen that god, sir.”
The Buddha continued, “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Did anyone who preceded the experts who are well versed in the three Vedas see Brahmā?”
Again he replied, “No, none of them has seen Brahmā, sir.” The Buddha said:
What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Did any of the ancient brāhmaṇas who excelled in chanting the Vedic hymns or teaching the hymns, songs, and verses really witness Brahmā [with their own eyes]? For instance, did the sages Aṣṭaka, Vāmaka, Vāmadeva, Vaiśyamitra, Aṅgirasa, Yamataggi (Pāli), Boboxi, and Kāśyapa, Aruṇa, Gautama, Shouzhi, and Poluosuntuo themselves all see Brahmā?

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Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, they did not, sir.” The Buddha continued:
If none of the brāhmaṇas who were well versed in the three Vedas saw Brahmā, nor any of their teachers, or any of the ancient sages such as Aṣṭaka and so on, then you should realize that the doctrines they teach must all be considered unreal.
The Buddha continued:
It is just like a philanderer bragging about his conquest of some imaginary beauty by praising her sexual prowess. When others ask, “How do you know her? Is she in the east, west, north, or south?” he replies, “I don’t know.” Again, when others ask, “Where can she be found—in what town, district, or village?” he replies, “I don’t know.” When they ask, “What is her family? Is she from a kṣatriya family, or from a brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra family?” he again replies, “I don’t know.” And when they ask, “How does she look? Is she tall or short, stout or delicate, dark or light? Is she beautiful or ugly?” he again replies, “I don’t know.”
O Vāseṭṭha, could the woman about whom the man is bragging really be regarded as real?
Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, she cannot be regarded as real, sir.”
The Buddha said, “Exactly, O Vāseṭṭha. In [ just the same way,] the god Brahmā whom the brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas praise cannot be considered real.”
[The Buddha continued:]
What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Suppose the brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas watch the sun and moon as they rise and set, and pay their respects to those heavenly bodies with both palms joined and with offer- ings, and then assert their doctrine that one can leave this world and reach the abode of the sun and moon by following practices similar to theirs, do you agree that their path is absolutely true and will enable you to leave this world to reach the abode of those heavenly bodies?
[Vāseṭṭha] replied:

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Sir, the brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas, despite watching the sun and moon as they rise and set and paying respects to the heavenly bodies with both palms joined and with offerings, cannot claim that their path is absolutely true and will enable us to leave this world and reach the abode of those heavenly bodies.
[The Buddha continued:]
Exactly, O Vāseṭṭha. The brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas watch the sun and moon as they rise and set, pay their respects to these heavenly bodies with both palms joined and with offerings, and assert the doctrine that one can leave this world and reach the abode of the sun and moon by following practices similar to theirs. However, they cannot claim that their path is absolutely true and will enable their followers to leave this world and reach the abode of those heavenly bodies. Yet wouldn’t there be something specious in continuing to follow the same practice of paying respects [to the heavenly bodies as they rise and set] by joining palms and making offerings?
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “Exactly, O Gautama. It would be specious, sir.” The Buddha went on:
Taking another example: Suppose a man sets up a ladder in an empty spot. Others ask, “What are you doing setting up a ladder in an empty spot?” The man replies, “I wish to ascend to the next ﬂoor of the building.” The others ask, “What building? Is it in the east, west, north, or south?” He replies, “I do not know.” What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Wouldn’t it be fanciful to set up a ladder in an empty spot and try to climb to the next ﬂoor of an imaginary building?’
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “Exactly, sir. Such behavior is fanciful.” The Buddha said:
It is the same as with the brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas. What they teach is fanciful and unreal.
O Vāseṭṭha, the ﬁve kinds of desirable sense objects are [fundamentally] undeﬁled and can be enjoyed [in ordinary life]. What are the ﬁve? The visual faculty in the eyes perceives its object and the sense of sight is gratiﬁed. In

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a similar manner, the [sense] faculties of the ear, nose, tongue, and physical body come into contact with their respective objects, and the senses of sound, smell, taste, and touch are gratiﬁed. The subjective agent or “self,” however, brings about attachment, bondage, and entrapment. Those brāh- maṇa experts in the three Vedas are deﬁled by the ﬁve kinds of sensual desire; they are strongly attached [to the sense objects] but cannot see this fault, nor do they know the means of transcendence, and thus they are bound by the ﬁve kinds of sensual desire. While they may conduct their ceremonial rites correctly in reference to the sun and moon, water and ﬁre, and chant, “May you come to me and take me to be born in Brahmā Heaven,” it would be impossible.
O Vāseṭṭha, it is like crossing the Aciravatī River. When the water is placid even ravens on its bank and other birds can drink from it. Suppose, however, that a person who is heavily chained on one side of the river calls out to the yonder shore, “Come, come to me. I want to cross over to the other bank.” How could that yonder shore come any nearer? Could that person really cross the river in that way?
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “It would be impossible, sir.” The Buddha continued:
O Vāseṭṭha, the ﬁve kinds of desirable sense objects are [fundamentally] undeﬁled and can gratify the senses. From the standpoint of rules for the wise and saintly, however, the objects of the senses can be forms of bondage. The brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas are entrapped by them. Thoroughly bound, they do not see their fault or know how to transcend it. While they may conduct their ceremonial rites correctly in reference to the sun and moon, water and ﬁre, and chant, “May you come to me and take me to be born in Brahmā Heaven,” that, after all, would be impossible.
O Vāseṭṭha, it is like crossing the Aciravatī River. When the water is placid even ravens on its bank and and other birds can drink from it. Suppose, however, that someone wishes to cross the river; could he ever do so if he will neither use his own hands [to swim], nor rely on a boat or raft?
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “He cannot do so, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
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It is just the same with the brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas, because without following the path of pure and genuine austerity of the śramaṇas, they wish instead to reach Brahmā Heaven by relying on defective practices that are neither pure nor genuine, and it is impossible.
O Vāseṭṭha, it is like when the river ﬂoods because of a sudden torrent in the mountains, which can sweep people away if there is neither a boat, a raft, or a bridge available. Now suppose a traveler wishes to cross the river, but he sees the river ﬂooding because of the sudden torrent in the mountains and people being swept away for lack of a boat, raft, or bridge. He thinks to himself, “I can build a raft by gathering wood and grass and tying it together tightly, and then by using my own strength I should be able to cross the river.” He immediately ﬁnds the materials, ties them together very tightly, and applies his own strength to cross the river safely.
O Vāseṭṭha, it is the same with the case in question. If a bhikṣu abandons practices that are neither suitable for a śramaṇa nor pure and genuine, and adopts the pure and genuine practice that is suitable for a śramaṇa, it is then possible for him to be born in Brahmā Heaven.
[The Buddha continued,] “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Is there anger in Brahmā?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha] again asked, “Is there anger in those brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Vāseṭṭha, Brahmā has no anger whereas those [brāhmaṇas invariably] have anger. Those who have no anger and those who have anger cannot be mixed together, nor can they realize deliverance together, nor can they share the same destiny. Because of these differences, the god Brahmā and those brāhmaṇas cannot abide in the same place.
[The Buddha continued,] “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Is there hatred in Brahmā?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, sir.”
“Is there hatred in those brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas?”

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Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Vāseṭṭha, Brahmā has no hatred, whereas those [brāhmaṇas invariably] have anger. Those who have no hatred and those who have hatred cannot be mixed together, nor can they realize deliverance together, nor can they share the same destiny. Because of these differences, the god Brahmā and those brāhmaṇas cannot abide in the same place.
[The Buddha continued,] “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Is there resent- ment in Brahmā?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha] again asked, “Is there resentment in those brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Vāseṭṭha, Brahmā has no resentment whereas those [brāhmaṇas invari- ably] have resentment. Those who have no resentment and those who have resentment cannot be mixed together, nor can they realize deliverance together, nor can they share the same destiny. Because of these differences, the god Brahmā and those brāhmaṇas cannot abide in the same place.
[The Buddha continued,] “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Does Brahmā enjoy family and wealth?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha] again asked, “Do those brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas enjoy family and wealth?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Vāseṭṭha, Brahmā has neither family nor wealth, whereas those [brāh- maṇas invariably] have both. Those who have neither family nor wealth and those who have family and wealth cannot be mixed together, they cannot realize deliverance together, and they cannot share the same destiny. Because of these differences, the god Brahmā and those brāhmaṇas cannot abide in the same place.

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[The Buddha continued,] “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Does Brahmā have total freedom?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, sir.”
[The Buddha] again asked, “Do those brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas have total freedom?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Vāseṭṭha, Lord Brahmā has total freedom whereas those brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas have no freedom. Those who have total freedom and those who have no freedom cannot be mixed together, they cannot realize deliv- erance together, and they cannot share the same destiny. Because of these differences, the god Brahmā and those brāhmaṇas cannot abide in the same place. Those brāhmaṇa experts in the three Vedas might not be able to reply in detail when others pose questions on something profound. Is that not so?
Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, that is correct, sir.” Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja then spoke in unison:
Setting these matters aside for a moment, we have heard that the śramaṇa Gautama knows the path that leads to Brahmā Heaven and can teach it to others, since he is always conversing with Lord Brahmā. O śramaṇa Gautama, we earnestly request that Your Reverence reveal to us the path to Brahmā Heaven and explain it in detail on our behalf.
The Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha, “Now I shall ask you, and you must answer. What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Is the country of Manasākaṭa near or far from here?”
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “It is rather near, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
If a person has grown up in that country and others ask him about the roads there, what do you think, Vāseṭṭha? When the person who has grown up in that country answers a question about the roads there, should anyone doubt his answer?
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “No, there should be no doubt whatsoever. Why is this? Because that person grew up in that country, sir.”

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The Buddha said:
Even if the person had really grown up in that country, others might still raise some doubt about his answer. But when someone comes to ask me about the path to Brahmā Heaven, there should be no doubt whatsoever. Why? Precisely because I am always teaching the path to Brahmā Heaven.
Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja then said in unison:
Setting these matters aside for a moment, we have heard that the śramaṇa Gautama knows the path that leads to Brahmā Heaven and can teach it to others, since he is always conversing with Lord Brahmā. O śramaṇa Gau- tama, we earnestly request that Your Reverence, with compassion, reveal to us the path to Brahmā Heaven and explain it in detail on our behalf.
The Buddha said, “Listen attentively, and carefully consider what I will explain.”
They replied, “Sir, it is an opportune time.” The Buddha continued:
When the Tathāgata, who is totally free from deﬁlement and perfectly enlightened, appears in this world he directly experiences subtle bliss that is present throughout the four meditative states of absorption. Why? Through his own effort he maintains concentrated mindfulness, enjoying the tran- scendence within his mind without any slackening of discipline. Through contemplation, he practices the four kinds of immeasurable mind (brah- mavihāras), ﬁrst by permeating friendly love (maitrī) inﬁnitely in one direc- tion, and then likewise in the remaining three directions. Thus he extends his immeasurable mind of benevolence universally in all directions, neither [divided] nor bound to limitation. Casting away various feelings of hatred, leaving no ill-will (vyāpāda) in his mind, the Tathāgata enjoys the state of tranquility and silence. He also completes the remaining three practices, namely, the immeasurable mind of compassion (karuṇā), the immeasurable mind of sympathetic joy (muditā), and the immeasurable mind of equanimity (upekṣā), ﬁrst permeating inﬁnitely in one direction, and then likewise in the remaining three directions. Thus he extends his immeasurable mind of benevolence, joy, and equanimity universally in all directions, neither [divided] nor bound to limitation. Casting away various feelings of hatred,

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leaving no ill-will in his mind, the Tathāgata enjoys the state of tranquility and silence. What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Is there anger in Brahmā?
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “There is no feeling of anger in Lord Brahmā, sir.”
Again [the Buddha] asked, “Is there anger in the bhikṣu who permeates a mind of friendly love?”
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “No, sir.” The Buddha said:
Neither Brahmā nor the bhikṣu who permeates a mind of friendly love has any feeling of anger. Since both have no anger, Brahmā and the bhikṣu share the same destiny (gati) and the same deliverance. Because of this, Brahmā and the bhikṣu can act together anywhere. What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Is there hatred in Brahmā?”
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “There is no hatred in Lord Brahmā, sir.”
Again [the Buddha] said, “Is there hatred in the bhikṣu who permeates a mind of friendly love?
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “No, sir.” The Buddha said:
Neither Brahmā nor the bhikṣu who permeates a mind of friendly love has any feeling of hatred. Since both have no hatred, Brahmā and the bhikṣu share the same destiny and the same deliverance. Because of this, Brahmā and the bhikṣu can act together anywhere.”
The Buddha again asked, “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Is there resent- ment in Brahmā?”
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “There is no resentment in Lord Brahmā, sir.”
The Buddha asked again, “Is there resentment in the bhikṣu who permeates a mind of friendly love?”
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “No, sir.” The Buddha said:
Neither Brahmā nor the bhikṣu has any feeling of resentment. Since neither have any resentment, Brahmā and the bhikṣu share the same destiny and the same deliverance. Because of this, Brahmā and the bhikṣu can act together anywhere.

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[The Buddha continued,] “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Does Brahmā enjoy family and wealth?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha] again asked: “Does the bhikṣu who permeates a mind of friendly love enjoy family and wealth?”
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “No, sir.” The Buddha said:
Neither Brahmā nor the bhikṣu has family or wealth. Since neither have any family or wealth, they share the same destiny and deliverance. Because of this, Brahmā and the bhikṣu can act together anywhere.
[The Buddha continued,] “What do you think, O Vāseṭṭha? Does Brahmā have total freedom?”
[Vāseṭṭha] replied, “Yes, sir.”
[The Buddha] again asked, “Does the bhikṣu who permeates a mind of friendly love have total freedom?”
Vāseṭṭha replied, “Yes, sir.” The Buddha said:
Both Brahmā and the bhikṣu have attained total freedom equally, and they share the same destiny and deliverance. Because of this, Brahmā and the bhikṣu can act together anywhere.
The Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha:
You should know that the bhikṣu who permeates a mind of friendly love will be born in Brahmā Heaven on the dissolution of his body at the end of life, as swiftly as an arrow striking its target.
When the Buddha completed this teaching, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja real- ized at that moment the termination of all deﬁlements, thereby acquiring genuine insight into the nature of the Dharma. Having heard the Buddha’s teaching, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja were delighted to receive it, and they rev- erentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 26: Knowledge of the Three Vedas]

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Sutra 27

The Rewards of the Life of a Śramaṇa
(Dīgha Nikāya 2: Sāmañña-phala Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha was visiting the city of Rājagṛha, he stayed in a grove of mango trees belonging to the master of medicine Prince Jīvaka, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. On that occasion, on the night of the full moon, King Ajātaśatru, the son of the queen mother from Videha,17 summoned his principal queen and said, “Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Tell me your wishes.”
The queen replied:
Yes, sire. Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. My wish is that Your Majesty’s hair be washed and that Your Majesty be bathed and made immaculate, so that we may enjoy some entertainment together with the palace ladies.
The king then summoned his eldest son, Crown Prince Udāyibhadra, and said, “Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Tell me your wishes.”
The crown prince replied to the king:
Yes, sire. Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. My wish is that the four divisions of the army are called to assemble and the plan [of an expedition] is laid out and discussed, so that we may punish the rebels on the frontier and then return to enjoy [the victorious feast] together.
Again, King Ajātaśatru summoned his military commander, who had a distinguished record of courage and valor, and said, “Tonight’s moon, on the

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ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Tell me your wishes.”
The general replied:
Yes, sire. Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. My wish is that the four divisions of the army assemble and intelligence is gathered on the disturbances along the frontier, so that we may declare throughout the land [the results of] rebellion and of obedience, respectively.
Again, the king summoned his prime minister, Varṣakāra, and said:
Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Among the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, whom should I visit in order to have my mind enlightened?
The prime minister replied:
Sire, tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. There is a master called Purāṇa Kāśyapa, who guides his school of disciples. He is an erudite man and renowned in even the most distant regions. Just as a great ocean receives everything that ﬂows into it, he is shown the respect of a great many offerings from a multitude of people. O great king, may Your Majesty pay your respects by visiting this master. When you see him there might be an opportunity for Your Majesty to be enlightened (pasīdeyya).
Again, King Ajātaśatru summoned Varṣakāra’s brother, Suniddha, and said:
Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Among the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, whom should I visit in order to have my mind enlightened?
Suniddha replied:
Sire, tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. There is a master called Maskarin Gośālīputra18 who guides his school of disciples. He is

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an erudite man and renowned in even the most distant regions. Just as a great ocean receives everything that ﬂows into it, he receives the respect of offerings from a multitude of people. O great king, may Your Majesty pay your respects by visiting this master. When you see him there might be an opportunity for Your Majesty to be enlightened.
Again, the king summoned his minister of religious rites (dianzuo; puro- hita) and said:
Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Among the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, whom should I visit in order to have my mind enlightened?
The minister of religious rites replied:
Sire, tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. There is a master called Ajita-keśakambalin, who guides his school of disciples. He is an erudite man and renowned in even the most distant regions. Just as a great ocean receives everything that ﬂow into it, he receives the respect of offer- ings from a multitude of people. O great king, may Your Majesty pay your respects by visiting this master. When you see him there might be an opportunity for Your Majesty to be enlightened.
Again, King Ajātaśatru summoned the ofﬁcer in charge of the palace gate and said:
Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Among the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, whom should I visit in order to have my mind enlightened?
The ofﬁcer in charge of the palace gate replied:
Sire, tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. There is a master called Kakuda-katyāyana, who guides his school of disciples. He is an erudite man and renowned in even the most distant regions. Just as a great ocean receives everything that ﬂows into it, he receives the respect of offerings from a multitude of people. O great king, may Your Majesty

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pay your respects by visiting this master. When you see him there might be an opportunity for Your Majesty to be enlightened.
Again, King Ajātaśatru summoned Udāyin, the son of Maṇḍikā, and said:
Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Among the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, whom should I visit in order to have my mind enlightened?
Udāyin replied:
Sire, tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. There is a master called Sañjayī Vairaṭṭiputra, who guides his school of disciples. He is an erudite man and renowned in even the most distant regions. Just as a great ocean receives everything that ﬂows into it, he receives the respect of offerings from a multitude of people. O great king, may Your Majesty pay your respects by visiting this master. When you see him there might be an opportunity for Your Majesty to be enlightened.
Again, the king summoned his [step]brother, Prince Abhaya, and said:
Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. Among the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, whom should I visit in order to have my mind enlightened?
Prince Abhaya, the king’s brother, replied:
Sire, tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. There is a master called Nirgrantha Jñātiputra, who guides his school of disciples. He is an erudite man and renowned in even the most distant regions. Just as a great ocean receives everything that ﬂow into it, he receives the respect of offer- ings from a multitude of people. O great king, may Your Majesty pay your respects by visiting this master. When you see him there might be an opportunity for Your Majesty to be enlightened.
Again, the king summoned his master of medicine, Prince Jīvaka, and said: Tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there

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seems to be no difference between day and night. Among the śramaṇas and
brāhmaṇas, whom should I visit in order to have my mind enlightened? Prince Jīvaka replied:
Sire, tonight’s moon, on the ﬁfteenth of the month, is so clear and bright there seems to be no difference between day and night. There is a master called the Buddha. Your Majesty should pay your respects by visiting him. When you see him there will surely be an opportunity for Your Majesty to be enlightened.
The king commanded his master of medicine, “Please make my elephant and another ﬁve hundred white elephants ready.”
Jīvaka had the royal elephant and ﬁve hundred white elephants made ready at once, and then reported to the king, “The carriages are ready, sire. Please let us know the time for departure.”
King Ajātaśatru rode on the royal elephant and his ﬁve hundred queens rode on the ﬁve hundred female elephants. All carried torches to demonstrate the regal authority of the procession and they went out of the city of Rājagṛha. On the way to the Buddha’s resting place the king [halted the procession and] said to Jīvaka, “Are you not betraying me into the hands of my adver- saries and joining their side to take the members of this procession prisoner?”
Jīvaka replied:
O great king, I would not dare betray Your Majesty, nor would I dare to plot your demise, nor wish to join with Your Majesty’s adversaries to lead this royal procession astray. Please proceed and you will surely ﬁnd an occasion for happiness.
The king continued for a while, but again said to Jīvaka, “Are you not betray- ing me now into the hands of my adversaries and joining their side to lead the members of this procession astray?” This was repeated a third time.
Why was the king so suspicious? Because there was no sound whatsoever in the entire area, despite there being one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus attending the Buddha. The complete silence made the king suspect a plot.
Again, Jīvaka repeated:

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O great king, I would not dare betray Your Majesty, nor would I dare to plot your demise, nor wish to join with Your Majesty’s adversaries to lead this royal procession astray. Please proceed and Your Majesty will surely ﬁnd an occasion for happiness. Why? Because śramaṇas prefer quiet and remain always in seclusion. Because of this, there are no sounds of con- versation, sire. May Your Majesty please proceed, for we are in sight of the mango grove, sire.
Reaching the entrance to the grove, King Ajātaśatru dismounted from his elephant and then disarmed, leaving his sword, his parasol, and the ﬁve sym- bols of his kingship at the gate. He entered the grove on foot and said to Jīvaka, “Now, where is the Buddha, the World-honored One?”
Jīvaka replied, “O great king, the Buddha is in the lecture hall. There is a light outside the building. The World-honored One is seated in the lion throne, facing south, sire.”
The king proceeded and saw the World-honored One sitting by himself. Seeing this, King Ajātaśatru washed his feet outside the building and stepped into the hall. Looking around, he was delighted and thought to himself:
Now, see how the śramaṇas absorbed in silent meditation permeate [the place with] such calmness and introspection. It is my wish that Crown Prince Udāyibhadra should become equally endowed with a calm and introspective mind.
At that moment, the World-honored One said to King Ajātaśatru:
Thinking of your son, you have said that you wish Crown Prince Udāyi- bhadra would become equally endowed with a calm and introspective mind. Please come and take a seat before me.
King Ajātaśatru went forward, and after touching the ground at the Buddha’s feet with his forehead, he took a seat to one side and said to the Buddha, “I have a question, sir. If Your Reverence can spare me a moment, I would like to ask my question.”
The Buddha replied, “O great king, if you have a question, feel free to ask it.”
The king then said:

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O World-honored One, just as we ride on an elephant, horse, or chariot and learn battle strategies as well as the use of a dagger, spear, sword, bow and arrow, and ﬁghting cane, today every prince, strongman, great wrestler, messenger, leathermaker, barber, clothmaker, carriage driver, brickmaker, and bamboo or reed craftsman all earn their respective liveli- hoods by mastering their profession and using it attain happiness in life as well as they can. In like manner, each father and mother, wife and hus- band, maid and servant, and errand boy too enjoys their own kind of hap- piness in life. In this way, everyone fulﬁlls their own life and enjoys the fruit of their own happiness. Now, many śramaṇas, like the ones here, are engaged in the practice of austerity. Do they acquire anything good as a result of their practice of austerity, sir?
The Buddha said to the king, “Have you asked this question of any other
śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa before?” King Ajātaśatru replied:
Yes, I have visited a number of śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas and asked them this same question, sir. I recall that I once visited Purāṇa Kāśyapa and said to him, “Just as we ride on an elephant, horse, or chariot and learn battleﬁeld strategies and so on, other people carry on with the means of their livelihood and enjoy the fruits of their own happiness. Now can your followers, who are all engaged in the pursuit of your path, acquire any results in this life like the satisfactions gained by other people?”
That teacher replied, “If Your Majesty acts or lets others act to inﬂict agonies and torment people, whether by injuring, cutting, and dismem- bering [their bodies] or by burning, pulverizing, and destroying [their homes], or to commit other transgressions such as lying, stealing, tres- passing, plundering, destroying evidence, arson, murder, sexual abuse, and so on—despite all of this, [understand that] no one is really doing anything evil.
“O great king, if someone were to ﬂay human beings with a sharp knife, creating a pile of ﬂesh and then scattering it all over the ground, this would not constitute an evil, nor would such an action produce any moral retri- bution, good or bad. Irrespective of whether one chops up human bodies

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on the southern bank of the Ganges River or promotes universal benev- olence on the northern bank of the river, there is no difference whatsoever between beneﬁting everyone on one bank and destroying everyone on the other bank, nor are there any results therefrom.”
The king continued:
Suppose someone asks about a melon and the other person talks about a plum, or when the former asks about a plum and the latter replies in terms of a melon—that teacher’s reply was just like that. When I asked him if those who practice his path realize a certain result in this life, that śramaṇa replied that there is no such thing as reward or retribution regardless of whether one’s actions are good or bad. I could not help thinking, “I am a kṣatriya, properly anointed to kingship’s throne. Yet I [should refrain from] exercising my power to arrest, exile, or execute any of these prac- titioners who have renounced domestic life. Nonetheless, I feel dissatisﬁed with this teacher’s answer.” With those thoughts, I left his place for good.
King Ajātaśatru again said to the Buddha:
On another occasion, I visited the teacher Maskarin Gośālīputra’s place and asked him the same question, “Just as we ride on an elephant, horse, or chariot and learn battleﬁeld strategies and so on, other people carry on with the means of their livelihood and enjoy the fruits of their own hap- piness. Now can your followers, who are all engaged in the pursuit of your path, acquire any results in this life like the satisfactions gained by other people?”
That teacher replied, “O great king, there is no meaning in charity, none whatsoever in an act of giving, nor is there any meaning in any of the sacriﬁcial rites; there are neither good act nor bad acts, nor is there any moral retribution, good or bad, derived therefrom. There is neither life here and now nor an afterlife, nor is there a father or mother, or a god, a spirit, or a living being. Moreover, there is neither a śramaṇa nor a brāh- maṇa to proclaim the equality [of everything]. Nor is there anyone who, in this world or the afterlife, directly experiences [any kind of realization], or anyone who can teach it to others. Whoever speaks of anything as ‘exis- tent’ is a liar, and the words he utters lack all reality.”

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O World-honored One, suppose someone asks about a melon and the other person talks about a plum, or when the former asks about a plum and the latter replies in terms of a melon—that teacher’s reply was just like that. When I asked him if those who practice his path realize a certain result in this life, he replied that the question was meaningless. Again I thought to myself, “I am a kṣatriya, properly anointed to kingship’s throne. Yet I [should refrain from] exercising my power to arrest, exile, or execute any of these practitioners who have renounced domestic life. Nonetheless, I feel dissatisﬁed with this teacher’s answer.” With those thoughts, I left his place for good.
Again, the king said to the Buddha:
On another occasion, I visited Ajita-keśakambalin’s place and asked him the same question, “O virtuous one, just as we ride on an elephant, horse, or chariot, and learn battleﬁeld strategies and so on, other people carry on with the means of their livelihood and enjoy the fruits of their own happiness. Now can your followers, who are all engaged in the pursuit of your path, acquire any results in this life like the satisfactions gained by other people?”
That teacher replied, “For all who receive a body consisting of the four elements, when life ends the earth element in the body returns to the earth, the water element returns to water, the wind element returns to the wind, and the ﬁre element returns to ﬁre. Thus every element of the body devolves and every faculty therein dissolves and returns to nothingness. When people die their bodies are placed on a funeral platform or left out among the ceme- tery mounds; when ﬁre consumes the skeleton it turns dull white or into ashes. Whether one is wise or a fool, when their life ends everyone’s [body], without exception, decomposes, manifesting the law of total annihilation.” O World-honored One, suppose someone asks about a melon and the other person talks about a plum, or when the former asks about a plum and the latter replies in terms of a melon—that teacher’s reply was just like that. When I asked him if those who practice his path realize a certain result in this life, he replied that there was nothing but total annihilation. Agian I thought to myself, “I am a kṣatriya, properly anointed to kingship’s throne. Yet I [should refrain from] exercising my power to arrest, exile,

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or execute any of these practitioners who have renounced domestic life. Nonetheless, I feel dissatisﬁed with this teacher’s answer.” With those thoughts, I left his place for good.
Again, King Ajātaśatru said to the Buddha:
On another occasion, I visited Kakuda-katyāyana’s place and asked him the same question, “O virtuous one, just as we ride on an elephant, horse, or chariot and learn battleﬁeld strategies and so on, other people carry on with the means of their livelihood and enjoy the fruits of their own hap- piness. Now can your followers, who are all engaged in the pursuit of your path, acquire any results in this life like the satisfactions gained by other people?”
That teacher replied, “O great king, those who lack strength and virility have little power for action as well as little concept of expediency. Some people may become attached [to things] without due cause or conditions, while others remain free from attachments, their pure and genuine [practice also] coming about without due cause or conditions. Those sentient beings who are endowed with life invariably lack the power that would enable them to realize their own freedom. Hence, no harm or blame. For them, constancy lies in the midst of numbers, undergoing the six kinds of life cycles and experiencing both pleasure and pain.”
O World-honored One, suppose someone asks about a melon and the other person talks about a plum, or when the former asks about a plum and the latter replies in terms of a melon—that teacher’s reply was just like that. When I asked him if those who practice his path realize a certain result in this life, he replied that living beings lack the power [to gain their own freedom]. Again I thought to myself, “I am a kṣatriya, properly anointed to kingship’s throne. Yet I [should refrain from] exercising my power to arrest, exile, or execute any of these practitioners who have renounced domestic life. Nonetheless, I feel dissatisﬁed with this teacher’s answer.” With those thoughts, I left his place for good.
Again, the king said to the Buddha:
On another occasion, I visited Sañjayī Vairaṭṭiputra’s place and asked him the same question, “O virtuous one, just as we ride on an elephant, horse,

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or chariot and learn battleﬁeld strategies and so on, other people carry on with the means of their livelihood and enjoy the fruits of their own hap- piness. Now can your followers, who are all engaged in the pursuit of your path, acquire any results in this life like the satisfactions gained by other people?’”
That teacher replied, “O great king, if Your Majesty asks, ‘Do śramaṇas have some reward in this life?’, this may be answered in the following manner: (1) This is identical (i.e., true; zishishi); (2) this is different (zishiyi); (3) this is not different (zishifeiyi); (4) this is not not-different (zishifeibuyi). This is the ﬁrst question-and-answer variation.
“On the other hand, if Your Majesty asks, ‘Do śramaṇas have no reward in this life?’, this may be answered in the following manner: (1) This is identical (true); (2) this is different; (3) this is not different; (4) this is not not-different.
“If again Your Majesty asks, ‘Do śramaṇas have neither any reward, nor no reward in this life?’, this may be answered in the following manner:
(1) This is identical (true); (2) this is different; (3) this is not different; (4) this is not not-different.”
O World-honored One, suppose someone asks about a melon and the other person talks about a plum, or when the former asks about a plum and the latter replies in terms of a melon—that teacher’s reply was just like that. When I asked him if those who practice his path realize a certain goal in this present life, he again replied by speaking in terms of difference (i.e., always in terms of something else). Again I thought to myself, “I am a kṣatriya, properly anointed to kingship’s throne. Yet I [should refrain from] exercising my power to arrest, exile, or execute any of these prac- titioners who have renounced domestic life. Nonetheless, I feel dissatisﬁed with this teacher’s answer.” With those thoughts, I left his place for good.
Again, King Ajātaśatru said to the Buddha:
On another occasion, I visited Nirgrantha Jñātiputra’s place and asked him the same question, “O virtuous one, just as we ride on an elephant, horse, or chariot and learn battleﬁeld strategies and so on, other people carry on with the means of their livelihood and enjoy the fruits of their own happiness. Now can your followers, who are all engaged in the pursuit

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of your path, acquire any results in this life like the satisfactions gained by other people?”
That teacher replied, “O great king, I know all things, have insight into all things, and I know all that is, without exception. Irrespective of whether I am standing, sitting, or lying down, I am aware of all things without excep- tion. All-inclusive (absolute) knowledge is present before me at all times.” O World-honored One, suppose someone asks about a melon and the other talks person about a plum, or when the former asks about a plum and the latter replies in terms of a melon—that teacher’s reply was just like that. When I asked him if those who practice his path acquire a certain reward in this life, he answered by talking about his “all-inclusive knowl- edge.” Again I thought to myself, “I am a kṣatriya, properly anointed to kingship’s throne. Yet I [should refrain from] exercising my power to arrest, exile, or execute any of these practitioners who have renounced domestic life. Nonetheless, I feel dissatisﬁed with this teacher’s answer.”
With those thoughts, I left his place for good.
O World-honored One, because of these experiences, I have come with the intent to ask Your Reverence the same question, namely, “Just as we ride on an elephant, horse, or chariot and learn battleﬁeld strategies and so on, other people carry on with the means of their livelihood and enjoy the fruits of their own happiness. Now do the śramaṇas (disciples of the Buddha) who are engaged in the pursuit of your path acquire rewards in this life like the satisfactions gained by other people, sir?”
The Buddha said to King Ajātaśatru:
I would now like to ask Your Majesty a question. You may answer as you please. What do you think, O great king? Suppose that on the night of the full moon some of the boys and other workers in the royal household observe the king having his hair washed and his body bathed and then enjoying some entertainment together with the palace ladies in the royal pavilion. One of them thinks, “What irony! After that affair19 this is the reward. Here is King Ajātaśatru, on the night of the full moon, having his hair washed and his body bathed and gratifying all his senses with the palace ladies in the pavilion. Who can ever know the reward that will fall to one from his conduct?” Later on, that man shaves his hair, moustache,

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and beard, puts on the three robes of a mendicant, renounces domestic life, and applies himself to the practice of equanimity (the principle of equality).
Now, O great king, if you see this bhikṣu approaching, do you think to yourself, “Well, isn’t this one of my former servants from the palace?”
The king replied, “No, O World-honored One. If I see a monk approaching, I will stand to welcome him and ask him to take a seat alongside me.”
The Buddha said, “Indeed, is that not a real reward that a bhikṣu attains in this present life?”
The king replied, “Exactly so, O World-honored One. That is a reward that comes from being a śramaṇa.”
Again, the Buddha said:
O great king, some of the household guests who depend on the king’s muniﬁcence may have observed on the night of the full moon the king having his hair washed and his body bathed and then enjoying some enter- tainment together with the palace ladies in the royal pavilion. One of them may have thought, “What irony! After those events this is the reward. Who can ever know the reward that will fall to one from his conduct?” Later on, that guest shaves his hair, moustache, and beard, puts on the three robes of a mendicant, renounces domestic life, and applies himself to the practice of equanimity. Now, O great king, what do you think? If you see this bhikṣu approaching, do you think to yourself, “Well, isn’t this one of my guests to whom I gave an allowance?”
King Ajātaśatru replied, “No, O World-honored One. If I see a monk approaching, I will stand to welcome him with a bow and ask him to take a seat alongside me.”
The Buddha said, “What does Your Majesty think? O great king, is that indeed not a real reward that a bhikṣu attains in this present life?”
The king replied, “Exactly so, O World-honored One. That is a reward that comes from being a śramaṇa.”
Again, the Buddha said:
O great king, the Tathāgata appears in this world as one who is totally free from deﬁlement and perfectly enlightened. Those who enter his path

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should be able to acquire three kinds of supernormal knowledge20 that annihilates ignorance and allows the illumination of insight, eliminating all forms of darkness and delusion to realize the total eradication of deﬁle- ments and reveal the great light of the Dharma. How is this so? Because this fundamental realization can only be achieved through constant endeavor without any slackening, through freedom from all worldly men- tality, practice in seclusion, diligent mindfulness, and mental concentration. What does Your Majesty think? O great king, is that indeed not a real reward that a bhikṣu attains in this present life?
The king replied, “Exactly so, O World-honored One. That is a reward that comes from being a śramaṇa.”
Thereupon, King Ajātaśatru stood up, bowed his forehead to the ground at the Buddha’s feet, and said:
May I earnestly request that the World-honored One hear my repentance. I was insane—stupid, ignorant, and without any awareness of decency. My father, King Vidmisāra21 of Magadha, ruled the country according to our laws and was always upright and impartial. But driven mad by the desires of the [ﬁve] senses, I murdered my father, the king. May Your Reverence, with compassion and pity, accept my earnest repentance.
The Buddha said:
Having been stupid, ignorant, and lacking any awareness of decency in the past, you murdered your father, the king, but now you have repented from the depth of your heart. According to the spiritual law of the wise and saintly disciples, if you have now thoroughly repented for what you have done, something beneﬁcial will come to you. Because I have com- passion for you I will accept your repentance.
At that, King Ajātaśatru venerated [by bowing to] the Buddha’s feet. He then withdrew to one side and took his seat. Thereupon, the Buddha gave him a discourse on the Dharma, imparting instruction, beneﬁt, and delight.
After hearing the discourse, the king said to the Buddha:
Sir, I now take my refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May Your Reverence accept me as a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this

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moment until the dissolution of my body at the end of life I will refrain from taking life, I will refrain from taking things that are not given, I will refrain from indulging in sexual pleasure, I will refrain from speaking falsehoods, and I will refrain from ingesting intoxicants.22 May I earnestly request the World-honored One and the members of the sangha to unequiv- ocally accept my vow.
The World-honored One remained silent for a moment, granting the king’s request. Seeing this, the king stood up, venerated the Buddha, circumambu- lated him three times, and returned to the palace.
Not long after the king’s departure, the Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
King Ajātaśatru has atoned for his past transgressions and mitigated the burden of his sins. If the king had not murdered his father he could have acquired genuine insight (ārya-dharma-cakṣus-viśuddha) into the nature of the Dharma. However, King Ajātaśatru has repented and has atoned for his grievous transgression.
King Ajātaśatru, for his part, said to Prince Jīvaka on his way back to the palace:
It was good that you have served me so well. It was you who ﬁrst told me about the Tathāgata’s teaching and then took me to meet him, and my mind has been opened. I am indebted to you and will not forget it.
When the king reached the palace he ordered the preparation of various dishes of food and drink, and the next morning it was reported to the Buddha that the meal was ready. Thereupon, the World-honored One donned his outer robe and with almsbowl in hand visited the palace accompanied by one thou- sand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. Taking his seat in the place that had been prepared for him, the Buddha, together with the members of the sangha, was served by the king himself.
At the conclusion of the meal, the bowls were cleaned and rinsing water was served. Then the king venerated the Buddha [by bowing to his] feet and said:
I have repented my past transgressions again and again, sir. I was insane— stupid, ignorant, and without any awareness of decency. My father, King Vidmisāra of Magadha, ruled the country according to our laws and was

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always upright and impartial. But driven mad by the desires of the [ﬁve] senses, I murdered my father, the king. May Your Reverence, with com- passion and pity, accept my earnest repentance.
The Buddha replied:
Having been stupid, ignorant, and without any awareness of decency, you murdered your father, the king, but now you have repented from the depth of your heart. According to the spiritual law of the wise and saintly dis- ciples, if you have now thoroughly repented for what you have done, something beneﬁcial will come to you. Because I have compassion for you I will accept your repentance.
At that, King Ajātaśatru venerated the Buddha [by bowing to his] feet. Then he brought out a small cushion and seated himself before the Buddha. Thereupon, the Buddha gave him a discourse on the Dharma, imparting instruction, beneﬁt, and delight.
After hearing the discourse, the king again said to the Buddha:
Once again, I take my refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May Your Reverence accept me as a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this moment until the dissolution of my body at the end of life I will refrain from taking life, I will refrain from taking things not given, I will refrain from indulging in sexual pleasure, I will refrain from speaking falsehoods, and I will refrain from ingesting intoxicants.
After completing the teaching given for King Ajātaśatru, thus imparting instruction, beneﬁt, and delight, the World-honored One stood up and left the palace. Having heard the Buddha’s teaching, King Ajātaśatru and the master of medicine, Prince Jīvaka, were delighted to receive it, and they rev- erentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 27: The Rewards of the Life of a Śramaṇa]

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Sutra 28

Poṭṭhapāda
(Dīgha Nikāya 9: Poṭṭhapāda Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once the Buddha was staying in Anāthapiṇḍika Monastery in Prince Jeta’s Grove near the city of Śrāvastī, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. The World-honored One put on his outer robe and with his almsbowl in hand went into the city of Śrāvastī in the early morning. As he walked, the World-honored One thought:
It is still a bit early for the almsround. I will visit the brāhmaṇa ascetic Poṭṭhapāda in the forest to see how he is doing. I can stay there until it is time for the almsround.
The World-honored One went to the forest. The brāhmaṇa ascetic Poṭṭhapāda had seen the Buddha approaching from a distance, and he stood up at once to greet him, “Welcome, śramaṇa Gautama. I have not seen you for some time. What has prompted Your Reverence to come this way? Please take the seat in front.”
The World-honored One took the seat that was offered and said to Poṭṭhapāda, “Now that I am here, tell me what you have been discussing.”
The brāhmaṇa ascetic replied:
O World-honored One, many brāhmaṇa ascetics, śramaṇas, and lay brāh- maṇas gathered in the Brahmā Hall yesterday and talked about a number of things, arguing back and forth over their different views. O Gautama, one brāhmaṇa ascetic proposed this theory: “Thoughts form in the mind apart from any causes or conditions. Thoughts also perish from the mind without cause or condition. Thoughts are known by their coming and going. When they come, they arise in the mind, and when they go, they perish from the mind.”
O Gautama, another brāhmaṇa ascetic argued for this idea: “The self knows the presence of a thought through its arising, and also knows its

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absence through its perishing. Each thought is known by its coming and going. When it comes the thought arises, and when it goes the thought perishes.”
O Gautama, a third brāhmaṇa ascetic presented the following notion: “The foregoing two theories are impossible. Thoughts arise only through the activity of a great spirit whose boundless power brings forth each thought and also takes it away. When he produces it a thought arises, and when he takes it away the thought perishes. My thoughts arise because of the activity of that spirit.”
O Gautama, if one can grasp the meaning of those theories, one might begin to discern how the cessation of thinking and knowing may take place.
The World-honored One said to the brāhmaṇa ascetic Poṭṭhapāda:
According to what you have said, all three theorists are culpable of com- mitting an error. First, that thoughts form in the mind apart from any causes or conditions, and also perish from the mind without cause or con- dition; thoughts are known by their coming and going, and when they come they arise in the mind, and when they go they perish from the mind. Second, that the self knows the presence of a thought through its arising, and also knows its absence through its perishing; each thought is known by its coming and going, and when it comes the thought arises, and when it goes the thought perishes. Third, that thoughts only arise through the activity of a great spirit whose boundless power brings forth each thought as well as takes it away; when [the spirit] produces it a thought arises, and when [the spirit] takes it away it perishes. Those who assert these theories are necessarily culpable of committing an error. Why? Because thoughts arise when there is a causal dependence for their creation, and they perish when there is a causal dependence for their cessation.
When the Tathāgata appears in this world, he is endowed with ten supreme titles, such as One Liberated from Attachment, Perfectly Enlight- ened One, and so on. If someone renounces domestic life in accord with the Buddha’s path and applies himself to the practice of austerity, and so on, he eradicates the ﬁve kinds of moral and spiritual hindrance, namely,
(1) sexual desire, (2) malice, (3) drowsiness and sloth, (4) worry and agi- tation, and (5) doubt. Having removed desires and unfavorable elements,

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he or she is still aware of an object and of the act of examining but the cause of birth has been removed (i.e., reaching the supramundane realm) and he enters the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption, giving rise to a sense of joy and bliss. Here he eradicates all thought of desire, increasing the sense of joy and bliss. O brāhmaṇa ascetic, because of this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal dependence and also cease due to causal dependence.
[Now,] eliminating awareness of an object as well as awareness of the subjective act of examining, he enters the second meditative state of absorption with increasing tranquility and self-conﬁdence, and experiences a predominant sense of joy and bliss in the emergent state of concentration. O brāhmaṇa ascetic, he observed that thoughts ceased in the ﬁrst meditative state of absorption and [now] a thought arises in the second meditative state of absorption. Because of this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal dependence and also cease due to causal dependence.
[Next,] as the sense of joy fades, he enters the third meditative state of absorption, mindful of the sense of equanimity, and is fully aware of the subtler bliss in pure and genuine mindfulness and equanimity that the wise and holy speak of as indispensable. O brāhmaṇa ascetic, he observed that thoughts ceased in the second meditative state of absorption and [now] a thought arises in the third meditative state of absorption. Because of this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal dependence and also cease due to causal dependence.
[Next,] transcending both pleasure and pain and removing joy and sor- row, he enters the fourth meditative state of absorption, which is the equa- nimity that consolidates pure and genuine mindfulness. O brāhmaṇa asce- tic, he observed that thoughts ceased in the third meditative state of absorption and [now] a thought arises in the fourth meditative state of absorption. Because of this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal dependence and also cease due to causal dependence.
[Next,] removing all thought of external forms, he terminates anger without conjuring further thought and enters the [formless] realm of inﬁnite space, which is the ﬁrst formless state of concentration. O brāhmaṇa asce- tic, he observes all sense of form ending in this formless concentration, and [now] an awareness of the realm of inﬁnite space arises. Because of

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this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal dependence and also cease due to causal dependence.
[Next,] transcending the realm of inﬁnite space, he enters the [formless] realm of inﬁnite consciousness, which is the second formless state of con- centration. O brāhmaṇa ascetic, he observes the thought of the realm of inﬁnite space ending as an awareness of the realm of inﬁnite consciousness arises. Because of this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal depend- ence and also cease due to causal dependence.
[Next,] transcending the realm of inﬁnite consciousness, he enters the [formless] realm of nothingness or nonutility, which is the third formless state of concentration. O brāhmaṇa ascetic, as the thought of the realm of inﬁnite consciousness ends an awareness of the realm of nothingness arises. Because of this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal depend- ence and also cease due to causal dependence.
[Next,] transcending the realm of nothingness, he enters the [formless] realm of neither thought nor nonthought, which is the fourth formless state of concentration. O brāhmaṇa ascetic, as the thought of the realm of nothingness ends an awareness of the realm of neither thought nor non- thought arises. Because of this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal dependence and also cease due to causal dependence.
[Next,] transcending the realm of neither thought nor nonthought, he enters the ﬁnal state of cessation, beyond all thought and sensation. This is the third saintly state, that of the nonreturner (anāgāmin). O brāhmaṇa ascetic, when awareness of the [formless] realm of neither thought nor nonthought ends he enters the state of concentration in which all thoughts and sensations [totally] cease. Because of this, he knows that thoughts arise due to causal dependence and also cease due to causal dependence.
Having acquired this insight, he may think: “It is not good to project a thought or idea in the mind; moreover, it is good not to project a thought or idea in the mind.” If he thinks in this way, a subtle form of thinking remains (i.e., is not annihilated), causing gross forms to arise. Again, he may think: “I should not engage in imagining anything, nor should I pursue any thoughts.” By not imagining or pursuing thoughts, subtle thinking comes to an end and no gross form arises. That is, when he does not engage in imagining anything, his habitual pursuit of thought does not emerge.

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Accomplishing this, he enters the ﬁnal state of concentration in which all thoughts and sensations completely cease.
What do you think? O brāhmaṇa ascetic, in your prior training, was this kind of causality ever mentioned to explain the gradual cessation of ideation?
The brāhmaṇa ascetic replied, “Sir, I have never before heard of this kind of causality in the gradual cessation of ideation, but I believe my prior training helps me understand it.”
Again, Poṭṭhapāda said to the Buddha:
Now, [as explained by the World-honored One,] when I produce a thought [in my mind] it appears either as a thought of existence or as a thought of nonexistence. But then another thought arises. When it too is gone, I think to myself: “It is not good to project a thought or idea in the mind; moreover, it is good not to project a thought or idea in the mind.” When I come to this insight, however, I have not terminated the process of subtle projection and this causes gross forms of thinking to arise. So I say to myself: “I should not engage in imagining anything, nor should I pursue any thoughts. By not imagining or pursuing thoughts, subtle projection comes to an end and no gross forms arise. That is, when I neither imagine anything nor pursue any thoughts, the process of subtle thought formation ends, eliminating the cause of gross forms, and I enter the ﬁnal state of concentration in which all thoughts and sensations are totally annihilated.”
The Buddha said, “Very good. This is called the state of concentration in which one realizes the gradual cessation of ideation, as practiced by the wise and saintly disciples.”
The brāhmaṇa ascetic asked, “Sir, of those ideas, which is the highest?” The Buddha replied, “The idea of the realm of nothingness is the highest.” The brāhmaṇa ascetic asked again, “Of those ideas, which is supreme?”
The Buddha replied:
In terms of the varieties of ideas of existence and of nonexistence, proceeding gradually [by stages] and realizing the ﬁnal state of concentration in which all thoughts and sensations completely cease is called the supreme idea.

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The brāhmaṇa ascetic again asked, “Sir, is it a single supreme idea or multiple?”
The Buddha replied, “It is a single idea, not multiple.” [Poṭṭhapāda] again asked:
Does an idea arise ﬁrst, and then comes knowledge ( jñāna)? Or is it that knowledge comes ﬁrst and then the idea is formed, or that knowledge and the idea arise simultaneously?
The Buddha replied, “An idea arises ﬁrst, and then comes knowledge ( jñāna). When thinking occurs, knowledge follows.”
The brāhmaṇa ascetic again asked, “Sir, is a the selfhood of a person (puruṣasya ātman) an idea?”
The Buddha replied, “In your view, what do you regard as the selfhood of a person?”
The brāhmaṇa ascetic replied:
I do not say that the self is a person. I regard myself as consisting of a physical body composed of four material elements (mahābhūtas) and six sense faculties (āyatanas), all of which were inherited at birth from my mother and father and nurtured through childhood. But it is nothing more than an embodiment of impermanence, which will become worn out and [eventually] perish. As the embodiment of impermanence, I say that such a person has a self.
The Buddha said:
O brāhmaṇa ascetic, what you refer to as your impermanent body com- posed of four material elements and six sense faculties that were inherited from your mother and father and nurtured through childhood—do you say that this is your self? O brāhmaṇa ascetic, you should discard the idea of a self, [because] it is only the idea of a person that arises and perishes.
The brāhmaṇa ascetic said, “Sir, I do not say that the self is a person. It is rather the person’s heavenly body [that belongs to] the realm of desire.”
The Buddha said:
You should discard the idea that the self is the person’s heavenly body [that belongs to] the realm of desire, [because] it is only the idea of a person that arises and perishes.

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The brāhmaṇa ascetic said:
I do not say that the self is a person. It is rather the person’s heavenly body [that belongs to] the realm of form, [which is higher than the realm of desire].
The Buddha said:
You should discard the idea that the self is the person’s heavenly body [that belongs to] the realm of form, [because] it is only the idea of a person that arises and perishes.
The brāhmaṇa ascetic said:
I do not say that the self is a person. It is rather the person’s heavenly body [that belongs to] the formless realms (ārūpyadhātu), namely, the realms of inﬁnite space, of inﬁnite consciousness, of nothingness, and of neither thought nor nonthought.
The Buddha said:
You should discard the idea that the self is the person’s heavenly body [that belongs to] the formless realms, namely, the realms of inﬁnite space, of inﬁnite consciousness, of nothingness, and of neither thought nor non- thought, [because] it is only the idea of a person that arises and perishes.
The brāhmaṇa ascetic said to the Buddha, “What do you think, O Gau- tama? Will I be able to grasp why it is only the idea of a person that arises and perishes?”
The Buddha replied:
Though you may wish to understand why it is only the idea of a person that arises and perishes, it will be difﬁcult for you to grasp this, precisely because you have been inﬂuenced by different views, a different teacher and school, a different training [toward a different goal], a different tol- erance, and a different attitude toward pleasure.
Poṭṭhapāda said:
Exactly, sir. O Gautama, I have been inﬂuenced by different views, a dif- ferent teacher and school, a different training [toward a different goal], a

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different tolerance, and a different attitude toward pleasure, and it is very difﬁcult for me to grasp why only the idea of a person arises and perishes. Why? Precisely because of the following views: (1) The self and the world are permanent; this alone is true while the rest is false. (2) The self and the world are impermanent; this alone is true while the rest is false. (3) The self and the world are both permanent and impermanent; this alone is true while the rest is false. (4) The self and the world are neither permanent nor impermanent; this alone is true while the rest is false. (5) The self and the world are limited [and have an end]; this alone is true while the rest is false. (6) The self and the world are limitless [and have no end]; this alone is true while the rest is false. (7) The self and the world are both limited and limitless; this alone is true while the rest is false. (8) The self and the world are neither limited nor limitless; this alone is true while the rest is false. (9) This life principle is the body itself; this alone is true while the rest is false. (10) If there is another life principle, there is another body; this alone is true while the rest is false. (11) The life principle and the body are neither different nor nondifferent; this alone is true while the rest is false. (12) If there is no life principle, there is no [living] body; this alone is true while the rest is false. (13) The Tathāgata has an end; this alone is true while the rest is false. (14) The Tathāgata has no end; this alone is true while the rest is false. (15) The Tathāgata has an end as well as no end; this alone is true while the rest is false. (16) The Tathāgata has neither an end nor no end; this alone is true while the rest is false.
The Buddha said to the brāhmaṇa ascetic, “I do not subscribe to any views holding that ‘the self and the world are permanent’ and so on, up to ‘the Tathāgata has neither end nor no end.’
Poṭṭhapāda said, “O Gautama, why don’t you subscribe to the view that the self and the world are permanent, or to any of those other views?”
The Buddha replied:
Because they do not accord with true meanings, do not accord with the doctrine, have nothing to do with the practice of austerity as the foundation, and do not represent the eradication of desire, or the state of cessation, or the state of quiescence, or the goal of perfect enlightenment (anuttara

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samyaksaṃbodhi), or the life of śramaṇas, or the state of nirvana. For these reasons I do not subscribe to any of these views.
The brāhmaṇa ascetic again asked:
What are the views that accord with true meanings, accord with the doc- trine, relate to the practice of austerity, represent the eradication of desire, the state of cessation, the state of quiescence, the goal of perfect enlight- enment, the life of śramaṇas, and the state of nirvana? And what does it mean to “subscribe” to a view, sir?
The Buddha replied:
I subscribe to the doctrine of the truth of suffering, of [the truth of the] causal aggregates [of suffering], of [the truth of the] cessation [of suffering], and of the [truth of the] essential path to liberation [from suffering] (i.e., the Four Noble Truths). Why? Because this doctrine accords with true meanings, accords with the teaching, has the practice of austerity as its foundation, and represents the eradication of desire, the state of cessation, the state of quiescence, the goal of perfect enlightenment, the life of śra- maṇas, and the state of nirvana. Because of this, I subscribe [to the doctrine of the Four Noble Truths].
Thereupon, the World-honored One gave Poṭṭhapāda a discourse on the Dharma, imparting instruction, beneﬁt, and delight, and then stood up and left his place.
Not long after the Buddha’s departure some of the other brāhmaṇa ascetics criticized the brāhmaṇa Poṭṭhapāda:
How can you listen to the words of the śramaṇa Gautama and accept them as right? When he says “I do not subscribe to any views holding that ‘the self and the world are permanent’ and so on, up to ‘the Tathāgata has neither an end nor no end,’ because they do not accord with true meanings,” how can you accept such a statement? We do not consider these words to be acceptable.
Poṭṭhapāda said to the brāhmaṇa ascetics:

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The śramaṇa Gautama explained that he does not subscribe to views hold- ing that the self and the world are permanent and so on, up to “the Tathāgata has neither an end nor no end,” because they do not accord with true mean- ings. I do not necessarily accept that statement, [just as you do not,] but [I know that] the śramaṇa Gautama has realized deliverance, abides in the Dharma, and that all his statements are in accord with the Dharma. On what grounds could I oppose these words that reﬂect his wisdom? When the śramaṇa Gautama expresses truthful words with such subtlety, you cannot oppose them just to be contradictory.
On another occasion, the brāhmaṇa ascetic Poṭṭhapāda visited the World- honored One in the company of Hastiśāriputra. The latter greeted the Buddha with a bow and took a seat to one side. Then Poṭṭhapāda venerated the Buddha and Hastiśāriputra and also took a seat to one side. Poṭṭhapāda said to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, not long after Your Reverence left my place after your last visit, some of the brāhmaṇa ascetics criticized me. They said, “How can you listen to the words of the śramaṇa Gautama and accept them as right? When he says, ‘I do not subscribe to any views holding that the self and the world are permanent and so on, up to ‘the Tathāgata has neither an end nor no end,’ because they do not accord with true mean- ings,’ how can you accept such a statement? We do not consider these words to be acceptable.”
I told those brāhmaṇa ascetics, “The śramaṇa Gautama explained that he does not subscribe to views holding that the self and the world are per- manent and so on, up to ‘the Tathāgata has neither an end nor no end,’ because they do not accord with true meanings. I do not necessarily accept that statement, [ just as you do not,] but [I know that] the śramaṇa Gautama has realized deliverance, abides in the Dharma, and that all his statements are in accord with the Dharma. On what grounds could I oppose words that reﬂect his wisdom? When the śramaṇa Gautama expresses truthful words with such subtlety, you cannot oppose them just to be contradictory.”
The Buddha said:
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such as, “How can you listen to the words of the śramaṇa Gautama and accept them as right,” are at fault. Why? Because in my teaching I dis- tinguish between two types of truth: (1) absolutely determinate truth and
(2) indeterminate truth. What is indeterminate truth? The views that have been repeated, namely, that the self and the world are permanent and so on, up to “the Tathāgata has neither an end nor no end,” belong to the indeterminate category. I too use these views when teaching doctrine, but I use them only as indeterminate truths. The reason they are indeterminate is that they do not accord with true meanings, do not accord with the doc- trine, have nothing to do with the practice of austerity as the foundation, and do not represent the eradication of desire, or the state of cessation, or the state of quiescence, or the goal of perfect enlightenment, or the life of śramaṇas, or the state of nirvana. For this reason, O brāhmaṇa ascetic, even though I use these views when teaching doctrine, I do not regard them as determinate truths. What views, then, are determinate? I consider the truths of suffering, of causal aggregates, of cessation, and of the essen- tial path of liberation [from suffering] as determinate truths. The reason they are determinate is that they accord with true meanings, accord with the doctrine, have the practice of austerity as their foundation, and represent the eradication of desire, the state of cessation, the state of quiescence, the goal of perfect enlightenment, the life of śramaṇas, and the state of nirvana. Therefore, I teach the Four Noble Truths as determinate truths. O brāhmaṇa ascetic, there are some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who believe in attaining absolute happiness in a world in the afterlife. I asked one of them, “Do you believe in attaining absolute happiness in a world in the afterlife?” He replied, “Yes, I do, just as you have said.” I again asked, “Have you ever known or seen this state of absolute happiness in such a world?” He replied, “No, I have neither known nor seen it.” I again asked, “The gods of that world enjoy the state of absolute happiness. Have you ever seen them?” He replied, “No, I have neither known nor seen them.” I again asked, “Do you meet with the gods of that world, and do you converse with them or practice meditation together?” He replied, “No, I don’t.” I again asked, “Has any one of the gods who enjoy absolute hap- piness in that world ever come to say to you: ‘Since your conduct has been honest and direct, you will be reborn in the world of absolute happiness.

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I was honest and direct and I was born there, and I have been enjoying life there ever since. Let us enjoy life there together’?” He replied, “No, no one has.” I again asked, “Have you been able to use the supernormal power of your mind to create another body composed of the four material elements and endowed with all the sense faculties and physical limbs without exception?” He replied, “No, I have not.”
What do you think, O brāhmaṇa ascetic? Should the words of those
śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas be regarded as honest and truthful?
The brāhmaṇa ascetic Poṭṭhapāda replied, “Their words are neither honest nor truthful, sir.”
The Buddha said:
It is just like a philanderer bragging about his conquest of some imaginary beauty by praising her sexual prowess. When others ask, “How do you know her? Is she from the east, west, north, or south?”, he replies, “I don’t know.” Again, when others ask, “Where can she be found—in what town, district, or village?”, he replies, “I don’t know.” When they ask, “What about her family? Is she from a kṣatriya family, or from a brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra family?”, he again replies, “I don’t know.” And when they ask, “What does she look like? Is she tall or short, stout or delicate, dark or light? Is she beautiful or ugly?”, he again replies, “I don’t know.” O brāhmaṇa ascetic, could the story [of the woman] told by that man be regarded as honest and truthful?
The brāhmaṇa ascetic replied, “No, sir. It could not be regarded as honest or true.”
[The Buddha continued:]
O brāhmaṇa ascetic, suppose a man sets up a ladder in an empty spot. Someone asks, “Why are you setting up a ladder in an empty spot?” The man replies, “I wish to ascend to the next ﬂoor of the building.” Others ask, “What building? Is it in the east, west, north, or south?” He replies, “I do not know.” What do you think, O brāhmaṇa ascetic? Wouldn’t it be far-fetched to set up a ladder in an empty spot and try to ascend to the next ﬂoor of an imaginary building?

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[The brāhmaṇa ascetic] replied, “Exactly, sir. Such behavior would be far-fetched.”
The Buddha said, “It is the same with the beliefs of the śramaṇas and
brāhmaṇas. What they teach is fanciful and unreal.
The Buddha said to Poṭṭhapāda:
You said previously that your physical body is composed of four material elements and six sense faculties that were inherited from your mother and father and nurtured through childhood, and hence is nothing but an embod- iment of impermanence, which wll become worn out and [eventually] perish; and that it would be such a person that has a self. Now, I teach that this corporeal body [in which you assumed the existence of a self] is deﬁled, [yet] its purity and genuineness can be realized, together with deliverance from suffering. In your thinking, perhaps you would assert that deﬁlements cannot be annihilated and that no pure and genuine ele- ments can arise [where there continue to be deﬁlements]. Do not ever fall prey to this [pessimistic] thought when you are in the midst of suffering. Why? Because deﬁlements can be annihilated, causing pure and genuine elements to arise. When you experience delight and realize the state of joy and bliss and abide therein, your knowledge will expand through gen- uine mindfulness and mental concentration.
O brāhmaṇa ascetic, I teach that deﬁlements are found not only in the heavenly body belonging to the realms of desire and form, but also in the heavenly body in the [formless] realms of inﬁnite space, of inﬁnite con- sciousness, of nothingness, and of neither thought nor nonthought. Yet I also teach that the purity and genuineness of that heavenly body can be realized, along with deliverance from suffering. In your thinking, perhaps you would assert that the deﬁlements cannot be annihilated and that no pure and genuine elements can arise [where there continue to be deﬁle- ments]. Do not ever fall prey to this [pessimistic] thought when you are in the midst of suffering. Why? Because deﬁlements can be annihilated, causing pure and genuine elements to arise. When you experience delight and realize the state of joy and bliss and abide therein, your knowledge will expand through genuine mindfulness and mental concentration.

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Then Hastiśāriputra asked the Buddha:
O World-honored One, when a person’s physical body in the realm of desire is composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties, does that person simultaneously have a heavenly body in the realms of desire and form, as well as in the formless realms of inﬁnite space, inﬁnite consciousness, nothingness, and neither thought nor nonthought? O World- honored One, when a person’s heavenly body is in the realm of desire, does the person simultaneously have a physical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties in the realm of desire, and a heav- enly body in the realm of form as well as in the formless realms of inﬁnite space, inﬁnite consciousness, nothingness, and neither thought nor non- thought? O World-honored One, when a person’s heavenly body is in the realm of form, does the person simultaneously have a physical body com- posed of the four material elements and six sense faculties in the realm of desire, and a heavenly body in the realm of desire as well as in the formless realms of inﬁnite space, inﬁnite consciousness, nothingness, and neither thought nor nonthought? Continuing in this manner, when a person’s heav- enly body belongs to the realm of neither thought nor nonthought, does the person simultaneously have a physical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties belonging to the realm of desire and a heavenly body belonging to the realm of desire as well as to the realms of form, inﬁnite space, inﬁnite consciousness, and nothingness?
The Buddha replied:
When there is a physical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties belonging to the realm of desire, it is only the phys- ical body composed of the four gross elements and six sense faculties belonging to the realm of desire, and not a heavenly body belonging to the realms of desire or form, or one belonging to the formless realms of inﬁnite space, inﬁnite consciousness, nothingness, and neither thought nor nonthought. Continuing in this manner, when a person’s heavenly body belongs to the realm of neither thought nor nonthought, it is only the heavenly body of that person that belongs to the realm of neither thought nor nonthought, and not a physical body composed of the four

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material elements and six sense faculties belonging to the realm of desire, or a heavenly body belonging to the realms of desire or form or to the formless realms of inﬁnite space, inﬁnite consciousness, and nothingness. O Hastiśāriputra, it is like the changing states that occur in milk. Milk (kṣīra) changes to become cheese, then cheese changes to become fresh butter, fresh butter changes to become butter, [and ﬁnally] butter changes to become ghee (clariﬁed butter). Ghee is the best of all. O Hastiśāriputra, when milk is in the state of milk, it is called milk and not called cheese, butter, or ghee. Continuing in this manner, when there is clariﬁed butter
it is called ghee and not milk, cheese, or fresh butter.
O Hastiśāriputra, your question can be answered in precisely the same way. When there is a physical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties belonging to the realm of desire, it is not a heavenly body belonging to the realm of desire or a heavenly body belonging to the realm of form, and so on, up to the formless realm of neither thought nor nonthought. Similarly, when there is a heavenly body in the realm of neither thought nor nonthought, it is only a heavenly body and not a phys- ical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties in the realm of desire, or any heavenly body in the realm of desire, in the realm of form, and so on, up to the realm of nothingness.
O Hastiśāriputra, how do you reply when others ask, “Is your body in the past simultaneously your body in the present as well as your future body?” Or “Is your future body simultaneously your past body as well as your body in the present?” Or “Is your present body simultaneously your body in the past as well as your future body?” What do you say to such questions?
Hastiśāriputra replied:
Sir, if I am plied with such questions, I reply as follows. The past body belongs to the past and is neither the body in the present nor the future body. Again, the future body belongs to the future and is neither the past body nor the body in the present. Again, the present body belongs to the present and is neither the past body nor the future body.
The Buddha said to Hastiśāriputra:

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O Hastiśāriputra, your previous question can be answered in precisely the same way. When there is a physical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties belonging to the realm of desire, it is not a heavenly body belonging to the realm of desire or a heavenly body belonging to the realm of form, and so on, up to the formless realm of neither thought nor nonthought. Similarly, when there is a heavenly body in the realm of neither thought nor nonthought, it is only a heavenly body and not a physical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties in the realm of desire, or any heavenly body in the realm of desire, and so on, up to the [formless] realm of nothingness.
Again, O Hastiśāriputra, if others ask, “Did you perish in the past, will you come again in the future, and are you now in the present?”, what do you say to them?
Hastiśāriputra replied:
If I am so questioned, I shall reply: “I once perished in the past, and I was not nonexistent. I will come into existence in the future, and I will not be nonexistent. I now exist in the present, and I am not nonexistent.”
The Buddha said:
O Hastiśāriputra, your previous question can be answered in the same way. When there is a physical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties belonging to the realm of desire, it is not a heavenly body belonging to the realm of desire and so on, or a heavenly body belong- ing to the formless realm of neither thought nor nonthought. Similarly, when there is a heavenly body in the realm of neither thought nor non- thought, it is not a physical body composed of the four material elements and six sense faculties in the realm of desire, or any heavenly body in the realm of desire, and so on, up to the [formless] realm of nothingness.
Then Hastiśāriputra said to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, now I take my refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. As I wish to become a lay devotee, may Your Reverence accept me as a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this moment until the dissolution

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of my body at the end of life, I will refrain from taking life, I will refrain from taking what is not given, I will refrain from indulging in sexual pleasure, I will refrain from speaking falsehoods, and I will refrain from ingesting intoxicants.
Poṭṭhapāda then asked the Buddha, “Sir, is it possible for me to renounce domestic life and receive higher ordination?”
The Buddha replied:
If someone who has followed a different religious order wishes to be ordained in this Dharma, he must remain a probationer for a period of four months, observing [how to go about the life of the sangha] and receiv- ing appraisal of its members. After that, he may be allowed to renounce domestic life and receive higher ordination. This is the regular proceeding, and it is simply for the sake of examining the character of a new convert.
The brāhmaṇa ascetic said:
[Sir, I understand that] someone who has followed a different religious order and wishes to renounce domestic life to receive higher ordination in the Buddha’s religion must remain a probationer for a period of four months, observing [how to go about the life of the sangha] and receiving the appraisal of its members. After that, he may be allowed to renounce domestic life and receive higher ordination. For my part, I would not mind remaining a probationer for four years if I could take the vow of renunciation and receive higher ordination after thoroughly observing how to go about the life of the sangha and receiving the due approval of its members.
The Buddha said:
I spoke about the rule because there is such a rule, but it is only for eval- uating the character of a new convert. [In your case, no probationary period is needed.]
Poṭṭhapāda was allowed to immediately renounce domestic life and receive higher ordination, and he carried out the practice of pure and genuine austerity with ﬁrm determination. Before too long, he directly experienced the termi- nation of the cause of birth and death in the present life; his practice of

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austerity was complete; that which must be done [for religious salvation] was accomplished; and, having realized the ultimate state of arhatship, for him there was no more birth.
At that time, having heard the Buddha’s teaching, Poṭṭhapāda was delighted to receive it and reverentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 28: Poṭṭhapāda]

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Sutra 29

Lohitya
(Dīgha Nikāya 12: Lohicca Suttanta)

Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha was visiting the communities of the country of Kauśala, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus, he stopped overnight in a śiṃśapā forest north of a brāhmaṇa village called Sālavatikā. A brāhmaṇa called Lohitya resided in a grove of śāla trees in the village, which was well populated and prosperous because King Prase- najit had granted it to the brāhmaṇa as a ﬁef, exempting it from taxation. Lohitya was from a pure family line of seven generations and was never slighted by anyone in society. He was thoroughly versed in the three ancient collections of hymns (Vedas) and had detailed knowledge of the various brāhmaṇa scriptures, as well as a comprehensive command of the subtleties of secular literature. He was also well trained in reading the physiognomy of magnanimous personalities, in divining good and bad omens, and in con- ducting ceremonial proceedings and sacriﬁcial rites.
On that occasion, the brāhmaṇa was duly informed:
The śramaṇa Gautama, son of the Śākya clan, having renounced domestic life and realized the ultimate spiritual goal, has been visiting the commu- nities of the country of Kauśala and has [now] reached the śiṃśapā forest. Gautama’s good name is renowned and [his accomplishment] has been proclaimed everywhere, in all lands under the sky, as worthy of the ten supreme titles, namely, One Perfected in Practice, One Liberated from Attachment, Perfectly Enlightened One, and so on. Among all the gods and humans, as well as all the evil ones and their lord, and the śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas too, he alone has directly experienced the realization of enlightenment and teaches others [how to realize it]. When he expounds on the Dharma his words are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end. All the words he utters are invariably endowed with

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true meanings and real essences, and are in accord with his practice of pure and genuine austerity.
“Everyone should visit this sage and pay him their respects,” the brāhmaṇa
said to himself. “I must now go and see him along with the others.”
With these thoughts, the brāhmaṇa left the village and soon arrived at the śiṃśapā forest. After greeting the Buddha with a bow, he took a seat to one side. Thereupon, the Buddha taught him the Dharma, imparting instruction, beneﬁt, and delight.
Having heard the teaching, the brāhmaṇa said, “Sir, may I request that the World-honored One and the members of the sangha accept my invitation for almsfood tomorrow.”
The World-honored One remained silent, accepting the invitation. Observ- ing the Buddha’s silence, the brāhmaṇa understood that his invitation had been accepted. He arose from his seat, circumambulated the Buddha three times, and then departed for home.
Shortly after leaving the Buddha’s resting place, Lohitya erroneously thought to himself:
Many śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas acquire precious knowledge and receive a lofty spiritual experience, but they should not try to teach others about what they acquired or experienced. If they keep those realizations to them- selves there is no need to teach others. It would be like destroying an old prison only to build another one anew, which would be worthless and wrong.
The brāhmaṇa returned to the śāla grove and prepared various dishes of food and drink throughout the night. When the meal was ready, he said to his barber, “Take this message to the śiṃśapā forest and tell the śramaṇa Gautama, ‘Everything is ready, sir.’”
The barber soon reached the resting place of the Buddha and, after ven- erating him, conveyed the message. The World-honored One put on his outer robe, and with almsbowl in hand walked to the śāla grove accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus. On the way, the barber, who had stayed in close attendance to the Buddha, rearranged his outer clothing to bare his right elbow and respectfully joined his palms together. Then he kneeled with his left knee on the ground and said to the Buddha:

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Not long after leaving the Buddha’s resting place, the brāhmaṇa Lohitya had the misconception that śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who acquire precious knowledge and receive a lofty spiritual experience should not try to teach others about what they acquired or experienced. If they keep those real- izations to themselves there is no need to teach others. It would be like destroying an old prison only to build another one anew, which would be worthless and wrong. May I request that the World-honored One relieve [the brāhmaṇa Lohitya] of this wrong view.
The Buddha replied, “That is a minor offense that can be removed very easily.”
With that, the World-honored One arrived at the brāhmaṇa’s house and took his seat at the place that had been made ready. Then the brāhmaṇa served the Buddha and the members of the sangha various dishes from his own hands. When the meal was ﬁnished, the bowls were cleaned and rinsing water was served. The brāhmaṇa brought out a small cushion and sat down before the Buddha. The Buddha said to Lohitya:
Not long after you left my place last night, you had the misconception that śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who acquire precious knowledge and receive a lofty spiritual experience should not try to teach others about what they acquired or experienced. If they keep those realizations to themselves there is no need to teach others, as the attempt would be worthless and wrong. Now is this really what you thought?
Lohitya replied, “Yes, it is, sir.” The Buddha said:
You should not entertain such a mistaken view. Why? Because what you thought applies only to three kinds of [faulty] teaching. You may ﬁnd some guidance in these examples.
What are the three kinds of [faulty] teaching? Those who shave their hair and beard, put on the three robes [of a mendicant], renounce domestic life, and apply themselves to the practice of austerity should eradicate all deﬁlements in this life and advance on the path to realizing the insight that transcends ordinary existence. The ﬁrst example of [faulty] teaching is by those who neither eradicate deﬁlements in this life nor acquire the

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insight that transcends ordinary existence, yet they presume to teach stu- dents without having completed their own realization. Students will not respect such a teacher, nor will they offer him due service. Because of this, this type of teacher and his students should merely reside together and rely on someone else’s guidance.
O Lohitya, those students may say, “O teacher, since you have shaved your hair and beard, donned the three robes, renounced domestic life, and applied yourself to the practice of austerity, you should have eradicated all deﬁlements and realized the insight that transcends ordinary existence. However, you have not been able to do so, and you have been teaching us without having completed your own realization.”
Thus, those students will not respect [that teacher], nor will they offer him due service as their teacher, and both teacher and students will merely be residing together.
The Buddha said:
O Lohitya, this is like destroying an old prison only to build another one anew. It is a corrupt way to proceed and one should take caution, because it bears on how the rules of the Vinaya discipline and the precepts of the wise and saintly disciples are observed in both timing and deportment.
Again, the Buddha said to Lohitya:
The second type of [faulty] teaching is by those who have shaved their hair and beards, put on the three robes of a mendicant, renounced domestic life, and applied themselves to the practice of austerity, but they have not yet been able to eradicate all deﬁlements even though they have managed to gain some degree of understanding regarding the insight that transcends ordinary existence. They still teach students without having completed their own realization. Again, a teacher and students in such a situation should merely reside together and rely on someone else’s guidance. O Lohitya, these students may say, “Our teacher has shaved his hair and beard, donned the three robes, renounced domestic life, and applied himself to the practice of austerity. He should have eradicated deﬁlements and realized the insight that transcends ordinary existence, but he has not been able to eradicate all deﬁlements. Although he has gained some degree

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of understanding regarding the insight that transcends ordinary existence, he has been teaching us without having eradicated all deﬁlements, and this has caused us to not respect him or offer him due service, and we are all merely residing together.”
The Buddha said:
This is like walking behind another person and rubbing that person’s back with your hand. It is a corrupt way to proceed and one should take caution, because it bears on how the rules of the Vinaya discipline and the precepts of the wise and saintly disciples are observed in both timing and deportment.
Again, the Buddha said:
The third type of [faulty] teaching is by those who have shaved their hair and beards, put on the three robes of a mendicant, renounced domestic life, and applied themselves to the practice of austerity, but they have not yet been able to eradicate all deﬁlements even though they have managed to gain some degree of understanding regarding the insight that transcends ordinary existence. Still they teach students without having completed their own realization. The students, however, respect the teacher and offer him due service, and teacher and students reside together.
O Lohitya, those students may say, “Our teacher has shaved his hair and beard, donned the three robes, renounced domestic life, and applied himself to the practice of austerity, and he should have eradicated deﬁle- ments and realized the insight that transcends ordinary existence, but he has not been able to eradicate all deﬁlements. Even though he has gained some degree of understanding regarding the insight that transcends ordinary existence, he has been teaching us without having eradicated all deﬁle- ments. However, we still respect him and offer him due service as our teacher, and thus we reside together.”
The Buddha said:
O Lohitya, this is like neglecting the ﬁeld where one should be sowing seeds and going off to weed another ﬁeld. It is a corrupt way to proceed and one should take caution, because it bears on how the rules of the

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Vinaya discipline and the precepts of the wise and saintly disciples are observed in both timing and deportment.
O Lohitya, there is just one supreme World-honored One in this world, [and not two.] Before his appearance in the world there can be no upheaval. Why is the World-honored One exceptional and supreme? The Tathāgata appears in this world as one who is totally free from deﬁlement and per- fectly enlightened, and so on. He has acquired the three kinds of super- normal knowledge that annihilates ignorance and allows the illumination of insight, eliminating all forms of darkness and delusion to realize the total eradication of deﬁlements and reveal the great light of the Dharma. Why? Because this fundamental realization can only be achieved through constant endeavor without any slackening, and through freedom from all worldly mentality, practice in seclusion, diligent mindfulness, and mental concentration. O Lohitya, the truth is that there can be no upheaveal in this world without the appearance of the supreme World-honored One. O Lohitya, there are four results ( phala) in the life of a śramaṇa. What are the four? They are the saintly states of the stream-enterer (srota- āppana), once-returner (sakṛdāgāmin), nonreturner (anāgāmin), and arhat. What do you think, O Lohitya? Suppose that one could realize the fruits of the four saintly states by listening to a discourse on the Dharma; and suppose also that someone interrupts the discourse, saying “Stop this talk about the Dharma,” and the teacher obeys and stops teaching. Would any-
one listening to the discourse attain the intended result?
Lohitya answered, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha] asked again, “Without attaining the result, can one attain rebirth in heaven?”
Lohitya answered, “No, sir.” [The Buddha] asked again:
So the person who stops the teacher’s discourse on the Dharma cannot attain the result, and his [or her] rebirth in heaven becomes impossible. Would such a mind be considered good or evil?
Lohitya answered “Sir, it is an evil mind.”
The Buddha asked again, “When someone with a mind that is not good is reborn, is it into a good destiny or an evil one?”

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Lohitya answered, “He will be born into an evil course of life, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Lohitya, it it as if someone were to say to King Prasenajit, “The king should alone enjoy all the wealth of the lands and states that he rules, and should not share any of it with others.” What do you think, O Lohitya? If the king agreed with this advice he would cut off all the grants he has made to others, wouldn’t he?
Lohitya answered, “Yes, sir. He would do that.”
[The Buddha asked again,] “Would a mind that would terminate all grants and gifts to others be regarded as a good mind or an evil one?”
Lohitya answered, “It is a mind that is up to no good, sir.”
[The Buddha] asked again, “With a mind that is not good, would one be born into a good destiny or an evil one?”
Lohitya answered, “They will be born into an evil course of life, sir.” The Buddha said to Lohitya:
It is just the same with someone who stops his teacher’s discourse on the Dharma, especially when those who are listening to the teaching are intended to realize the four results of the life of a śramaṇa. Now, if someone obstructs a teacher’s discourse by saying “Stop this talk about the Dharma,” and the teacher obeys and stops teaching, does anyone listening to the discourse attain the intended result?
Lohitya answered, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha] asked again, “Without attaining the result, can one attain rebirth in heaven?”
Lohitya answered, “No, sir.” [The Buddha] asked again:
So the person who stops the teacher’s discourse on the Dharma cannot attain the result and his rebirth in heaven becomes impossible. Would such a mind be considered good or evil?
Lohitya answered, “Sir, it is an evil mind.”
The Buddha asked again, “When someone with a mind that is not good is reborn, is it into a good destiny or an evil one?”

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Lohitya answered, “He will be born into an evil course of life, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
O Lohitya, if someone says to you, “The property that belongs to the village of Sālavatikā is your ﬁef [granted by the king]. You alone should enjoy it, as it is only for your own use and not for others. What good does it do to give anything to others?” What do you think, O Lohitya? If you were to follow this advice you would stop all gifts and payments to others, wouldn’t you?
[Lohitya] replied, “Yes, I would.”
[The Buddha] asked again, “When someone advises another person to terminate all gifts and payments to others, is that a good or evil mind?”
[Lohitya] replied, “It is an evil mind, sir.”
[The Buddha] asked again, “With a mind that is not good, would one be born into a good destiny or an evil one?”
Lohitya answered, “They will be born into an evil course of life, sir.” [The Buddha continued:]
It is just the same with anyone who stops the discourse of a Dharma teacher, especially when there are others listening to the discourse in order to attain the fruit of the four saintly states. If the teacher allows the dis- ruption [and stops the discourse], will the listeners reach the goal of the four saintly states?
[Lohitya] replied, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha] asked again, “If the listeners cannot attain the fruit of the saintly states, will they be reborn in heaven?”
[Lohitya] replied, “No, sir.”
[The Buddha] asked again, “When someone stops a Dharma discourse and prevents others from attaining the fruit of the saintly states, and thus from rebirth in heaven, is that a good or evil mind?”
[Lohitya] replied, “An evil mind, sir.”
[The Buddha] asked again, “With a mind that is not good, would one be born into a good destiny or an evil one?”
Lohitya answered, “He will be born into an evil course of life, sir.”

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At that moment, the brāhmaṇa said to the Buddha:
O World-honored One, I take my refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. As I wish to become a lay devotee, may Your Reverence accept me as a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this moment until the dis- solution of the body at the end of life, I will refrain from taking life, I will refrain from taking what is not given, I will refrain from indulging in sexual pleasure, I will refrain from speaking falsehoods, and I will refrain from ingesting intoxicants.
The Buddha completed his discourse on the Dharma. The brāhmaṇa Lohitya, having heard the Buddha’s teaching, was delighted to receive it and reverentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
[End of Sutra 29: Lohitya]

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Sutra 30

A Buddhist Cosmology
(No Parallel in Dīgha Nikāya)

Article 1: The Land of Jambudvīpa
Thus have I heard. Once, when the Buddha was visiting the city of Śrāvastī, accompanied by one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty bhikṣus, he stayed at the Kareri-kuṭikā cloister of Anāthapiṇḍika Monastery in Prince Jeta’s Grove. After the morning almsround a few of the bhikṣus met in the lecture hall to talk, saying:
Venerables, it is beyond our imagining how and why this world could be slated for destruction and then reconstruction. What will become of the myriad homes of sentient beings?”
The World-honored One was meditating in seclusion but through his super- normal power of crystal-clear hearing he overheard the discussion among the bhikṣus gathered in the lecture hall. He immediately got up from his seat in the Kareri-kuṭikā cloister, went to the lecture hall, and took his place. Though he already knew [what they had been talking about], the World-hon- ored One asked, “O bhikṣus, what have you been discussing?”
The bhikṣus recounted their discussion to the Buddha:
Sir, we were meeting after the day’s meal and someone asked, “Venerables, it is beyond our imagining how this world could be slated for destruction and then recreation. What will become of the myriad homes of sentient beings?”
At that, the World-honored One said:
Very good, very good. Those who renounce domestic life take up two kinds of practice: ﬁrst, silent introspection as practiced by the wise and

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saintly disciples, and second, analysis of religious doctrine. As you have met in this hall, you must not only follow the meditation practice of the wise and saintly disciples but also discuss and debate doctrinal issues. O bhikṣus, would you like to hear the Tathāgata’s recollection of the creation and destruction of this world and the fate of the lands and communities where sentient beings reside?
The bhikṣus replied, “Yes, O World-honored One. We are eager to hear your account. Anything you reveal will be gratefully received and we shall observe it carefully.”
The Buddha said, “Listen attentively, you must retain what I say and keep it in mind. I will give you the very core of the matter.”
With that, the Buddha began his discourse:
The sun and moon regularly pass over the four continents and illuminate them, [as we have always experienced]. Yet there are a thousand worlds just like this [in the universe]. In these worlds there are a thousand suns and moons passing over a thousand lofty Mount Sumerus, as well as four thousand smaller lands and four thousand larger lands, four thousand oceans and four thousand greater oceans, four thousand nāgas (dragons) and four thousand greater nāgas, four thousand garuḍas (mythological bird) and four thousand greater garuḍas, four thousand evil paths and four thousand greater evil paths, four thousand kings and four thousand greater kings, and seven thousand great trees, eight thousand great hells, ten thousand great mountains, a thousand lords of Yama, a thousand appear- ances of the four guardian gods, a thousand occurrences of the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods (Trāyastriṃśa), a thousand Yama Heavens, a thousand Tuṣita Heavens, a thousand Nirmāṇarati Heavens, where the residents enjoy pleasures of their own creation, a thousand Paranirmitavaśavartin Heavens, where the inhabitants enjoy pleasures created by others, and a thousand Brahmā Heavens. Together, all these make up the small universe, which consists of a thousand such worlds.
[Now,] there is also a larger universe, consisting of a thousand of these small universes, called the middle universe. [In addition,] there is a great universe that consists of a thousand middle universes. This is called the triple thousand–great universe (sanqian taqian shijie). All of the great

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universe [that comprises many thousands of middle and small universes] undergoes the cycle of creation and destruction, and each locality where sentient beings reside is called a buddha land (buddha-kṣetra).
The Buddha continued:
The depth of this great earth is one hundred and sixty-eight thousand yojanas23 and its circumference is beyond measure. The earth rests on a layer of water three thousand and thirty yojanas deep, whose circumference is immeasurable. The water rides over a layer of airy wind that is six thou- sand and forty yojanas deep with an immeasurable circumference. O bhikṣus, the depth of the great ocean is eighty-four thousand yojanas and its circumference is immeasurable. The part of Mount Sumeru that is sub- merged in the ocean is eighty-four thousand yojanas deep, and the part that rises above the ocean’s surface into the atmosphere is eighty-four thousand yojanas high. The base of the mountain adheres to a foundation of very hard earth. On the mountain’s summit no rough or uneven terrain can be found and many varieties of trees grow, emitting exquisite fragrance that permeates the forest. A number of wise and saintly hermits live in this forest, which is [also] the abode of the great god Yama. A layer of pure gold sand runs through the foundation of the mountain, and on its four sides, rising as high as seven hundred yojanas, are hillocks in the variegated hues of seven kinds of precious stones, which gradually fall away in a long curve to reveal the expanse of the ocean beyond.
The pathway on Mount Sumeru is a stairway strewn with seven precious stones. At its broadest, on the lower slope of the mountain, it is sixty yojanas wide. On both sides of the pathway are sevenfold walls made of precious stones, embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees. The golden wall is endowed with silver gates, the silver wall with golden gates, the quartz wall with lapis gates, the lapis wall with quartz gates, the ruby wall with agate gates, the agate wall with ruby gates, and the emerald wall with gates decorated with many kinds of precious stones. The railings are similarly decorated: the golden railing is ornamented with ropes made of silver, the silver railing with ropes made of gold, the quartz railing with ropes made of lapis, the lapis railing with ropes made of quartz, the ruby railing with ropes made of agate, the agate

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railing with ropes made of rubies, and the emerald railing with a variety of precious stones. Over these railings are hung decorative nets strung with various ornaments. From the golden net hangs a silver bell; from the silver net hangs a golden bell; from the lapis net hangs a quartz bell; from the quartz net hangs a lapis bell; from the ruby net hangs an agate bell; from the agate net hangs a ruby bell; and from the emerald net hangs a bell inlaid with various precious stones.
The golden trees have golden trunks and branches and silver ﬂowers and fruit. The silver trees have silver trunks and branches and golden ﬂowers and fruit. The quartz trees have quartz trunks and branches and lapis ﬂowers and leaves, while the lapis trees have lapis trunks and branches and quartz ﬂowers and leaves. The ruby trees have ruby trunks and branches and agate ﬂowers and leaves, while the agate trees have agate trunks and branches and ﬂowers and leaves made of rubies. The emerald trees have emerald trunks and branches and ﬂowers and leaves made of a variety of precious stones.
Each of the seven walls has four gates, protected by barriers. Each wall, topped with a pavilion and veranda, encloses a bathing pond and pleasure garden ﬁlled with foliage and ﬂowers made of precious treasures. The trees standing in lines are also made of precious treasures, and bear ﬂowers and fruit in abundance. Exquisite fragrance arises in all directions, pleasing every- one. Wild ducks and hawks; mandarin ducks, both male and female; and a host of innumerable rare birds sing harmoniously together.
The pathway on the middle slope of Mount Sumeru is forty yojanas wide. Here too, on both sides, are sevenfold walls made of precious stones, embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, seven lines of trees, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as below. On the upper slope the pathway is twenty yojanas wide, with sevenfold walls made of precious stones on either side, embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, seven lines of trees, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as below.
The Buddha [continued] his discourse to the bhikṣus:
Along the pathway on the lower slope lives a bird called the garuḍa. On the middle slope lives a deity called Mālādhāra, and on the upper slope

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lives the deity Sadāmatta. The foothills [around the mountain] are forty- two thousand yojanas high, and the palaces of the four guardian gods [located] on them are ringed by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees adorned with bells made of precious stones, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
On top of Mount Sumeru are the palaces of the thirty-three gods, also ringed by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven orna- mental nets, and seven lines of trees, with golden walls and silver gates, and silver walls and golden gates, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of the god Yama. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of the gods of Tuṣita Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Nirmāṇarati Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Brahmakāyika Heaven.
Between Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven and Brahmakāyika Heaven is the palace of the lord of the evil ones, Māra, an area of sixty thousand yojanas surrounded by sevenfold walls with seven railings, seven orna- mental nets, and seven lines of trees, and so on, with innumerable birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
Beyond the Brahmakāyika Heaven, one yojana higher, is the palace of Ābhāsvara Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Śub- hakṛtsna Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Anabhraka Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Puṇyaprasava Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Asaṃjñisattva Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Bṛhatphala Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Abṛha Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Atapa Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Sudṛśa Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Sudarśana Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, is the palace of Akaniṣṭha Heaven. Beyond this, one yojana higher, are the gods of Ākāśānantyāyatana Heaven, the gods of Vijñānānantyāyatana Heaven, the gods of Ākiṃcanyāyatana Heaven, and the gods of Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyātana Heaven. All of this constitutes the abodes of

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sentient beings who are conﬁned to their respective realms. All sentient beings are inherently subject to the law of birth, old age, illness, and death, they invariably acquire a conﬁguration of the ﬁve psychophysical elements, and thus they receive nothing more nor less than an existential becoming.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
To the north of Mount Sumeru is a land called Uttarakuru, a square area measuring ten thousand yojanas on each side. The faces of the people there also are square, reﬂecting the shape of their land. To the east of Mount Sumeru is a land called Pūrvavideha, which is round with a radius of nine thousand yojana. The faces of the people there also are round, reﬂecting the form of their land. To the west of Mount Sumeru is a land called Aparagodānīya, shaped like a half moon, with a radius of eight thousand yojana. The faces of the people there similarly reﬂect the form of their land. To the south of Mount Sumeru is a land called Jambudvīpa, which is narrower in the south and broad and open in the north, measuring seven thousand yojanas in length and breadth. The faces of the people of Jambudvīpa also reﬂect the form of their land. In the northern sky above Mount Sumeru a golden source of light illuminates the northern region. In the eastern sky above Mount Sumeru a silvery source of light illuminates the eastern region. In the western sky above Mount Sumeru a quartz source of light illuminates the western region. In the southern sky above Mount Sumeru a source of light made of lapis illuminates the southern region. In the northern land of Uttarakuru there is a great tree called Mango, with a diameter of seven yojanas, rising to a height of one hundred yojanas, whose branches and leaves spread out in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty yojanas. In the eastern land of Pūrvavideha there is a great tree called Jielan- fou, with a diameter of seven yojanas, a height of one hundred yojanas, and branches and leaves spreading out in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty yojanas. In the western land of Aparagodānīya there is a great tree called Jinti, with a diameter of seven yojanas, a height of one hundred yojanas, and branches and leaves spreading out in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty yojanas. Under this tree there is a rock tower one yojana high, on which is carved an image of cattle. In the southern land of Jambudvīpa there is a great tree called Jambu, with a diameter of seven yojanas, a height of one

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hundred yojanas, and branches and leaves spreading out in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty yojanas. The trees of the garuḍa king and of the nāga king are called Julishanpoluo, and each has a diameter of seven yojanas, a height of one hundred yojanas, and branches and leaves spreading in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty yojanas. The asura king also has a tree, called Shanhua, with a diameter of seven yojanas, a height of one hundred yojanas, and branches and leaves spreading in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty yojanas. The tree in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven is called Zhoudu, with a diameter of seven yojanas, a height of one hundred yojanas, and branches and leaves spreading out in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty yojanas. Near Mount Sumeru there is a mountain called Qutoluo, whose height, length, and breadth all measure forty-two thousand yojanas. The foothills of this mountain extend far and wide and glitter with the variegated colors produced by the seven kinds of treasure. This mountain is located at a distance of eighty-four thousand yojanas from Mount Sumeru, and the area between them is ﬁlled with many water lilies, including blue (utpala), pink ( padma), red (kumuda), and white ( puṇḍarīka) varieties, with reeds, pine trees, and bamboo growing among them, all ﬁlling the air with exqui-
site fragrance.
Not far from this mountain is another mountain, called Yishatoluo, whose height, length, and breadth all measure twenty-one thousand yojanas. The foothills of this mountain also extend far and wide and glitter with the variegated colors produced by the seven kinds of treasure. This mountain is located at a distance of forty-two thousand yojanas from Mount Qu, and the area between them is ﬁlled with many water lilies, including blue, pink, red, and white varieties, with reeds, pine trees, and bamboo growing among them, all ﬁlling the air with exquisite fragrance. Not far from this mountain is another mountain, called Shuchentoluo, with a height of one thousand yojanas and a length and breadth of two thousand yojanas. The foothills of this mountain also extend far and wide and glitter with the variegated colors produced by the seven kinds of treas- ure. This mountain is located at a distance of twenty-one thousand yojanas from Mount Yisha, and the area between them is ﬁlled with four varieties of water lilies, with reeds, pine trees, and bamboo growing among them,
all ﬁlling the air with exquisite fragrance.

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Not far from this mountain is another mountain, called Sudarśana, with a height of six thousand yojanas and a length and breadth of six thousand yojanas. The foothills of this mountain also extend far and wide and glitter with the variegated colors produced by the seven kinds of treasure. This mountain is located at a distance of twelve thousand yojanas from Mount Shuchen, and the area between them is ﬁlled with four varieties of water lilies, with reeds, pine trees, and bamboo growing among them, all ﬁlling the air with exquisite fragrance.
Not far from this mountain is another mountain, called Mashishang, with a height of three thousand yojanas and a length and breadth of three thousand yojanas. The foothills of this mountain also extend far and wide and glitter with the variegated colors produced by the seven kinds of treas- ure. This mountain is located at a distance of sixty thousand yojanas from Mount Sudarśana, and the area between them is ﬁlled with four varieties of water lilies, with reeds, pine trees, and bamboo growing among them, all ﬁlling the air with exquisite fragrance.
Not far from this mountain is another mountain, called Nimintoluo, with a height of twelve hundred yojanas and a length and breadth of twelve hundred yojanas. The foothills of this mountain also extend far and wide and glitter with the variegated colors produced by the seven kinds of treas- ure. This mountain is located at a distance of three thousand yojanas from Mount Mashi, and the area between them is ﬁlled with four varieties of water lilies, with reeds, pine trees, and bamboo growing among them, all ﬁlling the air with exquisite fragrance.
Not far from this mountain is another mountain, called Diaofu, with a height of six hundred yojanas and a length and breadth of six hundred yojanas. The foothills of this mountain also extend far and wide and glitter with the variegated colors produced by the seven kinds of treasure. This mountain is located at a distance of twelve hundred yojanas from Mount Nimin, and the area between them is ﬁlled with four varieties of water lilies, with reeds, pine trees, and bamboo growing among them, all ﬁlling the air with exquisite fragrance.
Not far from this mountain is another mountain, called Jingangwei, with a height of three hundred yojanas and a length and breadth of three hundred yojanas. The foothills of this mountain also extend far and wide

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and glitter with the variegated colors produced by the seven kinds of treas- ure. This mountain is located at a distance of six hundred yojanas from Mount Diaofu, and the area between them is ﬁlled with four varieties of water lilies, with reeds, pine trees, and bamboo growing among them, all ﬁlling the air with exquisite fragrance.
Not far from this mountain is a great ocean. On the northern shore of this ocean is a great tree called Jambu, with a diameter of seven yojanas, rising to a height of a hundred yojanas, with branches and leaves spreading out in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty yojanas. There is a [vast] expanse of land in the neighborhood of this tree, where there are groves of [many] kinds of trees, such as mango trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; yenpo trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; śāla trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; tāla (palm) trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; nadoluo trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; weinan trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; weinü trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; nannü trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; sanna trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; sandalwood trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; quchouluo trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; bonapoluo trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; piluo trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; xiangna trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; weili trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; anshiliu trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; weigan trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; helilei trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; pixilei trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; amolei trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; and na trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas.
[There are also] ganzhe (sugar cane) spreading over a length and breadth
of ﬁfty yojanas; reeds spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; bamboo spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; śāla trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; mugua plants spread- ing over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; damugua plants spreading

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over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; jietuo ﬂower trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; zhanpo trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; poluoluo trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; xiumona trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; poshi trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; duoluoli trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; jiaya trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas; and grape trees spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas. Beyond these many kinds of groves and far out to the horizon, the ground is covered by innumerable ponds, each spreading over a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas and ﬁlled with pink, red, and white lotus blos- soms, with poisonous snakes among them. Beyond these ponds lies a vast expanse consisting of a great lake called Udyāna (Youzhanna). Under the surface of the water in this lake is the passageway used by the cakravartin (universal ruler), measuring twelve yojanas wide. On both sides of this road are sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure. When the cakravartin appears in the land of Jambudvīpa the water auto- matically recedes so that the expanse of the passageway stands [ready to
be used].
Not far from this lake is a mountain called Youzhan. The mountain is beautiful and ﬁlled with luxuriant vegetation, abundant ﬂowers and fruit, and much exquisite fragrance. All the different kinds of birds and animals, without exception, live here. Not far from Mount Youzhan is another mountain, called Suvarṇavarṇa (“Golden Wall”), which has eighty thousand caves in which eighty thousand royal elephants reside. These elephants have white hides and multicolored heads, and each has six tusks and gold ﬁllings in their teeth.
Beyond this mountain is another mountain, called Himalaya (“Snow Mountain”), ﬁve hundred yojanas in length and breadth, which plunges into the sea along its eastern and western edges to a depth of ﬁve hundred yojanas. Within the interior of this snowy mountain is a treasure mountain twenty yojanas high, as well as [several] hills that are a hundred yojanas high. On top of the snowy mountain is a lake known as Anavatapta, with a length and breadth of ﬁfty yojanas, and spotlessly clean, transparent,

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and pure water. Leading into [the lake] are stone terraces made from the seven kinds of treasure, protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all shining with the variegated colors of the seven kinds of treasure.
The railings are multihued: the golden railing is decorated with silver ropes, the silver railing with golden ropes, the quartz railing with lapis ropes, the lapis railing with quartz ropes, the ruby railing with agate ropes, the agate railing with ropes of rubies, and the emerald railing with ropes of various precious stones. Ornamental nets are draped over these railings; the golden net has a pendant silver bell, the silver net has a golden bell, the lapis net has a quartz bell, the quartz net has a lapis bell, the ruby net has an agate bell, the agate net has a ruby bell, and the net made of emeralds has a bell inlaid with various precious stones.
The golden tāla tree has golden roots and branches and silver leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit. The silver tāla tree has silver roots and branches and golden leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit. The quartz tree has quartz roots and branches and lapis leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit, while the lapis tree has lapis roots and branches and quartz leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit. The ruby tree has ruby roots and branches and agate leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit, while the agate tree has agate roots and branches and ruby ﬂowers, leaves, and fruit, and the emerald tree has emerald roots and branches and leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit made of various precious stones. Around Anavatapta Lake are pleasant pavilions amid bathing ponds, many kinds of ﬂowers blooming in thick layers, and many different kinds of ﬂourishing trees with distinctive leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit, all ﬁlling the air with exquisite fragrance, and many different kinds of rare birds singing harmoniously together.
The bottom of Anavatapta Lake is golden sand. Stairways made from the seven kinds of treasure enter the four sides of the lake: the golden stairway is lined with silver ropes, the silver stairway is lined with golden ropes, the lapis stairway is lined with quartz ropes, the quartz stairway is lined with lapis ropes, the agate stairway is lined with ruby ropes, the ruby stairway is lined with agate ropes, and the emerald stairway is lined with ropes made of various precious stones. All around the lake are [con- tinuous] railings; the four kinds of water lilies show their blue, yellow, red, and white blossoms, and their variegated colors compose the image

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of a wheel, with the roots forming the center. The roots emit sap as white as milk and sweet as honey. Again, around the lake are pleasant pavilions set amid bathing ponds and pleasure gardens, with many kinds of ﬂowers blooming in thick layers, and many different kinds of trees with distinctive leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit.
To the east of Anavatapta Lake the Ganges River ﬂows from the mouth of a cow, and with its ﬁve hundred tributaries enters the eastern sea. To the south of the lake the Indus River ﬂows from the mouth of a lion, and with its ﬁve hundred tributaries enters the southern sea. To the west of the lake the Pochahe River ﬂows from the mouth of a horse, and with its ﬁve hundred tributaries enters the western sea. To the north of the lake the Situohe River ﬂows from the mouth of an elephant, and with its ﬁve hundred tributaries enters the northern sea. In Anavatapta Palace there is a [pen- tagonal] pavilion with ﬁve pillars, where the nāga king has always lived.
The Buddha continued:
Why is [the lake] called Anavatapta? What does this name mean? Every nāga king in Jambudvīpa suffers from three kinds of trouble, except for the nāga king of this lake, who alone does not suffer from any trouble. What are the three? First, the nāga kings in the [southern] land of Jambud- vīpa suffer from hot wind and sand that burns their skin and ﬂesh, even down to the bone and marrow, when it comes into contact with their bodies, causing excruciating pain. Only the nāga king of Anavatapta Lake has no trouble of this kind. Second, evil winds sometimes tear through the palaces of the nāga kings, stripping away their ﬁne clothing and exposing their naked bodies, to their embarrassment. Only the nāga king of Ana- vatapta Lake has no trouble of this kind. Third, the nāga kings constantly fear the giant garuḍa’s predatory raids on their palaces at times when they are vulnerable; their horror at the thought of being seized and eaten by this bird is most intense, leaving them in anguish. Only the nāga king of Anavatapta Lake has no trouble of this kind, because garuḍas that try to enter the lake all perish. Hence, the lake is called Anavatapta, which in Chinese means “absence of feverish agony.”
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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To the right of Snow Mountain is a city called Vaiśālī, and there are seven dark hills north of this city. Lying north of these hills is Fragrant Mountain, where the sounds of music, song, and dance are always heard. There are two caves in that mountain; one is called Noon and the other Forenoon, and they have been furnished with seven heavenly treasures. [The air in the caves is] soft and gentle, fragrant and pure, like the touch of a heavenly garment. The master of music, king of all gandharva musicians, accom- panied by an orchestra of ﬁve hundred [musicians], resides in these caves. To the north of the two caves is the king of śāla trees, called Shanju, surrounded by eight thousand trees spreading out in all directions. Under this majestic śāla tree the king of the royal elephants, also called Shanju, abides. His powerful body is white and he can ﬂy through the air and go everywhere. [When he appears] the hairs on his ruddy head shine with variegated colors, and his golden teeth contrast with his six tusks. This [elephant] king has a retinue of eight thousand royal elephants, who reside
in the forest of eight thousand trees.
To the north of Shanju is a grand bathing pond called Motuoyan, ﬁfty yojanas long and wide, around which eight thousand smaller ponds are arranged in a circle. The water in the pond is spotlessly clean and cool. [The pond] is surrounded by stone terraces made from the seven kinds of treasure, with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure. The gold railing is orna- mented with silver ropes, the silver railing with golden ropes, the quartz railing with lapis ropes, the lapis railing with quartz ropes, the ruby railing with agate ropes, the agate railing with ropes made of rubies, and the emerald railing with ropes made of various precious stones. Ornamental nets adorned with a variety of bells hang over the railings. The gold net has a pendant silver bell, the silver net has a golden bell, the lapis net has a quartz bell, the quartz net has a lapis bell, the ruby net has an agate bell, the agate net has a ruby bell, and the emerald net has a bell inlaid with various precious stones.
The gold trees have golden roots and branches and silver leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit. The silver tree has silver roots and branches and golden leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit. The quartz tree has quartz roots and branches and lapis leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit, while the lapis tree has lapis roots and branches

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and quartz leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit. The ruby tree has ruby roots and branches and agate leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit, while the agate tree has agate roots and branches and ruby leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit. The emerald tree has emerald roots and branches and leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit made of various precious stones.
At the bottom of Anavatapta Lake is golden sand. Stairways made from the seven kinds of treasure enter the four sides of the lake: the golden stairway is lined with silver ropes, the silver stairway with golden ropes, the lapis stairway with quartz ropes, the quartz stairway with lapis ropes, the agate stairway with ruby ropes, the ruby stairway with agate ropes, and the emerald stairway with ropes made of various precious stones. All around the lake are [continuous] railings; the four kinds of water lilies show their blue, yellow, red, and white blossoms, and their variegated colors compose the image of a wheel, with the roots forming the center. The roots emit sap as white as milk and sweet as honey. Again, around the lake are pleasant pavilions set amid bathing ponds and pleasure gardens with many kinds of ﬂowers blooming in thick layers and cool shade pro- vided by many different kinds of trees with distinctive leaves, ﬂowers, and fruit, and innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together. The royal elephant king Shanju, wishing to visit the great pond to bathe and play, extends that wish to his retinue, and eight thousand elephants in turn become aware of the thought, “King Shanju is thinking of us; we need to see him.” So the eight thousand elephants array themselves before their king. The elephant king then walks to Motuoyan Pond accompanied by his retinue of eight thousand. Some hold a canopy over the king to shade him, while others cool him with a fan, and still others play music to lead the procession. At the pond, the elephant king Shanju regally enters the water and, together with his company, enjoys a performance of royal music and dance. Some of the elephants wash his trunk while others cleanse his mouth, head, tusks, ears, stomach, back, tail, and feet. Some go off to pluck the roots of ﬂowers, which they wash and offer to the king
to eat. Others gather ﬂowers and scatter them over the king.
The elephant king Shanju, having bathed and fed and enjoyed the royal entertainment with his company, now leaves the water and stands on the bank, facing the tree called Shanju, his abode. All eight thousand elephants

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enter the pond to bathe, feed, and frolic with each other before lining up to follow their king. The elephant king, accompanied by attendants before and after, then returns to the tree called Shanju. As before, some elephants hold a canopy to shade the king, while others cool him with a fan, and still others play music to lead the procession. Returning to the tree, the elephant king now sits, lies down, or walks about as he pleases. The other elephants retire to their respective trees to sit, lie down, or walk about as they please. Among those eight thousand trees, some are as large as eight xin,24 while others measure ten to ﬁfteen xin, but only the śāla tree of the elephant king Shanju is as large as sixteen xin. When the leaves of the eight thousand śāla trees fall to the ground, the wind rises and carries them outside the forest. And when the eight thousand elephants urinate and excrete, ghostly
yakṣas carry those deposits out of the forest. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The elephant king Shanju has indeed gained meritorious blessings to this extraordinary degree. Even though it is only an animal, even an elephant is capable of receiving such uncommon rewards because of its [previous] merit.

Article 2: The Land of Uttarakuru

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
In the land of Uttarakuru there are many mountains, and many pleasure gardens with pavilions and bathing ponds alongside. Flowers bloom in profusion and the trees and plants, thriving in the cool, clean air, produce abundant fruit and ﬂowers. Among them are many varieties of birds, singing harmoniously together. Many streams ﬂow gently through these mountains without strong currents, and myriad ﬂowers hang down from the bank to the water’s surface as the river ﬂows calmly and expansively. Trees shade both banks of the stream, their branches heavy with fruit and ﬂowers. The ground is covered with soft grass, moistened by dew so that [the blades of grass] all turn to the right with the softness of a heavenly garment, with a sheen like the colors of a hummingbird and a delicate scent like jasmine ( poshijia). When you step on the grass your foot sinks

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down about four inches and the grass springs back after you lift your foot. Yet the ground has no unseen bumps or depressions and is as level as the surface of the palm of your hand.
O bhikṣus, on each of the four sides of the land of Uttarakuru there is an Anavatapta Lake. Each lake is one hundred yojanas long and wide, with spotlessly clean, transparent, and pure water. The lakes are surrounded by stone terraces made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together. The features of these lakes are indeed no different than those of the grand pond of Motuoyan. From the four lakes issue four rivers, each ten yojanas in breadth, ﬂowing gently with no turbulence. Myriad ﬂowers reach down from the bank as the river ﬂows by, calmly and expansively. Both the riverbanks are shaded by trees, their branches heavy with fruit and ﬂowers. The ground is covered with soft grass, moistened by dew so that [the blades] all turn to the right with the softness of a heavenly garment, with a sheen like the colors of a hummingbird and a delicate scent like jasmine. When you step on the grass your foot sinks down about four inches yet the grass springs back when you removes your foot. Yet the ground has no unseen bumps or depressions and is as level as the surface of the palm of your hand.
There are no mountain torrents or ditches, no pits or dark holes, no thorny plants or unexpected tree stumps or trunks, no insects such as mos- quitoes or gadﬂies, no water lizards or snakes, no bees or grubs, no dan- gerous beasts such as leopards or tigers. The ground is naturally fertile, pure, and without any pebbles or stones. The negative and positive forces [of nature] are harmonized, and so too are the four seasons gentle and peaceful, neither [too] cold or hot. The land is free of storms and various misfortunes and is everywhere fertile and abundant, without ﬁlth or deﬁle- ment or even a single clod of ﬂying dirt, as if the ground had been brushed with the ﬁnest oil.
In the absence of winter and summer many varieties of grasses grow year around. Trees and plants grow luxuriously and produce abundant fruit and ﬂowers. The ground is covered with soft grass, moistened by dew so that [the blades] all turn to the right with the softness of a heavenly garment, with a sheen like the colors of a hummingbird and a delicate

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scent like jasmine. When you step on the grass your foot sinks down about four inches yet the grass springs back when you lift your foot. Yet the ground has no unseen bumps or depressions and is as level as the surface of the palm of your hand.
In that land rice grows naturally, without husks or any need for seeding. It appears like piles of tiny white ﬂowers and is permeated with all good ﬂavors, like the food of the Trāyastriṃśa gods. In that land there is a cook- ing pot that emits heavenly fragrance and a magical gem (maṇi), known as yanguang, that will heat any pot placed over it and automatically stop when the meal is cooked, without need for a ﬁre or for any handling. In that land there is also a kind of tree, known as qugong, with such thickly layered foliage that no rain can leak through, and the people of that land know to take shelter under it overnight.
There are trees as tall as seventy li,25 with abundant ﬂowers and fruit and a beguiling scent. As each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, emitting [an exquisite] fragrance. Some trees are as high as sixty, ﬁfty, or forty li, and even the smallest of them reaches ﬁve li. All the trees produce abundant ﬂowers and fruit, and when the fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, emitting [an exquisite] fragrance.
There are trees as tall as seventy li, with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide cloth. As each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging different kinds of cloth. Some of the trees are as high as sixty, ﬁfty, or forty li, and even the smallest of them reaches ﬁve li. All the trees produce abundant ﬂowers and fruit, and when their fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, discharging different kinds of cloth.
There are trees as tall as seventy li, with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide curios. As each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging a variety of ornaments. Some of the trees are as high as sixty, ﬁfty, or forty li, and even the smallest of them reaches ﬁve li. All the trees produce abundant ﬂowers and fruit, and when the fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, discharging a variety of ornaments.
There are trees as tall as seventy li, with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide ﬂower garlands. As each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, dis- charging various garlands. Some of the trees are as high as sixty, ﬁfty, or forty li, and even the smallest of them reaches ﬁve li. All the trees produce

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abundant ﬂowers and fruit, and when the fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, discharging a variety of ﬂower garlands.
There are trees as tall as seventy li, with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide a variety of vessels. As each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging different kinds of vessels. Some of the trees are as high as sixty, ﬁfty, or forty li, and even the smallest of them reaches ﬁve li. All the trees produce abundant ﬂowers and fruit, and when the fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, discharging various vessels.
There are trees as tall as seventy li, with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that produce a variety of nuts. As each fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, discharging different kinds of nuts. Some of the trees are as high as sixty, ﬁfty, or forty li, and even the smallest of them reaches ﬁve li. All the trees produce abundant ﬂowers and fruits, and when the fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, discharging a variety of nuts.
There are trees, as tall as seventy li, with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide musical instruments. As each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging a variety of musical instruments. Some of the trees are as high as sixty, ﬁfty, or forty li, and even the smallest of them reaches ﬁve li. All the trees produce abundant ﬂowers and fruit, and when the fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, discharging a variety of musical instruments.
In that land there is a lake known as Sudarśana, one hundred yojanas long and wide, with spotlessly clean, transparent, and pure water. The lake is surrounded by stone terraces made from the seven kinds of treasure, with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together. At the north end of the lake there is a tree known as Mango (anmoluo), with a circumference of seven li and a height of one hundred li. Its branches and leaves spread out in all directions to a distance of ﬁfty li.
From the eastern side of the lake the Shandao River ﬂows out, expand- ing to a width of one yojana. The river ﬂows ever gently, showing no sign of turbulence. Myriad ﬂowers hang down from the bank to touch the river’s surface as the water ﬂows by, calmly and expansively. Both river- banks are shaded by trees, their branches heavy with fruit and ﬂowers. The ground is covered with soft grass, moistened by dew so that [the blades] all turn to the right with the softness of a heavenly garment, and

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a sheen like the colors of a hummingbird and a delicate scent like jasmine. When you step on the grass your foot sinks down about four inches yet the grass springs back when you lift your foot. Yet the ground has no unseen bumps or depressions and is as level as the surface of the palm of your hand.
Richly decorated boats ply the river. When the people of that land wish to bathe and play in the water they leave their clothing on the bank, board a boat, and, after bathing and playing midstream, they cross the river [to the other side] and don any pieces of clothing they may come upon without bothering to retrieve [their own clothes that they had left behind]. When they [ﬁrst] come to the trees with a beguiling scent, they bend over to col- lect whatever scented powder they like and spread it over their bodies. Next, on coming to the trees that provide cloth, they bend over to pick up whatever kinds of cloth they like and wind it around their bodies freely. Next, reaching the trees that provide curios, they bend over to pick up the curios they like and display them on their bodies. Next, on coming to the trees that provide ﬂower garlands, they bend over to pick up whatever garlands they like and drape them around their heads. Next, on coming to the trees that provide vessels, they bend over to pick up whatever vessels they like [and use them] to carry [things]. Next, on coming to the trees that produce nuts, they bend over to pick up different kinds of nuts, both to savor their taste or to extract their oils. Next, on coming to the trees that provide musical instruments, they bend over to pick up whatever instruments they like to play, tune them accordingly, and proceed to play. Singing in good voice with musical accompaniment, they go on to ﬁnd a grove where they can stop to enjoy their amusements for a day or two, or even up to a week. After all, when they leave the grove they have no par- ticular home to which to return.
From the southern side of Sudarśana Lake the Miaoti River ﬂows out,
from the western side the Miaomi River ﬂows out, and from the northern side the Guangying River ﬂows out, just as always. To the east of the lake is a pleasure garden, also called Sudarśana, one hundred yojanas long and wide, around which are seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees. The mix of colors it presents is due to the seven kinds of treasure used to build it.

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On the four sides of this garden are large gates ringed by seven railings, all made from the seven kinds of treasure. Inside, the garden is immacu- late—there are no hidden thorns among the vines and the ground is even, with no bumps, holes, or pitfalls. There are no mosquitoes or gadﬂies, ﬂies, ﬂeas, or lice; no water lizards, snakes, bees, grubs, or threatening beasts such as leopards and tigers.
The ground is fresh, naturally fertile, and without any stones or pebbles. Both the malignant and beneﬁcial inﬂuences [of nature] are in harmony, and so are the four seasons. The land is gentle and peaceful, not [too] hot or cold, always free of any kind of trouble, and fruitful and abundant without any sign of ﬁlth or deﬁlement, as if the ground had been covered with balm. In the absence of winter or summer grasses grow year round, and plants and trees spread profusely, producing lavish quantities of ﬂowers and fruit. The ground is covered with a carpet of soft grass, moistened by dew so that [the blades] all turn to the right with the softness of a heavenly garment, and a sheen like the colors of a hummingbird and a delicate scent like jasmine. When you step on the grass your foot sinks about down four inches but the grass springs back when you lift your foot. Yet the ground has no unseen bumps or depressions and is as level as the surface of the palm of your hand. In that land rice grows naturally without husks or any need for seeding.
It appears like piles of tiny white ﬂowers and is permeated with all good ﬂavors, like the food of the Trāyastriṃśa gods. In that land there is a cook- ing pot that emits heavenly fragrances, and a magical gem, known as yen- guang, that will heat any pot placed over it and automatically stop when the meal is cooked, without need for a ﬁre or any handling. In that land there is also a kind of tree, known as qugong, with thickly layered foliage that no rainfall can leak through, and the people of that land know to take shelter under it overnight.
There is also a tree as tall as seventy li, with abundant ﬂowers and fruit and a beguiling scent. As each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, emitting [an exquisite] fragrance. Some of these trees are as high as sixty, ﬁfty, or forty li, and even the smallest of them reaches ﬁve li. All the trees produce abundant ﬂowers and fruit, and when the fruit ripens the skin opens by itself, emitting an [exquisite] fragrance. And so on, as already described, including a kind of tree that provides musical instruments.

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The people of that land come to the garden and enjoy amusements for a day or two, or even up to a week. There is no guard in the Sudarśana pleasure garden. Those who come to the garden freely enjoy their time there and then depart. South of Sudarśana Lake is a garden called Mahā- sudarśana, to the west of the lake is a garden called Yuluo, and to the north of the lake is a garden called Denghua. All of these are similar to what has already been described.
In that land, during the middle and late watches of the night, or when- ever required, the nāga king causes fresh clouds to waft up and permeate the sky, with rainshowers falling like drops of nectar to the herds of cattle below. The liquid itself is rich, blending eight distinct tastes. Just as a gar- land maker scatters water over his ﬂowers to keep them fresh and prevent withering, the water does not linger on the ground in puddles, so muddy roads cannot form. When it stays clear and there is no rain during the night, a bright moon traverses the sky, causing cool breezes to rise from the ocean. Clean and pure, each breeze gently caresses one’s body, creating a most delightful sensation.
The land is well populated and prosperous. When people wish to cook a meal they put some rice in a pot and place a yanguong gem beneath it. The heat rising from the gem automatically stops when the rice is cooked. Anyone who comes along, even if the pot’s owner is absent, can share the meal since the food is never used up. When the owner is present, those who also wish to partake are welcome to do so. The cooked rice is as appealing as a cluster of tiny white ﬂowers, permeated with all good ﬂavors, like the food of the Trāyastriṃśa gods. All those who eat this food remain free from illness, never succumb to exhaustion, and are very vig- orous, with a gentle and pleasant appearance.
Again, the residents of that land all look the same in both bodily and facial features, resembling young people of twenty years of age in Jambud- vīpa. Their teeth are even, without any gaps, and clean and white. Their hair is dark blue, not discolored by dirt or ﬁlth, and they wear their hair shoulder-length, neither long nor short. If a man of that land desires a woman, he gazes intently at her but does not accost her. If the woman then follows him to a nearby grove or garden, the trees will refuse to give them shelter and shade if the couple’s bloodlines are too closely related.

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Consequently, the two would then [separate] and go their respective ways. If the couple is not too closely related so that an intimate relationship would be incestuous, however, the tree branches shield them from public sight. After enjoying conjugal union for a day or two, or as long as a week, the two will depart and go their respective ways. If the woman becomes preg- nant the baby will be delivered within seven or eight days. Regardless of whether the baby is male or female, the mother will leave the child at a major crossroads and depart. People passing by will clean out the baby’s mouth with a ﬁnger and give it sweet milk, and after seven days the child will have matured to adulthood. A male will join the group of men, and a female will join the group of women. Even when someone dies there are no cries of lamentation. The dead body is ornamented and placed at a major crossroads, and after doing this the people go away. Then a bird called youweichanjia collects the corpse and transports it to another region. Also, when the people of that land relieve themselves, the ground automatically opens to receive it, and closes over it again when they have ﬁnished. The residents of that land do not remember others with affection, nor do they save anything [for an emergency, or the like]. Their life span is always pre- determined, and when they die they are invariably reborn in a heaven. Why do the people of that land have a predetermined life span? It is because their birth in the land of Uttarakuru is the result of having practiced the ten norms of moral conduct. This practice gave them all life spans of exactly a thousand years, and every member of the society is equal in that respect. Now, someone who murders another human being will fall into an evil course of life, while those who have refrained from committing murder will be born into a good course of life. In a similar manner, those who commit theft or sexual abuse, or who speak harshly or deceptively, or speak falsehoods, and those who indulge in frivolous sycophancy while harboring wrong views, a covetous frame of mind, and malicious intent are bound to fall into an evil course of life [after death]. On the other hand, those who have been born into a good course of life who have refrained from murder, theft, and sexual abuse, and from speaking harshly and deceptively, or speaking falsehoods, and have not indulged in frivolous sycophancy while harboring wrong views, a covetous frame of mind, and malicious intent, are bound to be born in the land of Uttarakuru after the

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dissolution of their bodies at the end of life, and they are predetermined to live exactly one thousand years. Because of this, the people of that land all have equal life spans.
Again, one who is covetous, stingy, and does not give alms will fall into an evil course of life after death. Those who are open-minded and free from parsimony, and who offer alms liberally, will enter a good course of life after death. Those who liberally give alms to śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas and engage in charitable acts on behalf of the destitute, beggar children, and the ill, who are covered with sores or who have succumbed to various difﬁculties, providing them with clothing, food, transportation, ﬂower garlands, incense, and a couch, blanket, or shelter, and who also offer oil lamps and candles and build commemorative towers (stupas) and shrines, are all bound to be born in the land of Uttarakuru after the dissolution of their bodies at the end of life, and they are predetermined to live a thousand years, no more and no less. Hence the people of that land are totally equal in their life spans.
Why is that land called Uttarakuru? It is because the people there are superior [to all other human beings]. While they do not receive the ten norms as their vow of precepts, their behavior is naturally in accord with these ten normative standards, and thus they are certain to be born in a heavenly domain after the dissolution of their bodies at the end of life. Because of this, the people in that land are called Uttarakuru. What is the meaning of this term? Of the three continents [besides Jambudvīpa], this land surpasses the others and so is called Uttarā, which in the Indian lan- guage means “highest.”
Article 3: The Universal Ruler
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The universal ruler (cakravartin) who turns the sacred wheel in this world is endowed with four supernormal blessings and seven treasures. What does it mean to say that the universal ruler is endowed with seven treasures? The seven treasures are (1) the golden wheel, (2) the white elephant, (3) the dark blue horse, (4) the divine gem, (5) the jadelike queen, (6) the [gentleman] householder, and (7) the military commander.

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How did the universal ruler come to use his ﬁrst treasure, the golden wheel? When the cakravartin ﬁrst appeared in the land of Jambudvīpa he was from the kṣatriya class and his head was anointed with sacred water for the throne. He bathed in scented water on the full moon day, the ﬁfteenth of the month, and ascended to the top of a pavilion surrounded by the palace ladies. The sacred wheel, with a thousand spokes of rich color and splendor, then appeared of its own accord before the king. It was built by a heavenly master and did not belong to the human world. Made of genuine gold, it had a diameter of thirty-two feet.
Seeing it, the king quietly thought to himself, “I once heard from my virtuous elders the following words: ‘When a king of the kṣatriya class, anointed on his head for the throne, takes a scented bath on the full moon day, the ﬁfteenth of the month, and ascends to the top of the pavilion sur- rounded by the palace ladies, then at that moment the golden wheel will appear before him of its own accord. The wheel has a thousand spokes of rich color and splendor. It was built by a heavenly master and does not belong to this world. It is made of genuine gold and has a diameter of thirty-two feet. Thereupon, the king is called the cakravartin, ‘one who turns the sacred wheel.’ Now I see this wheel before me, but who knows if it really works. I should now test this golden treasure wheel.”
The cakravartin called the four divisions of the army to assemble. He faced the golden wheel directly and, rearranging his garment to expose his right shoulder and kneeling with his right knee on the ground, he rubbed the wheel with his right hand and said to it, “Let the wheel turn itself toward the east, turning as it should, without losing regularity.” The wheel at once began to roll toward the east. Leading the four divisions of his army, King Mahāsudarśana followed it. As the golden wheel rolled forward the four gods were in charge of guiding it. Wherever the wheel stopped, the king stopped his chariot.
At that time, having seen the great king approaching, the rulers of the small countries in the eastern regions prepared a golden bowl ﬁlled with silver grains and a silver bowl ﬁlled with golden grains. [When the king arrived] they stepped forward to approach him and, with heads bowed, said, “Welcome, great king. The eastern countries are blessed with an abundance of harvests and produce, the people are prosperous, the nature

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of the populace is friendly and harmonious, and all are ﬁlial to their parents and loyal to their rulers. O holy ruler, Your Majesty is recommended to govern these lands through ofﬁces established here. We shall closely attend Your Majesty and will execute your commands as you wish, sir.”
At that time, the cakravartin replied to the rulers of the small countries, “Enough, dear wise kings, your offerings are already appreciated by me. Your kingships rule these countries on the basis of the right Dharma, so that neither injustice nor wrong action can take place in your countries. May your kingships adhere to the vow of not taking life, and do not permit any of your subjects to commit murder, theft, or sexual abuse, or speak harshly or deceptively, or to speak falsehoods, or to indulge in frivolous sycophancy while holding wrong views, a covetous frame of mind, and malicious intent. I say that these [ten] principles encapsulate my governance.”
After listening to his exhortation, the kings of the small countries accompanied him on his inspection tour until they reached the eastern ocean. Next, the great king proceeded toward the south, then to the west, and then to the north; in whatever direction the wheel rolled the [king and his army] followed. The kings of the small countries in these regions all abnegated their dominions for the sake of the great ruler, just as the eastern rulers had done.
The land of Jambudvīpa, renowned for its fertile soil, produced many precious things. In a vast expanse of forest where the waters ran pure and clean, the golden wheel delineated the boundaries of a territory measuring twelve yojanas from east to west and ten yojanas from north to south. During the night heavenly gods built a city protected by seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all adorned with the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmo- niously together. Having measured the city structure, the golden wheel marked out an area within it that measured four yojanas from east to west and two yojanas from north to south. Once again, during the night heavenly gods built a royal palace with sevenfold walls embellished with the seven kinds of treasure and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmo- niously together, just as before. When the palace was completed the golden wheel hovered in midair above the palace gate, poised [in readiness] but not turning. Rejoicing, leaping and dancing, the cakravartin exclaimed,

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“This treasure, the golden wheel, is indeed a blessing! Now I am truly the one who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the ﬁrst treasure, the golden wheel.
How did the king come to use his second treasure, the white elephant? Early in the morning when the cakravartin was seated in the main hall of the palace, the white elephant suddenly appeared before him of its own accord. The color of its hair was pure white, the seven parts of its body (four feet, two shoulders, and neck) were well developed and proportional, and it could ﬂy in midair. It had variegated colors on its neck and its six delicate tusks were studded with pieces of real gold. Seeing the elephant, the king thought to himself, “This elephant is said to be wise and good-natured. If it is well trained it can serve me as a mount for riding.” He immediately set about to see if the elephant could be trained and found that it was capable for all training. Wishing to take his ﬁrst morning ride, the cakravartin mounted the elephant, went out of the capital, made a round of all four oceans, and had already returned to the palace by breakfast time. Rejoicing, leaping and dancing, the cakravartin exclaimed, “This white elephant is indeed a blessing! Now I am truly the one who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the second treasure, the white elephant. How did the king come to use his third treasure, the dark blue horse?
Early in the morning when the cakravartin was seated in the main hall of the palace, the horse suddenly appeared before him of its own accord. Its body was dark blue but its long mane and tail were red. Its head and neck were like those of an elephant, and it could ﬂy in midair. Seeing this treas- ure of a horse, the king thought to himself, “This horse is said to be wise and good-natured. If it is well trained it can serve as my steed.” He imme- diately set about to see if the horse could be trained and found that it was capable for all training. Then, wishing to take his ﬁrst morning ride, the king mounted the horse, went out of the capital, made a round of all four oceans, and returned to the palace by breakfast time. Rejoicing, leaping and dancing, the cakravartin exclaimed, “This dark blue horse is indeed a blessing! Now I am truly the one who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the third treasure, the dark blue horse.
How did the king come to use his fourth treasure, the divine gem? Early in the morning when the cakravartin was seated in the main hall of

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the palace, the divine gem suddenly appeared before him of its own accord. Its quality and color were clear and transparent, and it was spotless. Seeing this divine gem, the king thought to himself, “This gem is very appealing and mysterious at the same time; it is said to be able to illuminate an area as wide as this entire palace compound when a light is shined upon it.” Then, wishing to test the gem himself, the cakravartin immediately mustered the four divisions of his army and placed the gem on top of a ﬂagpole. As he carried the ﬂagpole out of the city in the darkness, the gem emitted a ray of light that illuminated the entire army as if it were daylight. Rejoicing, leaping and dancing, the cakravartin exclaimed, “This treasure of a gem is indeed a blessing! Now I am truly the one who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the fourth treasure, the divine gem.
How did the king come to be served by his ﬁfth treasure, the jadelike queen? When the queenly treasure suddenly appeared before the king, he saw that she was beautiful, with a ﬁne complexion, and she was neither too tall nor too short, neither stout nor thin, her skin was neither too light nor too dark, her features neither hard nor soft, and her body was able to remain warm in winter and cool in summer. A sandalwood scent emerged from the roots of her hair, enveloping her body, and the fragrance of a blue lotus emanated from her mouth. Her words and manner of speech were invariably gentle and her demeanor was calm; she never failed to awake before the king or to stay awake until he fell asleep. The king had realized purity [by extinguishing deﬁlements] so he was totally free from attachment and did not obsess about her in his mind even for a moment; how much less would he have approached her physically [as an object of sexual desire]. Rejoicing, leaping and dancing, the cakravartin exclaimed, “This treasure, the jadelike queen, is indeed a blessing! Now I am truly the one who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the ﬁfth treasure, the jadelike queen.
How did the king come to be assisted by his sixth treasure, the gentle- man householder? When the householder suddenly appeared before the king of his own accord, the royal storehouses were automatically ﬁlled with immeasurable riches and treasures. This person had been endowed with special vision due to his past merit, namely, the ability to see any treasure buried underground, no matter to whom it belonged. He did not

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take the treasure owned by some, while turning over to the king’s treasury any treasure that had no owner. The householder came to the king and said, “O great king, please do not think about paying me any stipend. I am able to manage by myself, sir.” The king decided to test the well-bred treasurer and arranged an excursion on a pleasure boat. While aboard, the king said to the gentleman householder, “I am in need of some pieces of gold. Provide them at once.” The treasurer replied, “O great king, give me some time to go ashore.” Pressing him further, the king said, “I cannot stop this boat. I need the golden treasure right away.” Hearing the king’s urgent order, the householder knelt and dipped his right hand into the water. A succession of urns ﬁlled with treasure arose from the water, fol- lowing his hand upward just like insects clinging to tree branches. Then the other treasurers all joined in, dipping their hands into the water to draw up an equal amount of immeasurable riches, so that the boat was soon ﬁlled with treasure. The gentleman householder then asked, “Your Majesty needed some gold pieces before; how much more will you need, sir?” The cakravartin replied, “That is enough. I do not need any more. I only wished to test your ability. Your service is much appreciated.” On hearing the king’s words, the householder returned all the treasure to the water. Then, rejoicing, leaping and dancing, the cakravartin exclaimed, “This treasure of a householder is indeed a blessing! Now I am truly the one who turns the sacred wheel.” This is called the realization of the sixth treasure, the householder.
How did the king come to be assisted by his seventh treasure, the mil-
itary commander? When the brilliant, decisive military commander, whose expertise in strategy was equaled by his valor and strength, suddenly appeared before the king, he said, “Great king, may Your Majesty be free from worry. When you wish to attack any country, sire, I shall willingly accomplish it.” The cakravartin decided to test him at once and mustered the four divisions of the army. He said to his general, “Make sure the entire army is ready for battle. Those who have not come out should assemble; those who have already come can be dismissed. Those who are untrained should prepare themselves for battle; those who are ready can be dismissed. Let those who are here on duty return home, and let those who are already at home remain there.” Upon hearing the king’s words,

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the military commander promptly assembled those who had not come forth and released those who had already assembled; he began to train those who were ill prepared and released those who were already qualiﬁed. Those who were on duty he let return home, and those who had already gone home were allowed to remain there. Then, rejoicing, leaping and dancing, the cakravartin exclaimed, “This treasure, my military commander, is a blessing! Now I am now truly the one who turns the sacred wheel.” What are the four blessings that pertain to the universal ruler? First,
as the universal king, he has longevity and will never meet with an early death; in this, no one can match the king. Second, he has a strong physical body and never contracts illness; in this, no one can match the king. Third, he has a most handsome appearance; in this, no one can match the king. Fourth, his storehouses are ﬁlled with treasure; in this, no one can match the king. The foregoing are the seven treasures and four blessings that pertain to the universal ruler.
After a time, the cakravartin had his carriage prepared for a visit to the royal park grove. He said to his charioteer, “Proceed deliberately while driving the carriage. I wish to ascertain whether the kingdom is safe and our citizens are at ease.” At the same time, those who saw the king asked his attendant, “Please drive slowly, for we wish to see the face of the holy ruler.” The great cakravartin was as attentive to the well-being of his people as to their material needs, just as a father is concerned for his children, and the people felt affection toward the king as if he were their father. They presented all sorts of rare items to the king, saying, “May Your Majesty accept this” and “May this be of use to Your Majesty.” The king would always reply, “Bring me no more precious items, my dear subjects. I have my own treasures. You should keep these things for yourselves.”
When the cakravartin is in command of the land of Jambudvīpa, the terrain is even, having neither thorny plants nor pits or ditches, nor any bumpy protrusions at all. There are no poisonous creatures such as mos- quitoes, gadﬂies, bees, grubs, ﬂies, ﬂeas, snakes, or water lizards. Sand and rocks, forming inscriptions, automatically sink into the ground, while gold, silver, and precious gems rise to the surface. The four seasons are harmonized into a gentle calm state that is neither hot nor cold. The soil is soft and malleable, with no ﬁlth or deﬁlement. As if bathed in oil, it is

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clean and pure, with a rich luster and no pollution at all. The earth [here] will be the same when the cakravartin rules this world. The springwater that ﬂows out of the ground is clean and pure and will never dry up, pro- ducing ﬁelds of soft grass that stay green throughout the year, summer and winter.
Plants and trees grow profusely, producing lavish quantities of ﬂowers and fruits. The ground is covered with a carpet of grass, moistened by dew so that [the blades] all turn to the right with the softness of a heavenly garment, and a sheen like the colors of a hummingbird and a delicate scent like jasmine. When you step on it your foot sinks down about four inches and yet the grass springs back when you lift your foot. Rice grows naturally without husks and is permeated with all good ﬂavors. There are trees with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that produce a beguiling scent. As each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, emitting [an exquisite] fragrance. There are trees with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide cloth; as each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging different kinds of cloth. There are trees with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide ornaments; as each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging a variety of curios. There are trees with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide ﬂower garlands; as each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging various ﬂower gar- lands. There are trees with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide a variety of vessels; as each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging different kinds of vessels. There are trees with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that pro- duce a variety of nuts; as each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, dis- charging different kinds of nuts. There are trees with abundant ﬂowers and fruit that provide musical instruments; as each fruit ripens its skin opens by itself, discharging various musical instruments.
When the cakravartin rules the world, the nāga king of Anavatapta
Lake causes heavy clouds to rise and permeate the sky after midnight, and rainshowers to fall to the cattle being herded below. The abundant rainwater, blending eight distinct tastes, falls everywhere. And just as a garland maker scatters water over his ﬂowers to keep them fresh without withering, the copious rain causes the grasses and trees to grow luxuriantly, without any standing water to form puddles or muddy roads. When it stays clear [without any rain during the night], a bright moon traverses

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the sky, causing cool breezes to rise from the ocean. Clean and pure, each breeze gently caresses one’s body, creating a most delightful sensation. When the cakravartin rules the world, the land of Jambudvīpa is blessed with an abundant harvest of every crop (lit., “ﬁve kinds of grain”), the people enjoy growth and prosperity, with universal afﬂuence and wealth without deﬁciency. So long as the cakravartin governs justly there is never a cause of grievance. When the king himself adheres to the ten norms of moral conduct, his subjects will also cherish right views and uphold the ten normative standards. And when, after a long time, the king ﬁnally suc- cumbs to illness and reaches the end of life, like a man who has enjoyed his food perhaps a little more than necessary, making it a little less suited
to his body, he passes away and is reborn in Brahmā Heaven.
Thereupon, the treasured [jadelike] queen, the [gentleman] householder, and the military commander lead all the people of the land in the cakra- vartin’s funeral rite, conducted with music and dance. They cleanse the king’s body with warm scented water, cover it with [new] cotton cloth, and wrap it in a shroud as long as ﬁve hundred pairs of garments. Then they put the body into a golden cofﬁn, pour sesame oil over it, and seal the cofﬁn inside an iron vault, which is enclosed within a sandalwood vault, then covered with incense and cremated. [After retrieving the ashes,] the people erect a commemorative tower, built out of the seven treasures, at each major crossroads, ﬁlling an area measuring one yojana long and wide with the variegated colors of the seven kinds of treasure. On each of the tower’s four sides is a single gate protected by a barrier made from the seven kinds of treasure, and from each side an open space extends as far as ﬁve yojanas in length and breadth. The tower walls are sevenfold, with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees. The golden wall is endowed with silver gates, the silver wall with golden gates, the quartz wall with lapis gates, the lapis wall with quartz gates, the ruby wall with agate gates, the agate wall with ruby gates, and the emerald wall with gates decorated with many kinds of precious stones. The railings are similarly decorated: the golden railing is hung with ropes made of silver, the silver railing with ropes made of gold, the quartz railing with ropes made of lapis, the lapis railing with ropes made of quartz, the ruby railing with ropes made of agate, the agate railing with ropes made

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of rubies, and the emerald railing with a variety of precious stones. Over these railings decorative nets, on which various ornaments are attached, are suspended. From the golden net hangs a silver bell; from the silver net hangs a golden bell; from the lapis net hangs a quartz bell; from the quartz net hangs a lapis bell; from the ruby net hangs an agate bell; from the agate net hangs a ruby bell; and from the emerald net hangs a bell inlaid with a variety of precious stones.
The golden trees have silver ﬂowers and fruit. The silver trees have golden ﬂowers and fruit. The quartz trees have lapis ﬂowers and leaves, while the lapis trees have quartz ﬂowers and leaves. The ruby trees have agate ﬂowers and leaves, while the agate trees have ﬂowers and leaves made of rubies. The emerald trees have ﬂowers and leaves made of various precious stones.
Each of the seven walls has four gates, protected by barriers. Each wall, topped with a pavilion and veranda, encloses a ﬂowing spring with a bathing pond and a pleasure garden ﬁlled with a variety of ﬂowers and trees laden with abundant fruit. Exquisite fragrance arises in all directions, and a host of rare birds sing harmoniously together.
When the commemorative tower is complete the treasured [jadelike] queen, the [gentleman] householder, and the military commander, together with all the people of the land, pay their respects with a variety of offerings and [simultaneously] engage in charitable acts without distinction, providing food to those who lack food, clothing if they need clothing, and even [offer- ing] the treasured horses and elephants of the deceased cakravartin if they need transportation, each according to their own wish. These are the super- normal blessings and merits ascribed to the universal cakravartin.

Article 4: The Hells

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There are eight thousand worlds surrounding the four continents, and these eight thousand worlds are further surrounded by a great ocean. Around this ocean is a great mountain [range] made of diamonds, and beyond it looms a second great diamond [range]. The region between them is dark and hidden; even heavenly gods like the sun and moon are

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unable to illuminate there despite their great brightness. In that darkness are eight great hells, each containing sixteen smaller hells. The ﬁrst great hell is called Conscious Recovery; the second is called Black Rope; the third, Compression; the fourth, Screaming; the ﬁfth, Great Screaming; the sixth, Fiery Heat; the seventh, Great Fiery Heat; and the eighth, Unremitting Suffering. In that ﬁrst hell are sixteen smaller hells, each measuring ﬁve hundred yojanas in length and breadth. These minor hells are called (1) Black Sands (coal pit), (2) Boiling Excrement, (3) Five Hun- dred Nailings, (4) Starvation, (5) Thirst, (6) Copper Cauldron, (7) Copper
Cauldrons, (8) Grindstone, (9) Blood and Pus, (10) Fire Tending, (11) River of Ashes, (12) Iron Fetters, (13) Axes and Hatchets, (14) Wolf Pack,
(15) Bladed Trees, and (16) Cold and Icy.
Why is the ﬁrst great hell called Conscious Recovery? Iron nails grow on the hands of the sentient beings who fall into this hell. They use these long and sharp nails to injure and kill each other when they become angry. Tearing at one another, they strip away pieces of ﬂesh and clean off bones, until they eventually collapse as if dead. But when a cool breeze passes over their bodies, the skin and ﬂesh regenerates as they were before. Then these [hell] beings stand up and think, “I have come back to life,” and the others around them say, “We see that you have come back to life.” Because of this, the ﬁrst hell is called Conscious Recovery.
Again, since the sentient beings who fall into this hell [have a tendency to] irritate each other, they take up any knives or swords that may be avail- able and use them to injure or kill. The knives and swords pierce and slice; skin is cut away, ﬂesh is sliced open, bodies are severed and fall insensate to the ground. Yet with cool breezes the skin and ﬂesh regrow and the bodies return to life. Standing up, they think, “I have come back to life,” and others say, “I see that you have come back to life.” For this reason, the ﬁrst hell is called Conscious Recovery.
Again, when the sentient beings who fall into this hell irritate each other, they seize youyingdao knives26 intending to injure and kill. The sharp knives pierce and slice; skin is cut away, ﬂesh is sliced open, bodies are severed and fall insensate to the ground. Yet with cool breezes the skin and ﬂesh regrow and the bodies return to life. Standing up, they think,

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“I have come back to life,” and others say, “I see that you have come back to life.” For this reason, the ﬁrst hell is called Conscious Recovery. Again, when the sentient beings who fall into this hell irritate each other, they take up [small] daggers with the intent to injure and kill. The sharp daggers pierce and slice; skin is cut away, ﬂesh is sliced open, bodies are severed and fall insensate to the ground. Yet with cool breezes the skin and ﬂesh regrow and the bodies return to life. Standing up, they think, “I have come back to life,” and others say, “I see that you have returned to life.” For this reason, the ﬁrst hell is called Conscious Recovery.
(1) Sentient beings who complete their respective periods of punishment emerge from [Conscious Recovery] hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Black Sands hell, where a hot wind rages, blowing up clouds of hot black sand. Not only does the sand stick to their bodies, turning them as dark as black clouds, but it sears the skin, eating away the ﬂesh and penetrating to the bone. Now their bodies send up a dark smoke, which revolves around the body and returns back into it, eating at it from within. Malefactors necessarily undergo this pun- ishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(2) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Black Sands hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Boiling Excrement, where hot iron balls lie in wait. When malefactors enter the iron balls appear and cannot be evaded; as soon as it touches them the intense heat burns every part of their bodies. The malefactors cannot help opening their mouths, and then the hot balls scald their lips and tongue and throat, down to the stomach. Wherever the iron balls touch them, they eat away [the ﬂesh]. [Moreover,] there are vermin [in that hell] that feed on iron and they gnaw on the bodies, penetrating the bones and marrow. The male- factors experience immeasurable hardship and suffering, but they must undergo this punishment for their past actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.

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(3) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Boiling Excrement hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be res- cued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Five Hundred Nailings. When they enter the guards immediately hurl them to the ground. One by one, they are taken and stretched out over hot irons and nails are fastened through their hands and feet and every part of their bodies, numbering ﬁve hundred in all. The malefactors scream in agony for there is no end to their distress, but they must undergo this punishment and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(4) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Five Hundred Nailings hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Starvation. When they enter the guards ask, “Now you are here, what is it you want?” They reply, “Sir, we are starving.” At once the guards throw them down and stretch their bodies one after another over hot irons; they pull their mouths open with iron hooks and pour in hot iron balls that scald their lips, tongues, and throats, down to their stomachs. Wherever the iron balls touch their bodies they eat away at everything. The malefactors scream in agony, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(5) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Starvation hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking refuge and protec- tion. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Thirst. When they enter the guards ask, “Now you are here, what is it you want?” They each reply, “Sir, I am thirsty.” At once the guards throw them down and stretch out their bodies on hot irons; they open their mouths with iron hooks and pour in melted copper that scalds their lips, tongues, and throats, down to their stomachs. Wherever the melted copper touches their bodies, it eats away at everything. The malefactors scream in agony, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.

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(6) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Thirst hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and pro- tected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Copper Cauldron hell. The angry guards glare and seize the offenders by the feet, throwing them into the cauldron. As the liquid in the cauldron comes to a boil, their bodies slowly revolve from the surface down to the bottom and back again, sometimes hovering in the middle, like beans circulating in boiling water until they are cooked. The malefactors, tossed like beans [in hot broth,] scream and howl, crying out in bitter suffering, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(7) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Copper Cauldron hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Copper Cauldrons. The guards, glaring in anger, seize the offenders by the feet and throw them into other cauldrons. As the liquid comes to a boil, their bodies slowly revolve from the surface to the bottom and back again, sometimes hovering in the middle, like beans circulating in boiling water until they are cooked. The malefactors are tossed like beans as they plunge to the bottom and come up again, their hands and feet sometimes appearing at the surface, or their hips and bellies, or sometimes just their heads and faces. The guards use iron hooks to spike the bodies and pull them out, tossing them [from one cauldron] to another. The malefactors scream and howl, crying in bitter suffering, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(8) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Copper Cauldrons hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking refuge and protection. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Grindstone hell, which is ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide. The guards, glaring ﬁercely, throw the offenders down onto hot stone slabs and slowly stretch them out, using heated boulders to grind their bodies into tiny fragments of ﬂesh and bone, producing torrents of blood and pus. The malefactors scream and howl, crying in extreme bitter

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suffering, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(9) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Grindstone hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Blood and Pus, stretching ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide, with boiling springs of blood and pus steaming in the air. The malefactors run wildly through the boiling liquid and their hands and feet, and then their heads, faces, and entire bodies, are consumed by the heat. Ingesting the boiling liquid, their lips, tongues, and throats are scalded, down to their stomachs, and wherever their bodies are touched by the blood and pus [their ﬂesh] boils away. The malefactors must undergo this punishment for their actions, however, and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(10) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from Blood and Pus hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Fire Tending, ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide, where a gigantic bonﬁre burns from within. Erupt- ing in ﬂames when they appear, the ﬁre emits intense heat as the offenders are rounded up by ﬁerce guards and forced to pick up hot iron rods to tend the ﬁery pile. As they work on the ﬁre, they suffer extreme burns not only on their hands and feet but all over their bodies. The heat is excru- ciating and they cry out in their suffering, but they must undergo this pun- ishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(11) After undergoing these torments for a long time, they emerge from Fire Tending hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and imme- diately arrive at River of Ashes hell, ﬁve hundred yojanas in length, breadth, and depth, where boiling waves of hot ash gush forth, ﬁlling the place with putrid air. The sound of the churning waves crashing over them is terrifying, and as they come to the surface the waves turn into iron nee- dles, like eight-inch spearheads. [Moreover,] long swords are lined up on

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the riverbank, and wolves and guards lie in wait in a forest of trees whose branches, leaves, and fruit resemble swords and daggers with eight-inch blades. When the malefactors enter the river their bodies sink and ﬂoat as they are tossed by the waves, and they are pierced repeatedly by the iron spears, which tear open their rotting skin and ﬂesh, releasing torrents of blood and pus. The malefactors scream in agony from the excruciating pain in every part of their bodies, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, they emerge from River of Ashes hell and as they crawl up over the bank, their bodies slashed and grievously wounded, they are met by sharp swords set up on the bank that slice their hands and feet. The guards ask, “Now you are here, what is it you want?” They reply, “Sir, we are starving.” Immediately the guards strike the offenders down and stretch their bodies one after another over hot irons; they pull their mouths open with iron hooks and pour in molten copper that scalds their lips, tongues, and throats, down to their stomachs. Wherever the molten copper touches their bodies it eats away at everything. Even more, wolves with long, sharp fangs tear off pieces of their ﬂesh and devour them as they watch.
After cooking in the River of Ashes and drinking molten copper, the malefactors, pierced by spears and chewed up by wolves, try to ﬂee. Climbing up trees, they encounter sharp blades pointed down that slice their hands; climbing back down, they ﬁnd the blades all turned upward, slashing their feet. Swords and daggers pierce their bodies and their skin and ﬂesh falls away, amid a stream of blood and pus, until only sinews hold together the bones of the white skeletons that remain. Then iron birds from the trees peck at their skulls to break them open so they can get at the brains. In excruciating pain, the malefactors scream in agony but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(12) Returning to the River of Ashes, they sink and ﬂoat as they are tossed by the waves. Iron spears pierce their bodies again, tearing away the rotting skin and ﬂesh and releasing jets of blood and pus until only white skeletons are left to drift away. But when a cool breeze blows over

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them their skin and ﬂesh regenerate as before. Standing up, they imme- diately ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Iron Fetters, which is ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide. When the malefactors enter hot iron fetters suddenly appear and they are forcibly shackled by the guards. The offenders watch their hands and feet burning down to stumps, as their entire bodies are eaten away. In excru- ciating pain, they scream in agony but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(13) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the male- factors emerge from Iron Fetters hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Axes and Hatchets, which is ﬁve hundred yojanas in length and breadth. When they enter, guards glaring in anger grab the offenders and throw them down on hot irons; with heated axes and hatchets, they chop off their noses and ears, hands and feet, and hack at their bodies. In excruciating pain, the malefactors scream in agony, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(14) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the malefactors emerge from Axes and Hatchets hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the Wolf Pack hell, stretching ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide. When they enter a pack of wolves rushes forward to attack, pulling them down as [they try to] escape. The wolves seize the offenders by their limbs and toss them about viciously, tearing at their ﬂesh and bones while blood and pus pool on the ground. In excruciating pain, the malefactors feel racked in every part of their bodies but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(15) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the malefactors emerge from Wolf Pack hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the hell of Bladed Trees, ﬁve

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hundred yojanas in length and breadth. When they enter they are met by a great storm. Gusts blow through the trees and blade-like leaves fall in a steady stream, severing their hands and feet and piercing every part of their bodies, including their faces and heads, while iron birds swoop down and peck at their eyes. In excruciating pain, the malefactors scream in agony but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
(16) After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the malefactors emerge from Bladed Trees hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at the Cold and Icy hell, stretching ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide. When they enter they are met by a great blast of cold wind that freezes their bodies. As their skin and ﬂesh fall to the ground, the malefactors scream in agony and thereupon their lives come to an end.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The great Black Rope hell contains sixteen minor hells, each of which is ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide and is enclosed by a fence separating it from Cold and Icy hell. Why is it called Black Rope? The guards [in that hell] throw the malefactors down and stretch their bodies one after another over hot irons. Shackled with hot iron chains, the bodies are kept in a straight line so that the guards, using hot iron hatchets, can slice all of them into pieces, making up a chain of a hundred thousand parts, just as a craftsman uses a sharp hatchet to shape pieces of wood and rope to form them into a chain. Punished in this manner, the malefactors experience pain and suffering beyond measure, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the Black Rope hell. Again, the guards in this hell throw the malefactors down and stretch their bodies one after another over hot irons. Shackling them with iron chains, the guards saw through their bodies with handsaws, just as a crafts- man uses a saw to cut pieces of wood. Punished in this manner, the male- factors experience pain and suffering beyond measure, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying

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until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called Black Rope hell.
Again, the guards in this hell throw the malefactors down and stretch their bodies one after another over hot irons. Shackled with hot iron chains, they feel their skin blistering, their ﬂesh burning, their bones melting, and their marrow coming to a boil. Their pain and suffering are beyond meas- ure, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are pre- vented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called Black Rope hell.
Again, the guards in this hell suspend hot iron chains, layer upon layer, and hung crosswise as well. They drive the malefactors through these hanging chains, which are tossed by a violent wind. Entangled, the male- factors watch their skin blistering, their ﬂesh burning, their bones melting, and their marrow boiling. Their pain and suffering are beyond measure, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their sins have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called Black Rope hell.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the malefactors and force them to wrap hot iron chains around their bodies and watch as their skin blisters, their ﬂesh burns, their bones melt, and their marrow boils. Their pain and suffering are beyond measure, but they must undergo this punishment for their actions and are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called Black Rope hell.
After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the male- factors at length emerge from Black Rope hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Black Sands hell, and so on, until they reach Cold and Icy hell and subsequently their lives come to an end, just as before.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The great hell of Compression contains sixteen minor hells, each of which is ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide and is enclosed by a fence. Why is it called Compression? Because it is a great mountain of rock that splits open to allow offenders to enter, but when they do the two sides suddenly

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come together, crushing them into bits of ﬂesh and bone, and then reopen, like two wooden clappers that rebound after each strike. Punished in this way, the malefactors experience pain and suffering beyond measure but they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Compression.
Again, there is a huge iron elephant in this hell that bellows ﬁercely as it charges. Raging among the offenders, the elephant crushes their bodies into bits of ﬂesh and bone, releasing torrents of blood and pus. In excruciating pain, the malefactors scream in agony but they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Compression.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders, placing them in a grindstone and crushing their ﬂesh and bones, releasing torrents of blood and pus. Their pain and suffering are beyond measure but they are pre- vented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Compression.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders, putting them face down over a great rock and using another huge rock to crush their bodies into bits of ﬂesh and bone, releasing torrents of blood and pus. The pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, but they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Compression. Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders, placing them face down in an iron mortar and methodically applying the pestle, beginning at their feet and moving up to their heads, crushing their bodies into bits of ﬂesh and bone and releasing torrents of blood and pus. The pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poi- sons taken together, but they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Compression. After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the male- factors emerge from Compression hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Black Sands hell, and so on, until they reach Cold and Icy hell and subsequently their lives come to
an end, just as before.

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The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The great hell of Screaming contains sixteen minor hells that stretch ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide and are enclosed by fences. Why is it known as Screaming? The guards in this hell seize the offenders and toss them into a huge cauldron, where they burn in boiling water. The pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, but they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Screaming.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders and toss them into a huge iron jar, where they burn in boiling water. The pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, but they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Screaming.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders and stuff them into a small cauldron, where they burn in boiling water. They scream in agony but they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Screaming.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders and throw them into a large iron frying pan, where they are repeatedly fried and then boiled. The malefactors scream in agony but they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Screaming.
After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the male- factors emerge from Screaming hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Black Sands hell, and so on, until they reach Cold and Icy hell and subsequently their lives come to an end, just as before.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The hell of Great Screaming contains sixteen minor hells, each of which is ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide and enclosed by a fence. Why is it known as Great Screaming? The guards in this hell seize the offenders and throw them into a huge cauldron, where they burn in boiling water.

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124b

The screaming that erupts is desperate, for the pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Great Screaming.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders and throw them into an immense iron jar, where they burn in boiling water. The screaming that erupts mounts ever higher because the pain they experience is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Great Screaming.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders and throw them into an iron cauldron, where they burn in boiling water. The screaming that erupts mounts ever higher because the pain they experience is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, (124b) it is called the hell of Great Screaming.
Again, the guards in this hell seize the offenders and throw them into a huge frying pan, where they are repeatedly fried and then boiled. The screaming that erupts mounts ever higher because the pain they experience is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Great Screaming.
After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the male- factors emerge from Great Screaming hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Black Sands hell, and so on, until they reach Cold and Icy hell and subsequently their lives come to an end, just as before.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The great hell of Fiery Heat contains sixteen minor hells, each of which is ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide and enclosed by a fence. Why is it known as Fiery Heat? The guards in this hell take offenders to an iron castle that glows, inside and out, with the heat of the ﬁre burning within.

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The malefactors are left here and are slowly incinerated, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mounting pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Fiery Heat. Again, the guards in this hell take the offenders to an iron room that glows, inside and out, with the heat of the ﬁre burning within. There the malefactors are incinerated, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mount- ing pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated.
For this reason, it is called the hell of Fiery Heat.
Again, the guards in this hell take the offenders to an iron tower that glows, inside and out, with the heat of the ﬁre burning within. There the malefactors are incinerated, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mount- ing pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Fiery Heat.
Again, the guards in this hell throw the offenders into a gigantic iron pot that glows, inside and out, with the heat of the ﬁre burning within. There the malefactors are incinerated, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mounting pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Fiery Heat.
Again, the guards in this hell throw the offenders down onto a ﬂat iron plate whose surfaces glow with the heat of the ﬁre burning within. There the malefactors are incinerated, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mounting pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Fiery Heat.
After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the malefactors emerge from Fiery Heat hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Black Sands hell, and so on, until they reach Cold and Icy hell and subsequently their lives come to an end, just as before.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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The great hell of Great Fiery Heat contains sixteen minor hells, each of which is ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide and enclosed by a fence. Why is it known as Great Fiery Heat? The guards in this hell put the offenders inside an iron castle that glows, inside and out, with the heat of the ﬁre burning within. There the malefactors are incinerated twice over, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mounting pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Great Fiery Heat.
Again, the guards in this hell take the offenders to an iron room that glows, inside and out, with the heat of the ﬁre burning within. There the malefactors are incinerated twice over, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mounting pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Great Fiery Heat. Again, the guards in this hell take the offenders to an iron tower that glows, inside and out, with the heat of the ﬁre burning within. There the malefactors are incinerated twice over, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mounting pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Great Fiery Heat. Again, the guards in this hell throw the offenders into a gigantic iron pot that glows, inside and out, with the heat of the ﬁre burning within. There the malefactors are incinerated twice over, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mounting pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Great Fiery Heat. Again, there is a natural ﬁrepit in this hell, ﬂanked by two volcanic mountains. The guards seize the offenders, skewer them with an iron rod, and lower them into the ﬁrepit. The malefactors are incinerated twice over, their skin and ﬂesh burned away amid mounting pain as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is
called the hell of Great Fiery Heat.

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After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time, the male- factors emerge from Great Fiery Heat hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Black Sands hell, and so on, until they reach Cold and Icy hell and subsequently their lives come to an end, just as before.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The great hell of Unremitting Suffering (wujiantadiyu; avīci) contains six- teen minor hells, each of which is ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide and enclosed by a fence. Why is it known as Unremitting Suffering? The guards in this hell seize the offenders, skin them alive from head to toe, and use their ﬂayed skin to lash them to the hot wheels of a chariot, which they drive back and forth across a ﬁery iron track. Once crushed, the bodies of the malefactors disintegrate into tiny bits of ﬂesh and bone and left scattered along the track. The pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Unremitting Suffering.
Again, there is a great iron castle in this hell that is besieged [at times] with blazing ﬁres on all four sides. The ﬂames on the eastern side leap over the castle to the western side, and vice versa; the ﬂames on the south- ern side reach the northern side, and vice versa. Similarly, the ﬂames in the upper stories reach down to the cellar, and the ﬂames in the cellar rise up without cease, leaving nothing untouched. The malefactors within the castle try to ﬂee but they cannot escape and wherever they turn their skin and ﬂesh are devoured by the ﬂames. The pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Unremitting Suffering. Again, the iron castles in this hell burn from within, like ﬁery caves.
The malefactors trapped within the castles are incinerated, their skin and ﬂesh burned away. The pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented

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125b

from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Unremitting Suffering.
Again, after being trapped for some time, the malefactors see the gate to this hell begin to open and they rush toward it, desperate [to escape]. As they run, like a strongman carrying a ﬁery torch and running against the wind, the joints in their limbs feel as if they are being consumed in ﬂames. But when they reach the gate it suddenly closes and they fall onto a sizzling iron ﬂoor. As their skin and ﬂesh are burned away, the pain they experience as their distress mounts is as intense as that of all the worst poisons taken together, yet they are prevented from dying until their offenses have been fully expiated. For this reason, it is called the hell of Unremitting Suffering.
Again, everything the malefactors see in this hell is repulsive, everything they hear is grotesque, everything they smell is offensive, everything they touch is painful, and every passing notion is a malevolent thought. There is no letup in their suffering, not even for as brief a moment as a ﬁnger snap. For this reason, it is called the hell of Unremitting Suffering. After undergoing the torments of this hell for a long time the malefactors emerge from Unremitting Suffering hell and ﬂee in terror, seeking to be rescued and protected. Without knowing, however, they are drawn by their past actions and immediately arrive at Black Sands hell and so on, until they reach Cold and Icy hell and subsequently their lives come to
an end, just as before.
The World-honored One then continued in verse: Committing evil physical actions,
And so too evil speech and thought,
One falls into the hell of Conscious Recovery; Fearing this, your hair stands on end.
When hiding an evil thought, one meets
One’s parents, the Buddha, and his saintly disciples, One falls into the Black Rope hell;
The suffering there is beyond imagination. When one commits nothing but the three evils,

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Without performing any of the three kinds of good, One falls into the hell of Compression;
The suffering there is beyond imagination.
When one holds malevolent intent in hatred and anger, And is deﬁled with the blood of one’s victims Through many kinds of evil actions,
One falls into the hell of Screaming.
When one follows various evil views, Bewildered by the bonds of love and lust, Committing abject [bad] deeds out of blindness, One falls into the hell of Great Screaming.
Whoever does anything out of passion, Subjecting other sentient beings to the ﬂames, [He or she] falls into the hell of Fiery Heat And suffers there for a long time.
Whoever abandons the actions that promote good And the purity that leads to a good end, Committing abject and evil deeds,
[That person] falls into the hell of Great Fiery Heat.
Whoever commits egregious offenses Creates the power that leads to an evil end
And falls into the hell of Unremitting Suffering; The punishments therein are beyond imagination.
Conscious Recovery, Black Rope, Compression, Screaming,
Great Screaming, Fiery Heat, Great Fiery Heat, Unremitting Suffering: The eight great hells are like caves glowing with ﬁre;
Each contains sixteen minor hells for all one’s past [evil] actions. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Between the two diamond mountain [ranges] great gusts of wind called sāṃkhya [occasionally] rage. If a storm were to sweep over the four con- tinents and their eighty thousand territories, it would race through the air

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and smash everything into pieces, blasting the very earth and the great mountains, including the greatest mountain of all, Mount Sumeru, as well as everything else up to ten or a hundred li above the ground, just as when one takes a handful of bran and throws it into the air. Such would be the effect if a great storm were to blow through this world. But the two dia- mond ranges block [this raging wind] from reaching this world.
O bhikṣus, you should know that the two beneﬁcial diamond ranges are the result of the good conduct of sentient beings. Again, the raging winds between the two ranges blow with intense heat and ﬁery ﬂames. If those winds were to blow through this world, all the sentient beings, as well as the hills, rivers, inlets, oceans, grasses and trees, bushes and forests, would at once shrivel up and burn, just as live grass withers within an hour when it is cut and left under the hot summer sun. The heat from these raging winds would consume everything in like manner. But the two dia- mond ranges block them from reaching this world.
O bhikṣus, you should know that the two beneﬁcial diamond ranges are the result of the good conduct of sentient beings. Again, the raging winds between the two ranges have a putrid smell, like something extremely foul. If these winds were to blow through this world the noxious stench would cause all sentient beings to lose their sight. But the two dia- mond ranges block them from reaching this world.
O bhikṣus, you should know that the two beneﬁcial diamond ranges are the result of the good conduct of sentient beings. Again, between the two ranges are ten hells, called (1) Thick Cloud, (2) Absent Cloud, (3) Hehe (4) Nahe, (5) Bleating Sheep, (6) Sūgandhika, (7) Utpala, (8)
Kumuda, (9) Puṇḍarīka, and (10) Padma.
Why is the ﬁrst hell called Thick Cloud? The bodies of the offenders who fall into this hell grow of their own accord, just as a heavy cloud [forms of its own]. Hence it is called Thick Cloud. Why is the second [hell] called Absent Cloud? The bodies of the offenders in this hell auto- matically regrow, like ﬂesh that can be consumed. Hence it is called Absent Cloud. Why is the third [hell] called Hehe? The offenders in this hell utter the sound he he when their ﬂesh is pierced. Hence it is called Hehe. Why is the fourth [hell] called Nahe? Because the offenders who suffer from their ﬂesh being pierced have no rescuers, everyone in this hell mutters,

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“Nahe (“no one”) to rely on.” Hence it is called Nahe. Why is the ﬁfth [hell] called Bleating Sheep? Here the offenders who suffer from their ﬂesh being pierced try to speak but they are unable to move their tongues and can only utter the sound baaaa. Hence it is called Bleating Sheep. Why is the sixth [hell] called Sūgandhika? Everything in this hell is black, like the color of sūgandhika blossoms. Hence it is called Sūgandhika. Why is the seventh [hell] called Utpala? Everything in this hell is blue, like the color of a blue lotus (utpala). Hence it is called Utpala. Why is the eighth [hell] called Kumuda? Everything in this hell is pink (kumuda). Hence it is called Kumuda. Why is the ninth [hell] called Puṇḍarīka? Everything in this hell is white (puṇḍarīka). Hence it is called Puṇḍarīka. Why is the tenth [hell] called Padma? Everything [in this hell] is red (padma). Hence it is called Padma.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Take the example of a container that holds sixty-four hu27 of grain. Suppose this container was ﬁlled with sesame seeds and you were to remove a single seed from the container every one hundred years. Even when all the seeds have been removed, a malefactor in Thick Cloud hell will not yet have completed the term of his atonement. Now, multiply one term in Thick Cloud twenty times and that equals a single term in Absent Cloud hell. Twenty times a term in Absent Cloud equals a single term in Hehe hell. Twenty times a term in Hehe equals a single term in Nahe hell. Twenty times a term in Nahe equals a single term in Bleating Sheep hell. Twenty times a term in Bleating Sheep equals a single term in Sūgandhika hell. Twenty times a term in the Sūgandhika equals a single term in Utpala hell. Twenty times a term in Utpala equals a single term in Kumuda hell. Twenty times a term in Kumuda equals a single term in Puṇḍarīka hell. Twenty times a term in Puṇḍarīka equals a single term in Padma hell. Twenty times a term in Padma hell is called a median eon, and twenty median eons make up a major eon. Now the fiery heat in Padma is so intense that it can burn the bodies of malefactors even at a distance of one hundred yojanas; at sixty yojanas the malefactors are totally deaf- ened, and at fifty yojanas they are completely blinded, unable to see
anything again.

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126b

When the bhikṣu Kaukālika slandered the [two great] elders Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana with malevolent intent, he fell into Padma [Hell]. At that moment, the lord of Brahmā Heaven uttered the following verse:
Those who are born hold an ax in their mouth And slay others with slanderous speech.
Praising someone who should be criticized And criticizing someone who should be praised Are equally evil deeds in speech,
And the means of acquiring [multiple] offenses. Although acquiring wealth through treachery Only brings a slight misfortune,
Slandering the saintly disciples Must be counted a grave offense.
For this, one suffers in Thick Cloud [hell] For a hundred thousand years,
Or forty-one terms in Absent Cloud [hell]. All who slander will receive this retribution As the result of their evil thought and speech.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The lord of Brahmā Heaven spoke the truth in his verse, and the buddhas also regard it as true. Now, I, the Tathāgata, who has eradicated all deﬁle- ments and attained perfect enlightenment, give the same teaching expressed in this verse:
Those who are born hold an ax in their mouth And slay others with slanderous speech.
Praising someone who should be criticized And criticizing someone who should be praised Are equally evil deeds in speech,
And the means of acquiring [multiple] offenses. Although acquiring wealth through treachery Only brings a slight misfortune,
Slandering the saintly disciples Must be counted a grave offense.

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For this, one suffers in Thick Cloud [hell] For a hundred thousand years,
Or forty-one terms in Absent Cloud [hell]. All who slander will receive this retribution As the result of their evil thought and speech.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
To the south of Jambudvīpa, within the great diamond range, is the palace of the king of the hells [Yamarāja], who rules over an area six thousand yojanas long and wide. The castle consists of seven concentric buildings and is ringed by seven railings, seven ornamental nets, seven lines of trees and so forth, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as in the other palatial settings. Thrice each night the king of the hells is confronted with a great copper cauldron that automatically appears before him. When the cauldron appears in the palace the king is terriﬁed and ﬂees the palace grounds in order to get away from it. If he is outside the palace when he sees [the cauldron], he is terriﬁed and returns to the palace, but an imposing guard seizes the king, throws him down on a hot iron, pries his mouth open with an iron hook, and pours molten copper into it. The molten copper scalds his lips, tongue, and throat down to the stomach, eating away at everything. When his atonement is over, the king of the hells resumes his life and once again enjoys his royal status with the palace ladies. The numerous ministers who also enjoy the rewards of their station undergo the same punishment.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There are three messengers. What are the three? The ﬁrst is the messenger of old age, the second is the messenger of illness, and the third is the mes- senger of death. Any sentient being who has committed evil deeds in thought and speech, as well as with physical actions, falls into the hells at the end of his or her life and the dissolution of the body. The guards in the hells lead them before the king of the hells and report, “It has been deemed proper by the messengers appointed by the heavens that these people should come to this court. May Your Majesty examine them and seek their response.”

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The king of the hells asks an offender, “Did you not see the initial mes- senger?” The offender replies, “No, sir. I did not notice him.” The king asks again, “While you lived among other humans, you must have seen old people whose hair had turned white, whose teeth had fallen out, who had gone blind, whose skin had become loose and wrinkled, whose backs were hunched, and who could walk only with a cane, uttering low moans and groans while their bodies trembled and their spirits declined. Have you not [seen this]?” The offender replies, “Yes, sir. I have seen them.” The king asks again, “Did you think that you too would become like them?” The offender says, “I was careless and indulgent and it did not occur to me, sir.” The king replies, “Since you were careless and indulgent, [as you admit,] you were unable to control your physical, mental, and verbal actions; nor were you able to reform your evil habits or follow good ones. I must inform you about the suffering that results from careless indulgence in life.” The king goes on, “Whatever punishment you must undergo is not due to the fault of your parents, your siblings, the lord of the heavens, your ancestral spirits, your friends, servants, or employees. Nor is it due to the fault of any śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa; it is solely due to your own faults, and so you must now accept the appropriate punishment.” After asking offenders about the ﬁrst messenger, the king of the hells questions them in relation to the second heavenly messenger, “Didn’t you see the second messenger?” An offender replies, “No, sir.” The king asks again, “While you lived among other humans, you must have seen people with illnesses so serious that they could only lie on a couch stained with [their own] urine and excretions, unable to sit or stand, completely reliant on the help of others for their food and drink; their hundred joints having become so painful, they moan and groan and shed tears, unable to speak a word. Haven’t you seen such people?” The offender replies, “Yes, sir.” The king continues, “Why didn’t you think that you too would become like them?” The offender says, “I was careless and indulgent and it did not occur to me, sir.” The king replies, “Since you were careless and indul- gent, you were unable to control your physical, mental, and verbal actions; nor were you able to reform your evil habits or follow good ones. I must inform you about the suffering that results from careless indulgence in life.” The king goes on, “Whatever punishment you must undergo is not

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due to the fault of your parents, your siblings, the lord of the heavens, your ancestral spirits, your friends, servants, or employees. Nor is it due to the fault of any śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa; it is solely due to your own faults, and so you must now accept the appropriate punishment.”
After asking offenders about the second messenger, the king of the hells questions them in relation to the third heavenly messenger, “Didn’t you see the third messenger?” An offender replies, “No, sir.” The king asks again, “While you lived among other humans, you must have seen people die and their physical bodies dissolved as their life ends; their fac- ulties had ceased to function, their bodies as stiff as dried wood, and either thrown onto a cemetery mound to be pecked at by birds or animals, enclosed in a cofﬁn within an external vault, or cremated in ﬁre. Haven’t you seen this?” The offender replies, “Yes, sir, I have.” The king continues, “Why didn’t you think that you too would become like that?” The offender says, “I was careless and indulgent and it did not occur to me, sir.” The king replies, “Since you were careless and indulgent, you were unable to control your physical, mental, and verbal actions; nor were you able to reform your evil habits or follow good ones. I must inform you about the suffering that results from careless indulgence in life.” The king goes on, “Whatever punishment you must undergo is not due to the fault of your parents, or your siblings, the lord of the heavens, your ancestral spirits, your friends, servants, or employees. Nor is it due to the fault of any śra- maṇa or brāhmaṇa; it is solely due to your own faults, and so you must now accept the appropriate punishment.”
After taking the offenders through detailed questioning in relation to the three heavenly messengers, the king of the hells hands them over to the guards, who lead them down to a great hell measuring a hundred yojanas long and wide, and an equal depth below the ground.
Then the World-honored One uttered the following verse:
Four gates are open to the four directions, With all roads and passages leading here. Each hell is enclosed in iron walls,
With an iron net ceiling And an iron ﬂoor.

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Fierce ﬂames blow [into these hells] continually, Each a hundred yojanas in length and breadth, Firmly set, neither tilting nor shaking.
Dark smoke rises in every part of the chamber, Making it hard to see through the bright ﬁery glow. Sixteen minor hells are attached,
All of them ﬁlled with ﬁerce ﬂames,
The heat of which matches the evil actions of the offenders. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The king of the hells thought to himself, “No sentient being in the world is free from ignorance and delusion, and therefore he or she commits evil deeds physically, mentally, and verbally. Having done so, when their lives end there is no one, with few exceptions, who is not subject to these kinds of hellish suffering. If the sentient beings in the world would reform their evil habits, however, and control their physical, mental, and verbal actions and thus engage in good conduct, they would enjoy happiness in a heaven after the end of their life, like the heavenly gods. If I should be born a human after my death and come into the presence of the Tathāgata, I would shave my hair and beard under the guidance of the right Dharma, don the three mendicant robes, renounce domestic life, attain pure faith, and engage in the practice of austerity so as to accomplish what must be done [for salvation], acquire insight into the nature of things as they really are, and realize for myself, in this life, the direct experience that there is no more birth for me ever again.”
Then the World-honored One uttered the following verse:
After seeing the heavenly messengers,
If one carelessly continues to indulge in life,
He or she accumulates worries and is reborn in a lower state. If one is wise, on seeing the heavenly messengers
He or she will cleave to the Dharma of the saintly disciples And refrain from careless indulgence in life.
Foreseeing rebirth in old age, illness, and death,
One sees that deliverance only comes when there is no rebirth.

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By exhausting the cycle of birth, old age, illness, and death, One realizes [eternal] peace and happiness.
By [resolving to] attain the transcendent goal in this life, One overcomes all worries and fears
And is destined to realize ﬁnal nirvana.

Article 5: Dragons and Birds

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There are four kinds of dragons (nāgas). What are the four? (1) Those born from an egg, (2) those born from a womb, (3) those born from moist heat, and (4) those born through transformation. Those are the four ways of birth. There are also four kinds of garuḍas (mythological bird), and they too are born from an egg, a womb, moist heat, or transformation. At the bottom of the great ocean is the palace of the dragon lord Sāgara- nāgarāja, which is eighty thousand yojanas long and wide, ringed by sev- enfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, as in the
palaces already mentioned.
Between Mount Sumeru and Mount Khadira are two palaces belonging to the dragon lords called Nanda and Upananda. Each palace, measuring a thousand yojanas long and wide, is ringed by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, as in the palaces already mentioned. To the north of the great ocean is a gigantic tree, called kūṭaśālmali,
in which both the lord of the nāgas and the lord of the garuḍas reside. The circumference of this tree is a full seven yojanas; it rises to a height of one hundred yojanas and its branches and leaves extend out as far as ﬁfty yojanas.
To the east of this tree are the palaces of the nāgas born from an egg and the palaces of the garuḍas born from an egg, each measuring six thou- sand yojanas in length and breadth. Each palace is ringed by sevenfold

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walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, as in the other palaces already mentioned. To the south of the kūtaśālmali tree are the palaces of the nāgas and garuḍas born from a womb; each palace is six thousand yojanas long and wide, ringed by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing har- moniously together, as in the other palaces already mentioned. To the west of the kūtaśālmali tree are the palaces of the nāgas and garuḍas born from a moist heat, which measure six thousand yojanas in length and breadth. Each palace is ringed by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmo- niously together, as in the other palaces already mentioned. To the north of the kūtaśālmali tree are the palaces of the nāgas and garuḍas born through transformation, each of which is six thousand yojanas long and wide. Each palace is ringed by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, as in the other palaces already mentioned.
When a garuḍa born from an egg wishes to partake of dragon meat, it ﬂies down from an eastern branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of two hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] the garuḍa feeds on the ﬂesh of dragons born from an egg as freely as it wishes. However, it cannot catch the other three kinds of dragons. When a garuḍa born from a womb wishes to partake of the ﬂesh of dragons born from an egg, it ﬂies down from an eastern branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of two hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on the ﬂesh of dragons born from an egg, as freely as it wishes. When a garuḍa born from a womb wishes to partake of dragons born from a womb, it ﬂies down from a southern branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings,

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creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of four hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on dragons born from a womb, as freely as it wishes. However, it cannot catch dragons born from moist heat or through transformation.
When a garuḍa born from moist heat wishes to partake of the ﬂesh of a dragon born from an egg, it ﬂies down from an eastern branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of two hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on the ﬂesh of dragons born from an egg, as freely as it wishes. When a garuḍa born from moist heat wishes to par- take of the ﬂesh of dragons born from a womb, it ﬂies down from an eastern branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of four hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on the ﬂesh of dragons born from an egg as freely as it wishes. When a garuḍa born from moist heat wishes to partake of the ﬂesh of dragons born from moist heat, it ﬂies down from a western branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of eight hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on the ﬂesh of dragons born from moist heat, as freely as it wishes. However, it cannot catch dragons born through transformation.
When a garuḍa born through incarnation wishes to partake of the ﬂesh of dragons born from an egg, it ﬂies down from an eastern branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of two hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on dragons born from an egg, as freely as it wishes. When a garuḍa born through transformation wishes to partake of the ﬂesh of dragons born from a womb, it ﬂies down from a southern branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of four hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on dragons born from a womb, as freely as it wishes. When a garuḍa born through trans- formation wishes to partake of the ﬂesh of dragons born from moist heat, it ﬂies down from a western branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll

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out to a distance of eight hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on the ﬂesh of dragons born from moist heat, as freely as it wishes. When a garuḍa born through transformation wishes to partake of the ﬂesh of dragons born through transformation, it ﬂies down from a northern branch of the kūṭaśālmali tree and strikes the surface of the ocean with its wings, creating waves on both sides that roll out to a distance of sixteen hundred yojanas. In the trough [of the wave] it feeds on the ﬂesh of dragons born through transformation, as freely as it wishes. The foregoing [describes] the dragons that are eaten by the garuḍas.
There are dragons, however, on whom even the garuḍas cannot feed. Who are these dragons? They are Sāgaranāgarāja, Nanda, Upananda, Yina- poluo, Titoulaicha, Sudṛśa, Alü, Jiejuluo, Jiapiluo, Aboluo, Jiatu, Qujiatu, Anavatapta, Supratiṣṭhita, Yushanqiebotou, and Dechajia. These are the dragon kings who are not subject to [being consumed by] the garuḍas, and those under their care are free from the fate met by the other dragons.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
If a sentient being upholds dragon norms and always observes, in mind and volition, the importance of the rules followed by dragons, that person will be reborn in the dragon world. If a sentient being upholds the norms of garuḍas and always observes, in mind and volition, the importance of the rules followed by garuḍas, that person will be reborn in the world of the garuḍas. If a sentient being upholds the norms of the hare and owl and always observes, in mind and volition, the importance of their rules, that person will [be reborn] into their world. If a sentient being upholds the norms of a dog, cow, deer, or [the norms] of a mute, of Maṇibhadra, the sun and moon, of water, ﬁre, or sacriﬁcial ﬁre, or of various ascetic practices, and if that person also thinks, “I have upheld the norms of a mute, of Maṇibhadra, of the sun and moon, of water, ﬁre, and sacriﬁcial ﬁre, and of various ascetic practices, and because of those merits I wish to be reborn in heaven”—[what do you think?] Is this a wrong view?
The Buddha continued:
I shall explain that the kind of person who upholds the following wrong views is bound to fall [upon rebirth] into one of two places—either in the

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hells or the four kinds of [animal] births. Some śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas theorize that “The self and the world are permanent; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “The self and the world are impermanent; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “The self and the world are both permanent and impermanent; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “The self and the world are limited (i.e., come to an end); this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “The self and the world are limitless (i.e., never come to an end); this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “The self and the world are both limited and limitless; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “The self and the world are neither limited nor limitless; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “This life principle ( jīva) and this corporeal body [are identical]; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “This life principle is different [from the body], and the body differs [from the life principle]; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “There is neither a life principle nor no life principle; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” or “There is neither a life principle nor a corporeal body; this view alone is true while the rest is false.”
Some assert, “There is a further death beyond this; this view alone is true while the rest is false.” Others assert, “There is no further death beyond this; this view alone is true while the rest is false.” A third group asserts, “There is both a further death beyond this and no further death beyond this; this view alone is true while the rest is false.” A fourth group asserts, “There is neither a further death beyond this, nor no further death beyond this.”
When a śramaṇa or brāhmaṇa says, “The world is permanent; this view alone is true while the rest is false,” that person is afﬁrming an assumption based on tendencies that predispose him to believe that there is a permanent self (ātma-dṛṣṭi) and a permanent life principle ( jīva), and that the body is the self and the world is permanent. Because of this, he asserts that the self and the world are permanent. When someone says [in opposition], “The world is impermanent,” that person is afﬁrming a similar assumption, in that it is also based on the predisposition to believe that there is a permanent self and a permanent life principle, and that the body is the self and the world is permanent. Thus such a person asserts that the

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self and the world are impermanent. When someone asserts that the world is both permanent and impermanent, that person is also afﬁrming an assumption based on a predisposition to believe that there is a permanent self and a permanent life principle, and that the body is the self and the world is permanent. Thus such a person now asserts that the self and the world are both permanent and impermanent. When someone asserts that the world is neither permanent nor impermanent, this again is afﬁrming an assumption based on a predisposition to believe that there is a permanent self and a permanent life principle, and that the body is the self and the world is permanent. Thus such a person maintains that the self and the world are neither permanent nor impermanent.
When someone asserts that the self and the world are limited, he too is afﬁrming an assumption based on a predisposition to believe that there is a permanent self and a permanent life principle, and that the body is the self and the world is permanent, and also that the life principle, the physical body, and the world are limited. [In this view,] the body consisting of the four gross elements continually transforms itself from the moment of conception until its arrival at the cemetery, sustaining itself over a span of seven lives. When at length the latent tendencies (i.e., predispositional forces) of the physical body and life principle are exhausted, the self enters into a pure state (i.e., a puriﬁed aggregate). Thus such a person maintains that the self is limited.
When someone asserts that the self and the world are limitless, this is again afﬁrming an assumption based on a predisposition to believe that the life principle, the physical body, and the world are limitless. The body consisting of the four gross elements continually transforms itself from the moment of conception until its arrival at the cemetery, sustaining itself over a span of seven lives. When at length the latent tendencies of the physical body and life principle are exhausted the self enters into a pure state. Seeing this, such a person maintains that the self is limitless. When someone asserts that the world is both limited and limitless, this too is afﬁrming an assumption based on their practice, the belief that there is a permanent self and a permanent life principle, that the body is the self and the world is permanent, and that the life principle (jīva) is both limited and limitless. The body consisting of the four gross elements continually

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transforms itself from the moment of conception until its arrival at the cemetery, sustaining itself over a span of seven lives. When at length the latent tendencies of the physical body and life principle are exhausted the self enters into a pure state. Seeing this, such a person maintains that the self and the world are both limited and limitless.
When someone asserts that the self and the world are neither limited nor limitless, this is afﬁrming an assumption based on a predisposition to believe that the life principle and the physical body are limitless. The body consisting of the four gross elements continually transforms itself from the moment of conception until its arrival at the cemetery, sustaining itself over a span of seven lives. When at length the latent tendencies of the physical body and life principle are exhausted the self enters into a pure state. Seeing this, such a person maintains that the self is neither lim- ited nor limitless.
When someone asserts that the life principle is identical with the physical body, this is afﬁrming the existence of the life principle in relation to this physical body, and [also] its existence in relation to another [different] body. Because of this, such a person maintains that the life principle is identical with the physical body. If they assert, however, that the physical body differs when the life principle differs, they are afﬁrming the existence of the life principle in relation to the physical body but not its existence in relation to another [different] body. Thus such a person maintains that when there is a change in the life principle there is a different physical body.
When someone asserts that the body and the life principle are existent as well as nonexistent, this is afﬁrming an assumption that there is no life principle in relation to the body but that there is a life principle in another body. Because of this, such a person asserts that there is a life principle and also that there is no life principle. If someone asserts that there is neither the body nor a life principle, this is afﬁrming a view that there is neither a life principle in this body nor a life principle in another body. Because of this, such a person asserts that there is neither a life principle nor the corporeal body.
When someone asserts that there is another [different] death than this, this is afﬁrming an assumption that there is a life principle now and [also that] the life principle and [the] body will be active later on (i.e., in an

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afterlife). Because of this, such a person asserts that there is a different death than this. If someone asserts that there is not another death than this, this is afﬁrming an assumption that there is a life principle in this [present] life but that there is no life principle in the afterlife. Because of this, such a person asserts that there is not another death than this. If some- one asserts that there is another death than this as well as not another death than this, this is afﬁrming an assumption that the life principle is annihilated in this life but [other] life principles become active in the afterlife. Because of this, such a person asserts both that there is another life principle than this and that there is not another life principle than this. If someone asserts that there is neither another death like this nor not another death like this, this is afﬁrming an assumption that the present life principle and body are annihilated and that the life principle and the body in the afterlife will also be annihilated. Because of this, such a person asserts that there is neither another death than this nor not another death than this.
Then the World-honored One said to the bhikṣus:
Once there was a king called Ādarśamukha (or Darpaṇamukha). It happened that a group of blind men had gathered at one spot and the king asked them, “O blind men, do you know what an elephant is?” They replied, “O great king, we do not know, nor would we recognize, what an elephant is.” The king asked again, “Would you like to know how it is shaped?” They replied, “Yes, we would like to know that, sire.” The king instructed his attendant to bring an elephant to them and then asked the blind men to touch it with their hands. One of them touched the animal’s nose, and the king said, “That is an elephant.” The second blind man touched its tusk, the third touched its ear, the fourth touched its head, the ﬁfth touched its back, the sixth touched its belly, the seventh touched its knee, the eighth touched its shoulder, the ninth touched a foot, and the tenth touched the tail. Each time, the king told each blind man, “That is an elephant.”
Then the king had the animal taken away and questioned the blind men: “What is the elephant like?” The ﬁrst among them, who had touched its nose, replied, “The elephant is like the twisted shaft of a cart, sire”; the second, who had touched its tusk, replied, “It is like a pestle”; the

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third, who had touched its ear, replied, “It is like a straw raincoat”; the fourth, who had touched its head, replied, “It is like a [large] kettle”; the ﬁfth, who had touched its back, replied, “It is like a hilltop”; the sixth, who had touched its belly, replied, “It is like a wall”; the seventh, who had touched its knee, replied, “It is like a tree”; the eighth, who had touched its shoulder, replied, “It is like a pillar”; the ninth, who had touched a foot, replied, “It is like a mortar”; and the tenth, who had touched its tail, replied, “It is like a rope.” Then the blind men began to argue, saying, “My description is cor- rect” and “Your description cannot be correct,” and so on. As there was no end to their bickering, they ﬁnally came to blows. Seeing this, Darpaṇamukha burst into laughter. Then the king uttered the following verse:
A multitude of blind men engage in dispute, Competing in their different views,
Yet it is the body of one and the same elephant. Indeed, it is only due to different views that Both afﬁrmation and negation arise
[About one and the same thing]. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
It is just the same with the disputes among the different schools of religion and philosophy. They do not know the truth of suffering, or of its causal aggregation, or of the cessation of that causal aggregation, or of the path of its cessation. Each school, entertaining its own view, disputes with others as to what is right and wrong. Insisting that their own view is correct, they enter into disputes. If, however, śramaṇas or brāhmaṇas understand the truth of suffering, and of its causal aggregation, and of the cessation of that causal aggregation, and of the essential path of that cessation, they will reﬂect upon the nature of their own thoughts and attain harmony with others. Receiving one and the same truth, studying under one and the same teacher, associating in one and the same community, integrated like water and milk and remaining ever alert to this awareness, they abide in peace and happiness.
Then the World-honored One uttered this verse:

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If one does not know of life’s suffering And the causal origins of this suffering,
Or of the possible cessation of this suffering
And the path of cessation of its causal origination, One loses the opportunity to liberate the mind,
A liberation based on insight (prajñā)
That clariﬁes the origins of birth, old age, illness, and death. If, however, one sees the truth of life’s suffering,
And of the causal origins of this suffering, And of the cessation of this suffering,
So will one discern the path of cessation And deliverance of the mind,
The deliverance based on insight
That clariﬁes the causal aggregate of suffering, Thereby exhausting the root cause of birth, old age, Illness, death, and the [cyclic] will-to-becoming.
O bhikṣus, because of this, you should contemplate the truth of suffering, the truth of its causal aggregation, the truth of the cessation of suffering, and the truth of the [eightfold] noble path of cessation and essential lib- eration from suffering.

Article 6: The Demigods (Asuras)

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
At the bottom of the great ocean, north of Mount Sumeru, is the capital of Rāhvasurin, a spacious city extending eighty thousand yojanas long and wide. The city is well designed, with walls that are three thousand yojanas high and two thousand yojanas [thick], embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees. The gateways are one thousand yojanas in height and the same measure in length and breadth. The golden wall is endowed with a silver gate, the silver wall with a golden gate, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing har- moniously together, just as before. Located within the great city is an inner city, sixty thousand yojanas long and wide, that is occupied by the

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king of the asura demigods; it is called Lunyumobazha and it is protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of precious treasure. The walls are three thousand yojanas high and two thousand yojanas thick. The gates are two thousand yojanas high and one thousand yojanas wide. The golden wall is endowed with a silver gate, the silver wall with a golden gate, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
Within the inner city is an assembly hall called Saptaśirasā, which is protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven orna- mental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure. The building’s foundation is made of pure emerald, and its beams and pillars are made from the seven kinds of treasure. The [main] pillar is one thousand yojanas in diameter and ten thousand yojanas high. Beneath it is the throne called the sudharma seat, heavily engraved with inscriptions, and it measures seven hundred yojanas in length and breadth and is made from the seven kinds of treasure. There are four doors to the assembly hall, each protected by sevenfold walls and stairways further embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innu- merable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
To the north of the assembly hall is the palace that belongs to the king of the asuras, which is ten thousand yojanas long and wide. The sevenfold palace walls are embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. To the east of the assembly hall is a pleasure grove called Śāla, ten thousand yojanas long and wide and protected by sevenfold walls embel- lished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. To the south of the assembly hall is a pleasure grove called Śobhanatara, also ten thousand yojanas long and wide. To the west of the hall is a pleasure grove called Yāma, again ten thousand yojanas long and wide; to the north of the hall is a pleasure grove called Abhilāṣa, which has the same dimensions.

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Between the Śāla and Śobhanatara pleasure groves is a tree called Pāri- jāta; the diameter of its trunk is seven yojanas, its height is one hundred yojanas, and its branches and leaves spread out as far as ﬁfty yojanas in every direction. The tree is protected on all sides by sevenfold walls embel- lished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. Between the Yāma and Abhilāṣa pleasure groves is a lake called Upananda, with clean, cool, and spotlessly clear water. The seven dikes encircling the lake are built with precious materials, with stone terraces and seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. Four kinds of ﬂowers grow there; their leaves and blossoms extend up to one yojana in length and width, and their fragrance can be detected as far away as one yojana. Their stalks form the hub of a wheel and sap, as sweet as honey, ﬂows out like white milk. Innumerable rare birds sing harmoniously there, just as before. By the shore of this lake are pavilions seven stories high, each encircled by seven gated walls with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
The palaces occupied by ofﬁcials serving the asura king are as large as ten thousand yojanas in length and breadth, down to the smallest, which are one thousand yojanas long and wide. All the palaces are protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. The palaces of the asuras are smaller, varying from one thousand yojanas in length and breadth down to the smallest, which are one hundred yojanas [long and wide]. These palaces are also protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. To the north of the assembly hall is a stairway made of seven precious materials, which leads to the palace compound. There are other stairways that lead to the Śāla, Śobhanatara, Yāma, and Abhilāṣa pleasure groves,

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and stairways that lead to the Pārijāta tree, Upananda Lake, and the palaces occupied by ministers and minor ofﬁcials.
When the asura king wishes to make an excursion to the Śāla pleasure grove, he merely thinks of Bhīmacitra, a member of the asura royalty, and the latter becomes aware that “King Rāhvasurin has put this thought in my mind.” Bhīmacitra immediately dons formal clothing, and riding in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by innumerable attendants, arrives before the king and takes his position to one side. The asura king thinks of another royal ﬁgure, Prarāhvasurin, and he too becomes aware that “King Rāhvasurin is calling me.” Prarāhvasurin immediately dons formal clothing, and riding in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by innumerable attendants, arrives before the king and takes his position to one side. The king then thinks of another royal ﬁgure, Yāmarāhvasurin, who too becomes aware that “King Rāhvasurin is calling me,” immediately dons formal clothing, and riding in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by innumerable attendants, arrives before the king and takes his position to one side. The king then thinks of his minister Asurin, who becomes aware that “King Rāhvasurin is calling me,” immediately dons formal clothing, and riding in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by innu- merable attendants, arrives before the king and takes his position to one side. The king now thinks of a minor ofﬁcial, who also becomes aware that “King Rāhvasurin is calling me,” immediately dons formal clothing, and riding in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by innumerable atten- dants, arrives before the king and takes his position to one side.
Now King Rāhu of the asuras (Rāhvasurin) dons a richly decorated
garment, mounts his carriage, and surrounded by innumerable attendants, proceeds to the Śāla pleasure grove. When the procession reaches the gate the doors are opened by a sudden gust of wind that sweeps over the grounds within and blows down ﬂower blossoms into a knee-high mound. Rāh- vasurin enters the pleasure grove and enjoys his visit for a day or two, and so on, up to a seventh day, when he returns to his palace. When he later visits the Śobhanatara, Yāma, and Abhilāṣa pleasure groves, he follows the same steps that have been described here.
King Rāhu of the asuras is always accompanied by ﬁve great asuras, who guard him closely on all sides. The ﬁrst is called Tichi, the second

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Xiongli, the third Wuyi, the fourth Touju, and the ﬁfth Cuifu. These asuras guard him at all times. The palace of King Rāhu is not only sits on the bottom of the great ocean, it also rises to the ocean surface and is held [above the ocean] by the four powers of wind: a steady wind (zhufeng), a supporting wind (chifeng), an immovable wind (budong), and a ﬁrm wind ( jiangu). These four winds hold the great ocean suspended in midair, ten thousand yojanas above the asuras’ palace, never letting it fall, so that it is just like a ﬂoating cloud. Indeed, such are the great fortune, merits, and powers that have accrued to the asura king.

Article 7: The Four Guardian Gods

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
To the east of Mount Sumeru, at a distance of a thousand yojanas, is the abode of the guardian god Dhṛṭarāṣṭra, a city called Xianshangcheng, which is six thousand yojanas long and wide. The ramparts around the city are sevenfold and embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
To the south of Mount Sumeru, at a distance of a thousand yojanas, is the abode of the guardian god Virūḍhaka, a city called Sudarśana that meas- ures six thousand yojanas long and wide. Its ramparts are sevenfold and embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure and so on, with innu- merable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
To the west of Mount Sumeru, at a distance of a thousand yojanas, is the abode of the guardian god Virūpākṣa, a city called Chūḍasudarśana, which is six thousand yojanas long and wide. Its ramparts are sevenfold and embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. To the north of Mount Sumeru, at a distance of a thousand yojanas, is the abode of the guardian god Vaiśravaṇa. This king resides in three cities;

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the ﬁrst is called Bhaya (Heyi), the second, Tianjing, and the third, Zhong- gui. Each city measures six thousand yojanas long and wide. Their ramparts also are sevenfold and embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
To the north of Zhonggui is a pleasure grove called Jiapiyantou, four thousand yojanas long and wide, protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. In the middle of this pleasure grove is a pond called Nalinni, forty yojanas long and wide, with clean and transparent water. The dike [that forms the pond] is made from the seven kinds of treasure, and the pond is ringed by stone terraces with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees made from the seven kinds of treasure. In the pond are many varieties of shining lotus blossoms in blue, yellow, red, white, and variegated hues, whose fragrance can be detected as far as half a yojana away. Their stalks form the hub of a wheel and the sap, as sweet as honey, ﬂows out like white milk, and innumerable rare birds sing harmoniously together, just as before.
Apart from the palaces of the sun and moon, those of the guardian gods are forty yojanas long and wide, protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. The palaces vary in size but even the smallest measures ﬁve yojanas long and wide.
From Zhonggui a stairway leads to Xianshangcheng. Another stairway leads to Bhaya and Tianjing. Even more stairways lead to Jiapiyantou and Nalinni, and to the palaces of the ministers of the four guardian gods. When Vaiśravaṇa [in the northern heaven] wishes to enjoy an excursion to Jiapiyantou, he ﬁrst thinks of Dhṛṭarāṣṭra [in the eastern heaven], and the latter becomes aware that “Vaiśravaṇa has put this thought in my mind.” Dhṛṭarāṣṭra immediately dons formal clothing and rides in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by a host of gandharva demigods, arriving

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before Vaiśravaṇa and taking his position to one side. Vaiśravaṇa then thinks of Virūḍhaka [in the southern heaven], who then becomes aware that “Vaiśravaṇa is calling me.” He immediately dons formal clothing and rides in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by innumerable kumbhāṇḍa deities, arriving before Vaiśravaṇa and taking his position to one side. Vaiśravaṇa then thinks of Virūpākṣa [in the western heaven], who becomes aware that “Vaiśravaṇa is calling me.” Virūpākṣa immediately dons formal clothing and rides in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by innumerable nāga deities, arriving before Vaiśravaṇa and taking his position to one side. Vaiśravaṇa then thinks of the ministers of the four guardian gods, and they all become aware that “Vaiśravaṇa is calling me.” Each of them immediately dons formal clothing and rides in a richly decorated carriage, surrounded by innumerable deities, arriving before Vaiśravaṇa and taking a position to one side.
The guardian god Vaiśravaṇa now dons a richly decorated garment, mounts his carriage, and accompanied by innumerable hosts of deities proceeds to the pleasure grove. When the procession reaches the Jiapiyan- tou gate the doors open by a sudden gust of wind that sweeps the ground within and blows down ﬂower blossoms into a knee-high mound. Vaiśravaṇa enters the pleasure grove, enjoys his visit for a day or two, and so on, up to a seventh day, and then returns to his palace. Vaiśravaṇa is always accompanied by ﬁve great spirits, who guard him closely on all sides. The ﬁrst is called Pañcāla, the second Daṇḍala, the third Hemabhadra, the fourth Dīpaṃkara, and the ﬁfth Xiuyilumo. These ﬁve spirits guard him at all times. Indeed, such are the great fortune, merits, and powers that have accrued to the king of the guardian gods.

Article 8: Trāyastriṃśa Heaven

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
At the summit of Mount Sumeru is the abode of the thirty-three gods, [Trāyastriṃśa]. This city extends eighty thousand yojanas long and wide, with sevenfold concentric ramparts that are embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven

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kinds of treasure. The ramparts are one hundred yojanas high and sixty yojanas across at the top, with gates that are sixty yojanas high and thirty yojanas across at the top. Every ﬁve hundred yojanas from the main gate is another gate where ﬁve hundred spirits dwell to protect the thirty-three gods. The golden wall is adorned with a silver gate, the silver wall is adorned with a golden gate, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
Within the great city is an inner city [called Sudarśana], sixty thousand yojanas long and wide. Its sevenfold concentric ramparts are embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure. The ramparts are one hundred yojanas high and sixty yojanas across at the top, with gates every ﬁve hundred yojanas that are sixty yojanas high and thirty yojanas across at the top. At each gate ﬁve hundred spirits dwell to protect the thirty-three gods. The golden wall is adorned with silver gates, [the silver wall with golden gates,] the quartz wall with lapis gates, the lapis wall with quartz gates, the ruby wall with agate gates, the agate wall with ruby gates, and the emerald wall with gates decorated with many kinds of precious stones. The railings are decorated in a similar way: the golden railing is adorned with ropes made of silver, the silver railing with ropes made of gold, the quartz railing with ropes made of lapis, the lapis railing with ropes made of quartz, the ruby railing with ropes made of agate, the agate railing with ropes made of rubies, and the emerald railing with a variety of precious stones. Over these railings are hung decorative nets on which various ornaments are attached. From the golden net hangs a silver bell, from the silver net hangs a golden bell, from the lapis net hangs a quartz bell, from the quartz net hangs a lapis bell, from the ruby net hangs an agate bell, from the agate net hangs a ruby bell, and from the emerald net hangs a bell inlaid with various precious stones.
The golden trees have golden trunks and branches, with silver ﬂowers
and fruit. The silver trees have silver trunks and branches, with golden ﬂowers and fruit. The quartz trees have quartz trunks and branches, with lapis ﬂowers and leaves, while the lapis trees have lapis trunks and branches and quartz ﬂowers and leaves. The ruby trees have ruby trunks and branches, with agate ﬂowers and leaves, while the agate trees have agate

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trunks and branches and ﬂowers and leaves made of rubies. The emerald trees have emerald trunks and branches, with ﬂowers and leaves made of various precious stones.
Each of the seven walls has four gates, one on each side, protected by barriers. Each wall is topped with a pavilion and veranda and encloses a bathing pond and pleasure garden ﬁlled with various ﬂowers blooming in a multitude of hues. The verdant trees are laden with abundant ﬂowers and fruit. Exquisite fragrance arises in all directions, pleasing to human senses; hawks, wild ducks, male and female mandarin ducks, and a host of rare birds, numbering in the thousands of species, sing harmoniously together. In the area outside the inner city is the palace of Irāpatra, lord of the nāgas; it extends six thousand yojanas long and wide. Its sevenfold walls are embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. At the center of Sudarśana is Sudharma Assembly Hall, one hundred yojanas long and wide, adorned with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure. The foundation of the hall is pure gold and its roof is made of lapis. The pillars, ten yojanas in diameter, rise to a height of one hundred yojanas. Centered beneath them is the throne of the lord of the [thirty-three] gods, one yojana long and wide, reﬂecting variegated hues created by combi- nations of the seven kinds of treasure. The seat of the throne is delicate, as smooth to the touch as a heavenly garment. On both sides of the throne are sixteen seats. Four gates, adorned with railings made from the seven kinds of treasure, provide entrance to the hall. The stairway leading to the hall is ﬁve hundred yojanas across and the gateway is protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. To the north of Sudharma Hall is the palace of the lord of the gods Indra, which is one thousand yojanas long and wide. The sevenfold palace walls are embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.

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To the east of the palace is a pleasure grove called Cuse, one thousand yojanas long and wide, which is surrounded by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. Within this pleasure grove are two stone mounds embellished with heavenly gold called Bhadra and Subhadra, respectively; their surfaces are as smooth as a heavenly garment. To the south of the palace is another pleasure grove, called Citraprīti, one thousand yojanas long and wide, which is enclosed by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. In this pleasure grove are two massive stone mounds embellished with the seven kinds of treasure; they are called Dina and Sudina, respectively, and each is ﬁfty yojanas long and wide, with surfaces as smooth as a heavenly garment. To the west of Sudharma Hall is another pleasure grove, called Za (Saṃsarga?), one thousand yojanas long and wide, protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. In this pleasure grove are two massive stone mounds embellished with the seven kinds of treasure, called Sudarśana (Shanjian) and Anusudarśana (Shun- shanjian), respectively; each is gilded with heavenly gold, measures ﬁfty yojanas long and wide, and has surfaces as smooth as a heavenly garment. To the north of Sudharma Hall is another pleasure grove, called Mahā- sukha, one thousand yojanas long and wide, protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innu- merable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. In this pleasure grove are two massive stone mounds, called Sukha (Xi) and Mahāsukha (Taxi), respectively, measuring ﬁfty yojanas long and wide, embellished with the seven kinds of treasure, each gilded with heavenly
gold, and whose surfaces are as smooth as a heavenly garment.
Midway between the Cuse and Citraprīti (?) (Huale) pleasure groves is a pond called Nanda, one hundred yojanas long and wide, with clear,

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spotless water. The dike forming the pond is made from the seven kinds of treasure, and the pond is enclosed by stone terraces with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure. On the four sides of the pond are four stairways with railings adorned with the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innu- merable birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. In the pond there are many varieties of shining lotus blossoms in blue, yellow, red, white, and variegated hues, with a fragrance that can be detected as far away as one yojana. The shade cast by a single leaf [of a lotus blossom] is as wide as one yojana, and the stalks form the hub of a wheel, with sap, sweet as honey, ﬂowing out like white milk. Four other pleasure groves can be found on the four sides of this pond.
Midway between the Saṃsarga and Mahāsukha pleasure groves is a tree called Pārijāta, seven yojanas in diameter and one hundred yojanas in height, with branches and leaves spreading in all directions as far as ﬁfty yojanas. An empty pavilion stands beside this tree, extending ﬁve hundred yojanas in length and breadth and protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innu- merable rare birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
The rest of the palace complex occupies an area one thousand yojanas [long and wide], protected by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. Some of the public buildings are as large as eight or nine hundred yojanas [long and wide], with the smallest measuring one hundred yojanas [in length and breadth], and all are sur- rounded by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven orna- mental nets, and seven lines of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innumerable birds singing harmoniously together, just as before. Some of the small palaces are eighty to one hundred yojanas [long and wide], and even the smallest measures twelve yojanas [in length and breadth]. These buildings, too, are surrounded by sevenfold walls embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets, and seven lines

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of trees, all made from the seven kinds of treasure, and so on, with innu- merable birds singing harmoniously together, just as before.
On the north side of Sudharma Hall are two stairways that lead to the palace of Indra, lord of the gods. To the east of the hall are two stairways that lead to the Cuse pleasure grove. Other stairways lead to the Citraprīti, Saṃsarga, and Mahāsukha pleasure groves, as well as to Nanda Pond, the Pārijāta tree, and the palaces of the other gods, including that of Irāpatra, lord of the nāgas.
When the lord of the gods Śakra (Indra) wishes to make an excursion to the Cuse pleasure grove, he has only to think of the thirty-two gods over whom he presides and they immediately become aware that “Lord Śakra is calling me.” They immediately don formal clothing and ride in richly decorated carriages, accompanied by innumerable attendants, arriv- ing before Śakra and taking their positions to one side. Again, Indra thinks of Irāpatra, lord of the nāgas, and he immediately becomes aware that “Lord Śakra is calling me.” Irāpatra is immediately transformed into a ﬁgure with thirty-three heads, each having six fangs, with seven bathing ponds surrounding each fang. In every pond are seven gigantic lotus blos- soms that are supported by one hundred leaves, where seven beautiful maidens play, making music, singing, and dancing. Having produced this supernatural display, the lord of the nāgas approaches Indra and takes his position to one side.
Then Śakra, lord of the gods, puts on a necklace richly decorated with precious stones and takes his seat on the main head of Irāpatra, lord of the nāgas. Following him, the other gods, sixteen on each side, take their seats on Irāpatra’s [thirty-two] other heads. Lord Indra’s procession goes to the Cuse pleasure grove, accompanied by innumerable hosts of deities. When the procession reaches the gate the doors open by a sudden gust of wind that sweeps the ground within and blows down ﬂower blossoms into a knee-high mound. Śakra, lord of the gods, then takes his seat on either of the two stone mounds called Bhadra and Subhadra, as he pleases. The thirty-two gods follow him, taking their seats one after another.
Some gods cannot join the procession to the pleasure grove and are unable to satisfy their ﬁve senses. Why is this so? The merits they had

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individually accrued from their past conduct differ. Again, some gods can see the grove but cannot enter it, and are unable to satisfy their ﬁve senses. Why is this so? The merits they had accrued from their past conduct differ. Again, some gods can see and enter the grove but are unable to satisfy their ﬁve senses. Why is this so? The merits they had accrued from their past conduct differ. Again, some gods are able to see and enter the grove and satisfy their ﬁve senses. Why is this so? The merits they had accrued from their past conduct differ. After enjoying their visit for a day or two, and so on, up to a seventh day, each god then returns to his own palace. When Śakra, lord of the gods, wishes to visit the other pleasure groves of Citraprīti, Saṃsarga, and Mahāsukha, he proceeds in exactly the same way. Why is a pleasure grove called Cuse? It is because one’s body feels coarse and rough (cuse) on entering it. Why is another pleasure grove called Citraprīti? It is because on entering it one’s body spontaneously takes on different colors, depending on the scene, satisfying one’s senses. Why is another pleasure grove called Saṃsarga? On the eighth, fourteenth, and ﬁfteenth days of each month all the palace ladies except female asuras are released to join the gods on their excursion and mingle freely. Because of this, it is called the pleasure-mingling grove. Why is another pleasure grove called Mahāsukha? Because in it one is bound to experience much pleasure and delight; hence it is [called] the grove of great acquired joy. Why is the assembly hall called Sudharma? Because in it one is obliged to contemplate the supreme nature of the Dharma and, through acquiring pure happiness, one calls the hall Sudharma (“Good Dharma”). Why is the tree called Pārijāta? Because a spirit called Manda who lives in this tree enjoys himself by playing musical instruments at all hours, so it is
called “Passing the Day” (Zhoudu).
Śakra, the lord of the gods, is accompanied by ten great gods who guard him closely at all times. Who are the ten? They are (1) [the guardians] Indra, (2) Gopaka, (3) Pilou, (4) Piloupoti, (5) Dhāra, (6) Bala, (7) Jīva,
(8) Lingxidu, (9) Wuluo, and (10) Nantou. Śakra possesses great super- natural powers as lord of the gods, and the aura of his authority is as has been described. These [guardians] are held in the highest regard by the people of Jambudvīpa.

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The ﬂowers that grow in water are water lilies, such as the utpala, padma, kumuda, puṇḍarīka, and sugandha; they are delicate, fragrant, and pristine. The ﬂowers that grow on land belong to the mokṣaka, cam- paka, pātalī, sumanā, vārṣika, and tongnü trees. The ﬂowers that grow in the palaces of the asuras are water lilies such as the utpala, padma, kumuda, and puṇḍarīka, delicate, fragrant, and pristine, and tree ﬂowers such as the shudishajiali, bimbā, mahābimbā, jiajiali, māndāra, and mahā- māndāra. All of these water lilies and tree ﬂowers are greatly appreciated by the four guardian gods of heaven, the thirty-three Trāyastriṃśa gods, the god Yama, the gods of Tuṣita Heaven, the Nirmāṇarati gods, and the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods.
There are ten laws observed by all the gods: (1) the number of possible disappearances is limitless; (2) the number of possible appearances is lim- itless; (3) there is no impediment to disappearance; (4) there is no imped- iment to appearance; (5) there is no ﬂesh and blood, no skin and bones or sinews, in celestial bodies; (6) the impurities of urination or excretion do not occur in celestial bodies; (7) celestial bodies experience no fatigue or exhaustion; (8) there is no procreation in celestial female bodies; (9) celestial eyes do not blink; and (10) celestial bodies can adopt different hues at will, changing to blue if one likes blue, to yellow if one likes yellow, to red if one likes red, and so on. Those are the ten rules observed by heavenly beings. What are the seven skin colors found among human beings? (1) Some have a golden complexion, (2) some have a ﬁery com- plexion, (3) some have a blue complexion, (4) some have a yellow com- plexion, (5) some have a red complexion, (6) some have a black com- plexion, and (7) some have a white complexion. These skin colors are also found among the gods as well as the asuras.
O bhikṣus, compared to the light of the ﬁreﬂy, the light of a candle is superior; compared to candlelight, the light of a torch is superior; compared to torchlight, the light of a bonﬁre is superior; compared to a bonﬁre, the illumination cast by the four guardians’ palaces, castles, necklaces, garments, and physical bodies is superior; compared to the light of that illumination, the light of the thirty-three gods is superior; compared to the light of the thirty-three gods, the light of the god Yama is superior; compared to the

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light of the god Yama, the light of the Tuṣita gods is superior; compared to the light of the Tuṣita gods, the light of the Nirmāṇarati gods is superior; compared to the light of the Nirmāṇarati gods, the light of the Paranirmi- tavaśavartin gods is superior; compared to the light of the Paranirmi- tavaśavartin gods, the light of the Brahmakāyika gods is superior; compared to the light of the Brahmakāyika gods, the light of the Ābhāsvara gods is superior; compared to the light of the Ābhāsvara gods, the light of the Śubhakṛtsna gods is superior; compared to the light of the Śubhakṛtsna gods, the light of the Puṇyaprasava gods is superior; compared to the light of the Puṇyaprasava gods, the light of the Asaṃjñika gods is superior; compared to the light of the Asaṃjñika gods, the light of the Avṛha gods is superior; compared to the light of the Avṛha gods, the light of the Atapa gods is superior; compared to the light of the Atapa gods, the light of the Sudṛśa gods is superior; compared to the light of the Sudṛśa gods, the light of the Sudarśana gods is superior; compared to the light of the Su- darśana gods, the light of the Akaniṣṭha gods is superior; compared to the light of the Akaniṣṭha gods, the light of the Bhūmivaśavartin gods is supe- rior; compared to the light of the Bhūmivaśavartin gods, the light of the Buddha is superior. From the ﬁreﬂy’s light up to the Buddha’s illumination, in comparison with all of these lights, the light of the [Four Noble] Truths of suffering (duḥkha), causal aggregation (samudaya), cessation (nirodha) of causal aggregation, and the path (mārga) of cessation is superior. Because of this, O bhikṣus, those who wish to acquire illumination should seek the light of the [Four Noble] Truths of suffering, causal aggregation, cessation of causal aggregation, and the path of cessation, engaging them- selves in the practice of the path.
The people of Jambudvīpa, [south of Mount Sumeru,] are three and a
half hand-to-elbow lengths tall, and their garments should be seven hand- to-elbow lengths long. The people of Aparagodānīya and of Pūrvavideha, [west and east of Mount Sumeru, respectively,] are the same, three and a half hand-to-elbow lengths tall, with garments that are seven hand-to-elbow lengths long and three and a half hand-to-elbow lengths wide. The people of Uttarakuru, [north of Mount Sumeru,] are seven hand-to-elbow lengths tall, and their garments should be fourteen hand-to-elbow lengths long and seven hand-to-elbow lengths wide, and weigh one ounce (Ch. liang). The

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asuras are one yojana tall, and their garments should be two yojanas long and one yojana wide, weighing six zhu (one-quarter of a liang). The four guardian gods of heaven are half a yojana tall, and their garments should be one yojana long and half a yojana wide, and weigh half a liang. The the Trāyastriṃśa gods are one yojana tall, and their garments should be two yojanas long and half a yojanas wide, weighing six zhu. The god Yama is two yojanas tall, and his garments should be four yojanas long and two yojanas wide, with a weight of three zhu (one-eighth of a liang). The Tuṣita gods are four yojanas tall, and their garments should be eight yojanas long and four yojanas wide, and weigh one and a half zhu. The Nirmāṇarati gods are eight yojanas tall, and their garments should be six- teen yojanas long and eight yojanas wide, weighing half a zhu. All the other gods should arrange their garments accordingly, depending on their [differing] heights.
The people of Jambudvīpa have a life span of one hundred years, but the majority live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The people of Aparagodānīya have a life span of two hundred years, but the majority also live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The people of Pūrvavideha have a life span of three hundred years, but the majority again live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The people of Uttarakuru have a life span of one thousand years and all enjoy fairly equal longevity. Hungry ghosts have a life span of ten thousand years, but the majority live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The nāgas and garuḍas have a life span of an eon, but some may live to less than that. The asuras have a life span of one thousand years in the celestial scale, but the majority live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The four guardian gods of the heavens have a life span of ﬁve hundred years in the celestial scale, but most live to less than that, while the rest live longer. The Trāyastriṃśa gods have a life span of one thousand years in the celestial scale, but again the majority live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The Yama gods have a life span of two thousand years in the celestial scale, but again the majority live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The Tuṣita gods have a life span of four thousand years in the celestial scale, but again the majority live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The Nirmāṇarati

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gods have a life span of eight thousand years in the celestial scale, but again the majority live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The Paranirmitavaśavartin gods have a life span of sixteen thousand years in the celestial scale, but again the majority live to less than that, while a small minority live longer. The Brahmakāyika gods have a life span of one eon, but some may live to less than that. The Ābhāsvara gods have a life span of two eons, but some may live to less than that. The Śubhakṛtsna gods have a life span of three eons, but some may live to less than that. The Bṛhatphala gods have a life span of four eons, but some may live to less than that. The Asaṃjñisattva gods have a life span of ﬁve hundred eons, but some may live to less than that. The Avṛha gods have a life span of one thousand eons, but some may live to less than that. The Atapa gods have a life span of two thousand eons, but some may live to less than that. The Sudṛśa gods have a life span of three thousand eons, but some may live to less than that. The Sudarśana gods have a life span of four thousand eons, but some may live to less than that. The Akaniṣṭha gods have a life span of ﬁve thousand eons, but some may live to less than that. The Ākāśā- nantyāyatana gods have a life span of ten thousand eons, but some may live to less than that. The Vijñānānantyāyatana gods have a life span of twenty-one thousand eons, but some may live to less than that. The Ākiṃ- canyāyatana gods have a life span of forty-two eons, but some may live to less than that. The Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana gods have a life span of eighty-four thousand eons, but some may live to less than that.
The foregoing are the [categories of] sentient beings, their life spans,
their worlds, and their respective psychophysical elements (skandhas) in the transmigrations that remain subject to the impermanence of birth, old age, illness, and death.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
All living beings subsist on four kinds of food. What are the four? They are (1) [regular] food served by hand and with utensils with [proper] hygiene through washing, bathing, and [wearing clean] clothing; (2) food created by contact; (3) food created by recollection; and (4) food created by consciousness. Because sentient beings differ the food on which they subsist also differs. The people of Jambudvīpa eat rice, wheat, noodles,

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ﬁsh, and meat to sustain the health of their bodies and they wash, bathe, and [wear clean] clothing to maintain hygiene and physical comfort. The people of Aparagodānīya and Pūrvavideha also eat rice, wheat, noodles, ﬁsh, and meat to sustain the health of their bodies and they also wash, bathe, and [wear clean] clothing to maintain hygiene and physical comfort. The people of Uttarakuru only eat nonglutinous rice that has been naturally harvested, which has a heavenly ﬂavor. They eat [this kind of rice] to sus- tain the health of their bodies and they also wash, bathe, and [wear clean] clothing for physical comfort. The nāgas and garuḍas eat gigantic turtles, alligators, and ﬁsh to sustain the health of their bodies and they wash, bathe, and [wear clean] clothing for physical comfort. The asuras eat puri- ﬁed food to sustain the health of their bodies and they wash, bathe, and [wear clean] clothing for physical comfort. The four guardian gods of heaven, the Trāyastriṃśa gods, the Yama gods, the Tuṣita gods, the Nir- māṇarati gods, and the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods also eat puriﬁed food to sustain the health of their bodies and they wash, bathe, and [wear clean] clothing to maintain hygiene and physical comfort. Gods other than those already mentioned subsist in a state of concentration, with happiness and delight as their principal food.
Who are the sentient beings that can subsist on the food created by phys- ical contact? [These beings are] those born from eggs. Who are the sentient beings that can subsist on conscious recollection? Some beings can sustain their existence through conscious recollection. Who are the sentient beings that can subsist on thoughts created by consciousness? Beings who suffer in the hells and gods who abide in the formless realm subsist on the nour- ishment of thoughts created by consciousness.
The people of Jambudvīpa make their living by trading in gold, silver, precious stones, cloth, grain, and slaves. The people of Aparagodānīya make their living by bartering cattle, sheep, jewels, and precious stones in the marketplace. The people of Pūrvavideha make their living by bar- tering pearls, cloth, and grain in the marketplace. The people of Uttarakuru do not engage in trade and make their living by themselves. The people of Jambudvīpa follow the custom of using negotiation to marry their daughters to bridegrooms or to receive brides as wives for their sons. The people of Aparagodānīya and of Pūrvavideha follow similar customs,

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sending off their daughters to marry bridegrooms and receiving brides for their sons. The people of Uttarakuru have no marriage customs and do not marry off daughters or receive brides for their sons. Among nāgas, garuḍas, and asuras, males and females also follow the custom of marriage. The same custom is observed among the four guardian gods of heaven, the Trāyastriṃśa gods, and so on, to the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods. There is no such custom, however, among higher gods than those already men- tioned, because there is no gender difference in those of higher divinity. The people of Jambudvīpa, male and female, require sexual union.
Through physical contact they fuse positive and negative elements. The people of Aparagodānīya, of Pūrvavideha, and of Uttarakuru also require physical contact to fuse positive and negative elements. The nāgas and garuḍas are the same, but the asuras can reach the same goal [simply] by being in close physical proximity to one another and using mutual awareness. The four guardian gods and the Trāyastriṃśa gods also follow this method. The Yama gods fuse positive and negative elements just by being near each other. The Tuṣita gods accomplish the same end just by holding each other’s hands. The Nirmāṇarati gods accomplish it by staring at each other, while the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods accomplish it simply by glancing at each other. Gods beyond those already mentioned do not experience sexual desire.
When sentient beings have committed evil through thought, speech, or action they may thus engender the nascent consciousness of a hellish being, even though their own awareness perishes when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Contingent on that consciousness, name and form (nāmarūpa) arise. Contingent on name and form, the six bases of cognition (ṣaḍāyatana) arise. Again, when sentient beings have committed evil through acts of body, speech, or mind they may fall into the course of animal life when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Even though their own awareness has perished, they have engendered the nascent consciousness of an animal. Contingent on that consciousness, name and form arise. Contingent on name and form, the six bases of cognition arise. Again, when sentient beings have committed evil through acts of body, speech, or mind they may fall into the course of a [hungry] ghost (preta) when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Even though their

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own awareness has perished they have engendered the nascent conscious- ness of a [hungry] ghost. Contingent on that consciousness, name and form arise. Contingent on name and form, the six bases of cognition arise. Again, when sentient beings have accomplished good through thought, speech, or action they may be reborn in the course of a human being when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Even though their own aware- ness has perished they have engendered the nascent consciousness of a human being. Contingent on that consciousness, name and form arise. Contingent on name and form, the six bases of cognition arise. Again, when sentient beings have accomplished good through acts of body, speech, or mind they may be reborn in the life course of the four guardian gods when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Even though their own awareness has perished they have engendered the nascent heavenly con- sciousness of a guardian god. Contingent on that consciousness, name and form arise. Contingent on name and form, the six bases of cognition arise.
When entering a heaven one is like a young child of one to two years of age. That child, having been reborn through natural transformation, now abides on the lap of a guardian god. The god may say, “This is my child,” but the child already possesses the wisdom of his past conduct and thinks, “By what good conduct have I been born in this heavenly world?” Again the child thinks, “Once, when I was human and accomplished some good through acts of body, speech, and mind I accrued some merit, which has enabled me to be reborn into this celestial life. If my life should end here and I am reborn again among humans, I must work to purify the nature of my acts (karman) of body, speech, and mind and try still harder to accomplish some good.”
Not long after rebirth the child feels hunger. Immediately a vessel ﬁlled with pure food containing a hundred heavenly tastes appears. If the child’s merit is superior, the meal will consist of white rice; if the child’s merit is average, the meal will consist of blue rice; if his or her merit is little, the meal will consist of red rice. The food is eaten by hand, and once swal- lowed by the child it is immediately digested, like butter thrown into a ﬁre. When the meal is ﬁnished the child feels thirst, and then a vessel ﬁlled with nectar appears. If the child’s merit is superior, the juice will be white; if the child’s merit is average, it will be blue; and if his or her merit

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is little, it will be red. Once the child has drunk [the juice] it is immediately digested, like butter thrown into a ﬁre. Once the child has ﬁnished [the food and juice] he has already grown into an adult god.
He then goes to a bathing pond to enjoy washing and bathing. Emerging from the pond, he approaches a tree ﬁlled with many fragrances. The tree bends down and he takes some of the fragrance in his hand and rubs it onto his body. Then he sees a tree ﬁlled with cotton garments. As it bends down, he takes a garment and puts it on, ﬁtting it to his body. Now he sees a tree ﬁlled with many kinds of ornaments. As it bends down, he takes a few [ornaments] to brighten his dress. Then he sees a tree ﬁlled with garlands. As it bends down, he takes one and places it upon his head. Then he sees a tree ﬁlled with many kinds of vessels. As it bends down, he takes one and carries it to a tree ﬁlled with fruit. As [the tree of fruit] bends down, he picks some to taste and eat later. Then he sees a tree ﬁlled with musical instruments. As it bends down, he chooses one and plucks its strings while singing in a clear, ﬁne voice. Entering a pleasure grove, he encounters numerous heavenly maidens who cheerfully strum their instruments and tap their drums to entertain him with song and laughter. On this sort of excursion the god gives himself over to such entertainments. When he looks east, he forgets west; when looks west, he forgets east. Although he once wondered “By what actions have I been born into this celestial life?” [by now] he has totally forgotten this train of thought while engaged in the pleasures at hand, and is now surrounded by palace ladies and retainers.
Again, when sentient beings have accomplished some good through thought, speech, and action they may be reborn in the life course of the Trāyastriṃśa gods when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Although their own awareness has perished, they have engendered the nascent heavenly consciousness of a Trāyastriṃśa god. Contingent on that consciousness, name and form arise. Contingent on name and form, the six bases of cognition arise. Entering that heaven, one is like a child in the Jambudvīpa world, two to three years of age. That child, having been reborn through natural transformation, now appears on the lap of a Trāyastriṃśa god, who may say “This is my son” or “This is my daughter,” just as before. Or, when sentient beings have accomplished some good

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through thought, speech, and action they may be reborn as a Yama god when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Entering that heaven, one is like a child of this world, three to four years of age. Or, when sentient beings have accomplished some good through thought, speech, and action they may be reborn as a Tuṣita god when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Entering that heaven, one is like a child of this world, four to ﬁve years of age. Or, when sentient beings have accomplished good through thought, speech, and action they may be reborn as a Nirmāṇarati god when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Entering that heaven, one is like a child of this world, ﬁve to six years of age. Or, when sentient beings have accomplished some good through thought, speech, and action they may be reborn as a Paranirmitavaśavartin god when their body dissolves and their life ebbs away. Entering that heaven, one is like a child of this world, six to seven years of age, just as before.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There are three days of religious observance in the ﬁrst half of the month. What are the three? They are the eighth, fourteenth, and ﬁfteenth days of the month. Why should the eighth be a day of religious observance? On the eighth day of each month it is customary for the four guardian gods to instruct their messengers, “May you all travel through the human world to observe people’s conduct, so that we can be informed as to whether they are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, and obedient to their elders in society, and also whether they adhere religiously to the moral precepts and offer charity to those in need of help.”
After receiving their orders the messengers travel through the human world to investigate in detail whether the people are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help. If they dis- cover that some are neither ﬁlial to their parents nor respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, nor are they obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, or generous to those in need of help, they return to report, “O great kings, in the world of humans it is indeed very difﬁcult to ﬁnd any number of those who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts,

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and generous to those in need of help.” On hearing this report the guardian gods reply, “A pity. So is this the real state of affairs? Humans have become so corrupt that they diminish our prospects in this celestial life while advancing those of our adversaries, the asuras.”
If the messengers observe that some in this world are ﬁlial to their par- ents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help, however, they return and report, “O great kings, in the world of humans we have witnessed many who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śra- maṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of moral pre- cepts, and generous to those in need of help.” On hearing this report the guardian gods say, “Splendid, it is a pleasure to hear this! People who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help increase the sense of well-being that we enjoy in this celestial life, while weakening that of the asuras.”
Why should the fourteenth be a day of religious observance? On the fourteenth day of each month it is customary for the four guardian gods to instruct their crown princes, “May you all travel through the human world to observe people’s conduct so that we can be informed as to whether they are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, and obedient to their elders in society, and also whether they adhere religiously to the moral precepts and offer charity to those in need of help.”
After receiving their orders, their crown princes travel through the human world to investigate in detail whether people are ﬁlial to their par- ents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help. If they discover that many are neither ﬁlial to their parents nor respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, nor are they obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, or generous to those in need of help, the crown princes return to report, “O great kings, in the world of humans it is indeed very difﬁcult to ﬁnd any number of those who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help.” On hearing this report the guardian gods reply, “A pity. So is this the real state of

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affairs? Humans have become so corrupt that they will diminish our prospects in this celestial life while advancing those of our adversaries, the asuras.”
If the crown princes observe that some in this world are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help, however, they return to report, “O great kings, in the world of humans we have witnessed many who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śra- maṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help.” On hearing this report the guardian gods say, “Splendid, it is a pleasure to hear this! People who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help increase the sense of well-being that we enjoy in this celestial life, while weakening that of the asuras.” Because of this, the fourteenth day of the month is held as a day of religious observance.
Why should the ﬁfteenth be a day of religious observance? On the ﬁf- teenth day it is customary for the four guardian gods to travel themselves through the human world to observe people’s conduct and to inform Śakra as to whether they are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, and obedient to their elders in society, and also whether they adhere religiously to the moral precepts and provide charity to those in need of help.
If they discover, however, that not many in the human world are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help, the four guardian gods return to Sudharma Hall and report to Śakra, lord of the gods, “O lord, in the world of humans it is indeed very difﬁcult to ﬁnd any number of those who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help.” Hearing this report, the Trāyastriṃśa gods exclaim, “A pity. So is this the real state of affairs? Humans have become so corrupt that they will diminish our prospects in this celestial life, while advancing those of our adversaries, the asuras.”

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If the four guardian gods observe that people in this world are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help, however, they return to Śakra, lord of the gods, to report, “O lord, in the world of humans we have witnessed many who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and generous to those in need of help.” Hearing this report, the Trāyastriṃśa gods exclaim in delight, “Splendid! Humans who are ﬁlial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas and brāh- maṇas, obedient to their elders, observant of the moral precepts, and gen- erous to those in need of help increase the sense of well-being that we enjoy, while weakening that of the asuras.” Because of this, the ﬁfteenth day of the month is held as a day of religious observance.
At that moment, wishing to renew the gods’ delight, Śakra uttered the following verse:
Those who keep the eighth, fourteenth, and ﬁfteenth As days of religious observance
Are to be considered identical to me.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Even though this verse was uttered by Śakra, lord of the gods, it should not be generally accepted, nor is it a good teaching. I consider it to be inappropriate. Why? Indra, lord of the gods, has yet to exhaust desire, hatred, and delusion. He is not yet free from the sorrow and suffering of birth, old age, illness, and death. I assert that he has not separated himself from the source of suffering.
If, however, any of my disciples eliminate the destructive force of his deﬁlements (sāsrava), perfectly terminating them, and accomplish all that must be done to discard burdens, acquire advantage, and exhaust all attach- ment to the forms of existence, thus realizing complete liberation [from the state of suffering], he would then be entitled to utter the same verse:
Those who keep the eighth, fourteenth, and ﬁfteenth As days of religious observance
Are to be considered identical to me.

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The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
When such a disciple utters the verse it should be accepted as a good teaching, and I consider it to be appropriate. Why? Because that disciple has exhausted desire, hatred, and delusion and is free from the sorrow and suffering of birth, old age, illness, and death. I assert that he is liberated from the source of suffering.
The Buddha continued his discourse to the bhikṣus:
The houses and residences where people live are all, without exception, occupied by spirits. [Certainly] there is no house or residence where no spirit abides. Spirits are invariably there in every street and crossroads, in butcher shops as well as cemetery mounds, leaving no places [where there are no spirits] at all. Now, insofar as a spirit dwells in a certain place, its name is derived from that place of attachment. Some spirits obtain their names from the names of individual humans. Others obtain their names from the names of villages, cities, countries, or regions, or moun- tains, rivers, [and so on].
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
All trees, even the smallest [whose trunk is only] the size of an axle, are possessed by guardian spirits. There is no tree whatsoever that is without a residing spirit. Each and every man or woman, from the very beginning, has a guardian spirit who keeps watch [over them] throughout their lifetime. When their death approaches, it is their guardian spirit who takes hold at the end of their life.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
If a heretic should say, “Venerables, if you suppose that every man or woman, from the beginning of life, has a guardian spirit who keeps watch [over them] throughout their lifetime, and when their death approaches it is that guardian spirit who takes hold at the end of their life, I would like to ask: Why does it happen that some people are troubled by their [guardian] spirits, while others are not at all inﬂuenced by them?” If a heretic should say this, you should reply as follows: “Some people commit wrongs. Inﬂuenced by wrong, inverted views, they commit offenses against

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the ten norms [of conduct]. Such people, whether a hundred or a thousand of them altogether, have only a single guardian spirit to look out for all of them. Just as a herd of sheep or cattle, a hundred or a thousand in number, likewise has only one shepherd to guard them—it is like that. Committing wrongs, inﬂuenced by wrong and inverted views, one has only partial pro- tection from a guardian spirit, as one of a hundred or a thousand. On the other hand, if one does good deeds, and if upholding right views and believ- ing in right action he or she complies with the ten norms of conduct, that person will be protected by a hundred or a thousand guardian spirits. Just as the king of a country or his minister is protected by a hundred or a thou- sand guards, those who engage in good behavior and comply with the ten norms of conduct are watched over by a hundred or a thousand guardian spirits. It is because of these different causal conditions that some people are troubled by spirits while others are not at all inﬂuenced by them.”
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The people of Jambudvīpa people exceed [the capabilities of] the people of [Apara]godānīya in three respects. What are the three? First, since they are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to create karmic actions. Second, since they are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to concentrate on the practice of austerity. Third, since they are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to contribute to the appearance of the Buddha in their land. In these three ways, the people of Jambudvīpa are considered superior to the people of [Apara]godānīya. The people of [Apara]godānīya, however, exceed [the capabilities of] the people of Jambudvīpa in three respects. What are the three? First, they possess many more head of cattle. Second, they possess many more sheep. Third, they possess many more precious jewels. In these three ways, the people of [Apara]godānīya are considered superior to the people of Jambudvīpa.
The people of Jambudvīpa also exceed [the capabilities of] the people of Pūrvavideha in three respects. What are the three? First, since they are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to create karmic actions. Second, since they are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to concentrate on the practice of austerity. Third, since they

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are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to contribute to the appearance of the Buddha in their land. In these three ways, the people of Jambudvīpa are considered superior to the people of Pūrvavideha. The people of Pūrvavideha, however, exceed [the capabilities of] the people of Jambudvīpa in three respects. What are the three? First, their land is vast and expansive. Second, their land is magniﬁcent. Third, their soil is exceedingly rich. In these three ways, the people of Pūrvavideha are considered superior to the people of Jambudvīpa.
The people of Jambudvīpa also exceed [the capabilities of] the people of Uttarakuru in three respects. What are the three? First, since they are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to create karmic actions. Second, since they are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to concentrate on the practice of austerity. Third, since they are valiant and endowed with [good] memory, they are able to contribute to the appearance of the Buddha in their land. In these three ways, the people of Jambudvīpa people are considered superior to the people of Uttarakuru. The people of Uttarakuru, however, exceed [the capabilities of] the people of Jambudvīpa in three respects. What are the three? First, they have no family possessions and thus little to which to become attached. Second, they have no personal possessions. Third, they have a life span of precisely one thousand years. In these three ways, the people of Uttarakuru people are considered superior to the people of Jambudvīpa. The people of Jambudvīpa also exceed [the capabilities of] hungry ghosts (pretas) in the same three ways, whereas the hungry ghosts [are superior to] the people of Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First, their life span; second, their physical stature; and third, their tolerance of others’ actions. In these three ways, they are considered superior to the people of Jambudvīpa. The people of Jambudvīpa also exceed [the capa- bilities of] nāgas and garuḍas in the same three ways, whereas the latter [are superior to] the people of Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First, their life span; second, their physical stature; and third, their palaces. In these three ways, they are considered superior to the people of Jambudvīpa. The people of Jambudvīpa also exceed [the capabilities of] the asuras in the same three ways, whereas the asuras [are superior to] the people of Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First,

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they possess grand and lofty palaces; second, they possess [grand] palatial furnishings and embellishments; and third, their hygiene and cleanliness. In these three ways, they are considered superior to the people of Jambud- vīpa. The people of Jambudvīpa also exceed [the capabilities of] the four guardian gods in the same three ways, whereas the four guardian gods [are superior to] the people of Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First, their life span; second, their attractiveness; and third, the variety of pleasures they experience. In these three ways, they are con- sidered superior to the people of Jambudvīpa. The people of Jambudvīpa also exceed [the capabilities of] the gods of the Trāyastriṃśa, Yama, Tuṣita, Nirmāṇarati, and Paranirmitavaśavartin Heavens in the same three ways, whereas those gods [are superior to] the people of Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First, their life span; second, their attractiveness; and third, the variety of pleasures they experience. In these three ways, they are considered superior to the people of Jambudvīpa.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There are twelve kinds of sentient beings in the realm of desire. What are the twelve? They are (1) hell beings, (2) animals, (3) hungry ghosts, (4)
humans, (5) asuras, (6) the guardian gods, (7) the Trāyastriṃśa gods, (8) the Yama gods, (9) the Tuṣita gods, (10) the Nirmāṇarati gods, (11) the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods, and (12) the evil ones (Pāpīyas). There are twenty-two kinds of sentient beings in the realm of form: (1) the Brah- makāyika gods, (2) the Brahmapurohita gods, (3) the Brahmagaṇa gods,
(4) the Mahābrahmā gods, (5) the Ābhāsvara gods, (6) the Parīttābha gods,
(7) the Apramāṇābha gods, (8) Ābhā, (9) the Śubha gods, (10) the Parīt- taśubha gods, (11) the Apramāṇaśubha gods, (12) the Śubhakṛtsna gods
(13) the Anabhraka gods, (14) the Parītta gods, (15) the Apramāṇa gods
(16) the Bṛhatphala gods, (17) the Asaṃjñi gods (18) the Avṛha gods, (19) the Atapa gods, (20) the Sudṛśa gods, (21) the Sudarśana gods, and (22) the Akaniṣṭha gods. There are four kinds of sentient beings in the formless realm: (1) the Ākāśajñā gods, (2) the Vijñānajña gods, (3) the Ākiṃcanajña gods, and (4) the Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyātana gods.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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There are four great divinities. What are the four? They are the gods of (1) earth, (2) water, (3) wind, and (4) ﬁre. The goddess of earth once mistakenly thought, “There is no water, wind, or ﬁre in [my domain of the] earth.” I immediately went to her and said, “Is it true that you think there is no water, wind, or ﬁre in the earth?” The earth goddess replied, “Yes, there is no water, wind, or ﬁre in the earth.” I then said, “You should not think that there is no water, wind, or ﬁre in the earth and ground. Why? Because there is water, there is wind, and there is ﬁre in the earth. It is only because of the great number of elements in the earth and ground that it is identiﬁed with its [own] name.”
The Buddha continued:
I continued to teach the earth goddess, gradually removing her wrong views. She was encouraged, helped, and delighted with the doctrine of charity, the doctrine of morality, and the doctrine of rebirth in heaven, and learned to shun desires as temptations into foul and impure conduct. She began to perceive the deﬁlements of passion (kāmānāṃ kleśa) as the obstacle, and I commended the path of distancing oneself from both pleas- ure and suffering as the necessary and best [means to salvation]. I observed then that her mind had become calm, open, receptive, and ready to be educated. So, in accordance with the rule followed by all buddhas, I expounded on her behalf the [Four] Noble Truths of suffering (ārya- duḥkha-satya), the cause of suffering (ārya-duḥkha-samudaya-satya), the cessation of suffering (ārya-duḥkha-nirodha-satya), and the necessary path of cessation (ārya-duḥkha-nirodha-gāminī-mārga-satya). Then, with pure and genuine faith, like white cloth that can easily be dyed any color, the earth goddess separated herself from all her deﬁlements and acquired indisputable insight (ārya-dharma-cakṣus-viśuddha) into the nature of the Dharma. Realizing the Dharma as she visualized it, she resolved to abide in the right path (niyata-vyavasthita) without any retrogression, and realized the state of fearlessness (vaiśāradya or abhaya). She then said to me, “Now I humbly take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May Your Holiness grant me permission to become a lay devotee. From this moment until the end of life I will refrain from taking life, I will refrain from taking what is not given, I will refrain from immoral sexual

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conduct, I will refrain from speaking falsehoods, and I will refrain from ingesting intoxicants.”
The Buddha continued:
Once, when the water goddess mistakenly thought, “There is no earth, wind, or ﬁre in [my domain of] water,” the earth goddess immediately went to her and said, “Is it true that you think there is no earth, wind, or ﬁre in water?” The [water] goddess replied, “Yes, there is no earth, wind, or ﬁre in water.” The earth goddess then said, “You should not think that there is no earth, wind, or ﬁre in water. Why? Because there is earth, there is wind, and there is ﬁre in water. It is only because of the great number of elements in water that it is identiﬁed with its [own] name.”
The earth goddess then continued to teach the water goddess, gradually removing her wrong views. She was encouraged, helped, and delighted with the doctrine of charity, the doctrine of morality, and the doctrine of rebirth in heaven, and learned to shun desires as temptations into foul and impure conduct. She began to perceive the deﬁlements of passion as the obstacle and to understand the path of distancing oneself from both pleasure and suffering as the necessary and best [means to salvation]. The earth goddess then observed that the mind of the water goddess had become calm, open, receptive, and ready to be educated. Then, in accordance with the rule followed by all buddhas, the earth goddess expounded on her behalf the [Four] Noble Truths of suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the necessary path of cessation. Then with pure and genuine faith, like white cloth that can easily be dyed any color, the water goddess separated herself from all her deﬁlements and acquired indisputable insight into the nature of the Dharma. Realizing the Dharma as she visualized it, she resolved to abide in the right path without any retrogression, and realized the state of fearlessness. The water goddess then said to the earth goddess, “Now I humbly take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May I be permitted to become a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this moment until the end of life I will refrain from taking life, I will refrain from taking that which is not given, I will refrain from immoral sexual conduct, I will refrain from speaking falsehoods, and I will refrain from ingesting intoxicants.”

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The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Once, when the ﬁre goddess mistakenly thought, “There is no earth, water, or wind in [my domain of] ﬁre,” the earth and water goddesses immediately went to her and said, “Is it true that you think there is no earth, water, or wind in ﬁre?” The ﬁre goddess replied, “Yes, there is no earth, water, or wind in ﬁre.” The earth and water goddesses then said, “You should not think that there is no earth, water, or wind in ﬁre. Why? Because there is earth, there is water, and there is wind in ﬁre. It is only because of the great number of elements in ﬁre that it is identiﬁed with its [own] name.” The earth and water goddesses then continued to teach the ﬁre goddess, gradually removing her wrong views. She in turn was encouraged, helped, and delighted with the doctrine of charity, the doctrine of morality, and the doctrine of rebirth in heaven, and learned to shun desires as temptations into foul and impure conduct. She began to perceive the deﬁlements of passion as the obstacle, and to understand the path of distancing oneself from both pleasure and suffering as the necessary and best [means to sal- vation]. The earth and water goddesses then observed that the mind of the ﬁre goddess had become calm, open, and receptive, ready to be edu- cated. Then, in accordance with the rule followed by all buddhas, they expounded on her behalf the [Four] Noble Truths of suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the necessary path of cessation. Then with pure and genuine faith, like white cloth that can easily be dyed any color, the ﬁre goddess separated herself from all her deﬁlements and acquired indisputable insight into the nature of the Dharma. Realizing the Dharma as she visualized it, she resolved to abide in the right path without any retrogression and realized the state of fearlessness. The ﬁre goddess then said to the earth and water goddesses, “Now I humbly take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May I be permitted to become a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this moment until the end of life I will refrain from taking life, I will refrain from taking that which is not given,
I will refrain from immoral sexual conduct, I will refrain from speaking
falsehoods, and I will refrain from ingesting intoxicants.” The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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Once, when the wind goddess mistakenly thought, “There is no earth, water, or ﬁre in [my domain of] wind,” the goddesses of earth, water, and ﬁre immediately went to her and said, “Is it true that you think there is no earth, water, or ﬁre in wind?” The wind goddess replied, “Yes, there is no earth, water, or ﬁre in wind.” The three other goddesses said to the wind goddess, “You should not think that there is no earth, water, or ﬁre in wind. Why? Because there is earth, there is water, and there is ﬁre in wind. It is only because of the great number of elements in wind that it is identiﬁed with its [own] name.”
The goddesses of earth, water, and ﬁre then continued to teach the water goddess, gradually removing her wrong views. She was encouraged, helped, and delighted with the doctrine of charity, the doctrine of morality, and the doctrine of rebirth in heaven, and learned to shun desires as temp- tations into foul and impure conduct. She began to perceive the deﬁlements of passion as the obstacle and to understand the path of distancing oneself from both pleasure and suffering as the necessary and best [means to sal- vation]. The three goddesses then observed that the mind of the wind god- dess had become calm, open, and receptive, ready to be educated. Then, in accordance with the rule followed by all buddhas, they expounded on her behalf the [Four] Noble Truths of suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the necessary path of cessation. Then with pure and genuine faith, like white cloth that can easily be dyed any color, the wind goddess separated herself from all her deﬁlements and acquired indisputable insight into the nature of the Dharma. Realizing the Dharma as she visualized it, she resolved to abide in the right path without any retrogression and realized the state of fearlessness. Then the wind goddess said to the goddesses of earth, water, and ﬁre, “Now I humbly take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. May I be permitted to become a lay devotee in the right Dharma. From this moment until the end of life I will refrain from taking life, I will refrain from taking that which is not given, I will refrain from immoral sexual conduct, I will refrain from speaking falsehoods, and I will refrain from ingesting intoxicants. From this moment I will disturb no one and will treat everyone with benevolence.”
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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There are four kinds of clouds. What are the four? They are (1) white, (2) black, (3) red, and (4) pink. White clouds are permeated by earth elements; black clouds are permeated by water; red clouds are permeated by ﬁre; and pink clouds are permeated by wind. Clouds are found ten, twenty, thirty, forty, or [even] four thousand li [high], except at the beginning and end of an eon (kalpa), when they rise as high as Ābhāsvara Heaven.
There are four kinds of lightning. What are the four? The lightning of the eastern region is called Bodily Light; that of the southern region is called Difﬁcult to Damage; that of the western region is called Flowing Fire; and that of the northern region is called Steady Light. How and why does light- ning occur in the midair clouds? At times, Bodily Light touches Difﬁcult to Damage. At times, Bodily Light touches Flowing Fire. At times, Bodily Light touches Steady Light. At times, Difﬁcult to Damage touches Steady Light. At times, Difﬁcult to Damage touches Flowing Fire. At times, Difﬁcult to Damage touches Bodily Light. At times, Flowing Fire touches Steady Light. Because of these occurrences, lightning arises in the midair clouds. Again, how and why does thunder occur in the midair clouds? At times, the earth element touches the water element in midair. At times, the earth element touches the ﬁre element in midair. At times, the earth element touches the wind element in midair. At times, the water element touches the ﬁre element. At times, the water element touches the wind element. Because of these occurrences, thunder resounds through midair.
The soothsayer of rain considers that there are ﬁve factors affecting rainfall. This means that one cannot predict the arrival of rain with any certainty and will likely remain troubled. What are the ﬁve factors? (1) When thunder and lightning in the clouds lead to a prediction of rain, the clouds are consumed by overwhelming ﬁre and no rain issues. (2) When thunder and lightning in the clouds lead to a prediction of rain, a great storm arises and blows all the clouds away. (3) When thunder and lightning in the clouds lead to a prediction of rain, the asuras gather all the ﬂoating clouds within the conﬁnes of the ocean, leaving the predictor [of rainfall] anxious and troubled. (4) When thunder and lightning in the clouds lead to a prediction of rain, the master of clouds and that of rain, being undis- ciplined, indulge in sexual conduct that does not allow the rain to fall, leaving the predictor [of rainfall] anxious and troubled. (5) When thunder

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and lightning in the clouds lead to a prediction of rain, the heavens do not release the rain because people are undisciplined, unrighteous, wanton, and inﬂuenced by avarice, jealousy, misery, and wrong views. Because of this, the predictor [of rainfall] is left anxious and troubled. These are the ﬁve factors that allow no soothsayer to know or predict the coming of rain with any certainty.

Article 9: Three Disasters

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There are four kinds of events that occur over an immeasurably long period of time, which cannot be measured in days, months, or years. What are they? (1) When disasters [continually] occur, portending the destruction of the world, the intervening period is immeasurably long and cannot be enumerated in days, months, or years. (2) When this world has ﬁnally been destroyed, the intervening period, a vast emptiness in the absence of the world, is immeasurably long and cannot be enumerated in days, months, or years. (3) When heaven and earth ﬁrst appear and begin to be formed, the intervening period is immeasurably long and cannot be enu- merated in days, months, or years. (4) When heaven and earth have taken form, the period of the world’s constant, indestructible presence is immea- surably long and cannot be enumerated in days, months, or years. These four periods are immeasurably long and cannot be enumerated in years.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There are three kinds of disasters in this world. What are they? (1) Disaster by ﬁre, (2) disaster by water, and (3) disaster by wind. With these disasters, know that there are upper limits with respect to the regions affected, namely,
(1) Ābhāsvara Heaven, (2) Śubhakṛtsna Heaven, and (3) Bṛhatphala Heaven. Disasters by ﬁre can reach as far as Ābhāsvara Heaven and no farther. Dis- asters by water can reach as far as Śubhakṛtsna Heaven and no farther. Disasters by wind can reach as far as Bṛhatphala Heaven and no farther. What is a disaster caused by ﬁre? Every person in the world was once fully engaged in practicing the right Dharma, abiding therein without deviation, and they naturally adhered to the ten norms of conduct. One

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person, while adhering to these norms, attained the second meditative state of absorption and [suddenly] ascended in midair to continue on the path of disciples (śrāvakayāna), the path of heaven, and the path of Brahmā. In a distinct voice, he said, “O Venerables, you must know that there is no awareness of an object or of any subjective action, only [overwhelming] joy and bliss as the second state of absorption emerges—joy and bliss are the second state of concentration!” When the others heard him, they looked up and said, “Very well. Very well, sir. Will you expound for our sake the path that leads to this second state of absorption in which no awareness of an object or any subjective action remains?” The practitioner responded to their request, expounding the path that leads to the state of absorption without awareness of either object or subject.
Hearing this exhortation, the people of this world decided to attain the second meditative state of absorption, and when their bodies dissolved and their lives came to an end they were born in Ābhāsvara Heaven. Then all the sentient beings whose transgressions had been fully expiated in the hell realms were reborn in the human world, and they too took up the practice leading to the second meditative state of absorption; when their bodies dissolved and their lives came to an end they were born in Ābhā- svara Heaven. In a similar manner, sentient beings who had been in the animal realm or in the realms of the hungry ghosts, the asuras, the four guardian gods, the Trāyastriṃśa gods, the Yama gods, the Nirmāṇarati gods, the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods, and [the gods of] Brahmā Heaven all came to be reborn in the human world after their lives ended in their respective realms. They too took up the practice leading to the second meditative state of absorption, and upon the dissolution of their bodies and the end of life they were born in Ābhāsvara Heaven.
Because of this causal nexus, when the hell realms ended so did the realms of the [hungry] ghosts, the asuras, and so on, up to Brahmā Heaven. In other words, as the end of the world approached all the residents of the hells had already died, followed by the deaths of all the animals. When all the animals had died, the deaths of all the hungry ghosts followed. When all the ghosts were dead, the deaths of all the asuras followed. When the asuras were all dead, the deaths of the four guardian gods fol- lowed. When the four guardian gods [and their retainers] were all dead,

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the deaths of the Trāyastriṃśa gods followed. When the Trāyastriṃśa gods were all dead, the deaths of the Yama gods followed. When the Yama gods were all dead, the deaths of the Tuṣita gods followed. When the Tuṣita gods were all dead, the deaths of the Nirmāṇarati gods followed. When the Nirmāṇarati gods were all dead, the deaths of the Paranirmi- tavaśavartin gods followed. When the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods were all dead, the deaths of the Brahmā gods followed. When the Brahmā gods were all dead, only then did all the humans die, as there were no sentient beings left. When all the humans had died, no one remained. The world was about to be destroyed, an incipient disaster. Soon there was no rain and each and every [blade of] grass, plant, and tree withered away.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
As a result, you must know that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements (skandhas) that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
After an indeterminate length of time a great black storm blew up, vio- lently agitating the ocean. The entire body of water, to a depth of eighty- four thousand yojanas, was pulled apart and split in two. The sun, entering its palace on the mid-slope of Mount Sumeru, hovered at a height of forty- two thousand yojanas above the ground for two consecutive days. Now, when the sun heats the world by shining continuously for two days, all the water that remains in gutters and drain spouts, small brooks and streams, wherever it may be, bakes and evaporates without exception.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
After some time, another great black storm blew up, violently agitating the ocean. The entire body of water, to a depth of eighty-four thousand

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yojanas, was pulled apart and split in two. The sun, entering its palace on the mid-slope of Mount Sumeru, hovered at a height of forty-two thousand yojanas above the ground for three consecutive days. Now, when the sun heats the world by shining continuously for three days, all the water in large rivers, such as the Gaṅgā (Ganges), Yamunā, Poluo, Aciravatī, Amo- qie, Sindhu, and Gushe, wherever [such rivers] may be, bakes and evap- orates without exception. Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and liberation from it.” After some time, another great black storm blew up, violently agitating the ocean. The entire body of water, to a depth of eighty-four thousand yojanas, was pulled apart and split in two. The sun, entering its palace on the mid-slope of Mount Sumeru, hovered at a height of forty-two thousand yojanas above the ground for four consecutive days. Now, when the sun heats the world by shining continuously for four days, all the spring-fed water that pools in utpala, kumuda, or puṇḍarīka lotus ponds, as well as every other pond measuring ﬁfty yojanas in length and breadth or less, and which collects in lakes such as Sifangyan, the great Anavatapta, and the great Sudarśana, wherever [such ponds and lakes] may be, bakes and evap- orates without exception. Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and liberation from it.” After some time, another great black storm blew up, violently agitating the ocean. The entire body of water, to a depth of eighty-four thousand yojanas, was pulled apart and split in two. The sun, entering its palace on the mid-slope of Mount Sumeru, hovered at a height of forty-two thousand yojanas above the ground for ﬁve consecutive days. Now, when the sun heats the world by shining continuously for ﬁve days, all the water in the great ocean gradually shrinks, receding [from the shore] by as much as seven hundred yojanas. Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on

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which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and liberation from it.” The water in the great ocean continued to shrink and its depth dropped from seven hundred yojanas to six hundred, four hundred, and still further, until it reached a depth of one hundred yojanas. Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical complexes that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world
and liberation from it.”
Then the water in the great ocean water evaporated even further, and its depth went from seven yojanas to six, ﬁve, and on down, until it was only one yojana deep.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical complexes that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
After that, the water in the great ocean continued to evaporate, going from a depth of seven tāla trees, to six, ﬁve, and on down, until it was only as deep [as the height] of a single tāla tree.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
Then the ocean water became rapidly shallower, going from the height of seven human beings to six, ﬁve, four, three, two, one, and then it dropped to the level of a person’s waist, then the knee, and ﬁnally the ankle.

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The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
Finally the ocean became only a wet patch on the ground, as if damp- ened by a spring rainshower. That shrank to a few tiny puddles, like those left by a cow urinating, until all the water evaporated, leaving nothing into which one could even dip a ﬁnger.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical complexes that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
After an indeterminate length of time, another great black storm arose, violently churning up the ocean ﬂoor down to a depth of eighty-four thou- sand yojanas. All of the sandy [ocean ﬂoor] was blown apart and split in two. The sun, entering its palace on the mid-slope of Mount Sumeru, hov- ered at a height of forty-two thousand yojanas above the ground for six consecutive days. Now, when the sun heats the world by continuously shining for six days, the four continents and the eighty thousand mountains and mountain ranges, along with Mount Sumeru, all begin to smolder. Just as when a potter stokes a ﬁre to heat the clay, so does the sun’s heat build up over six days.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and liberation from it.”

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After some time, another great black storm arose, violently churning up the ocean ﬂoor down to a depth of eighty-four thousand yojanas. The sandy sea ﬂoor was all blown apart and split in two. The sun, entering its palace on the mid-slope of Mount Sumeru, hovered at a height of forty- two thousand yojanas for seven consecutive days. Now, when the sun heats the world by shining continuously for seven days, the four continents and the eighty thousand mountains and mountain ranges, along with Mount Sumeru, all catch ﬁre. Just as when a potter heats the kiln [by stoking a ﬁre into] intense ﬂames, so does the sun’s heat build up over seven days.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
The four continents and the eighty thousand mountains and mountain ranges, along with Mount Sumeru, were all consumed in ﬁery ﬂames. In the same way, the celestial palaces of the four guardian gods, the Trāyastriṃśa gods, the Yama gods, the Tuṣita gods, the Nirmāṇarati gods, the Paranirmita- vaśavartin gods, and the Brahmā gods were all consumed by ﬁery ﬂames.”
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must realize that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
With the four continents and everything up to [the world of] the Brahmā gods in ﬂames, the ﬁre was caught by the wind and blown higher toward Ābhāsvara Heaven. Terriﬁed by the sight of the ﬂames, the offspring of the Ābhāsvara gods clamored, “Ah, what is that?” The older gods explained to the young ones, “Don’t be afraid. A ﬁre like that was blown this way once before but it stopped short before reaching us.” It is also because

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they recall having seen the ﬁre approaching that they are called the Ābhā- svarasmṛti gods.
With the four continents and everything up to [the world of] the Brahmā gods in ﬂames, Mount Sumeru steadily shrank as it burned, losing hundreds and thousands of yojanas from its lofty height until it ﬁnally completely collapsed, with nothing remaining.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Because of this, you must understand that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
When the destruction of the earth, the four continents, Mount Sumeru, and everything up to [the world of] the Brahmā gods was ﬁnished, not even a single bit of ash remained. Because of this, you must understand that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical complexes that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
When you see the earth [completely] consumed by ﬁre and all the water dispersed by the wind, you will understand that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing on which one can hold to or rely. The psychophysical complexes that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and liberation from it.”
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
During the disaster by ﬁre, hundreds of varieties of plants, grasses, and trees withered and died because there was no rainfall. Only those who have per- sonally witnessed this and known these events can believe it. All the water, not only on the surface of the earth but also the groundwater, had been exhausted as has been described, as was the layer of wind below the water.

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Only those who have personally witnessed this and known these events can believe it. The foregoing is [an account of] the disaster caused by ﬁre. How is it possible to recover from ﬁre? After some time, a great black cloud appeared in the sky. As it rose to Ābhāsvara Heaven, rain poured down like drops from a spinning wheel for incalculable hundreds of thou- sands of years. The water gradually accumulated, its volume expanding for incalculable hundreds of thousands of yojanas. When it reached Ābhās- vara Heaven the four powers of wind arose to hold up that mass of water. What are the four winds? They are steady wind, supporting wind, immov- able wind, and ﬁrm wind. In time, as the water level gradually diminished by hundreds of thousands of yojanas and retreated further by incalculable hundreds of millions of yojanas [from the previous level], four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew from the four corners of the mass of water, shaking it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering sheets of whitewater. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of celestial palaces richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. Thus the residential
palaces of the Brahmakāyika gods came into being.
[Now] as the water level continued to diminish by incalculable hundreds of millions of yojanas, four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew from the four corners of that mass of water, shaking it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering sheets of whitewater. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of celestial palaces richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. Thus the residential palaces of the Paranirmi- tavaśavartin gods came into being.
[Again,] as the water level continued to diminish by incalculable hun- dreds of thousands of yojanas, four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew from the four corners of that mass of water, shaking it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering sheets of white water. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of celestial palaces richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. Thus the residential palaces of the Nir- māṇarati gods came into being.

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[Again,] as the water level continued to diminish by incalculable hun- dreds of thousands of yojanas, four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew from the four corners of that mass of water, shaking it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering sheets of whitewater. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of celestial palaces richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. Thus the residential palaces of the Tuṣita gods came into being.
[Again,] as the water level continued to diminish by incalculable hun- dreds of thousands of yojanas, four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew from the four corners of that mass of water, shaking it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering sheets of whitewater. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of celestial palaces richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. Thus the residential palaces of the Yama gods came into being.
[Again,] as the water level continued to diminish by incalculable hun- dreds of thousands of yojanas, the sparkling foam on the surface of the water was six hundred eight thousand yojanas deep and the vastness of that body of water was limitless. Just as springwater ﬂows out with bits of foam on its surface, that vast body of water carried [potential] forms and structures on its surface.
How did Mount Sumeru come into being? Sudden gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into piles, creating a mountain six hundred eight thousand yojanas high and eighty-four thousand yojanas long and wide, consisting entirely of the four precious materials of gold, silver, quartz, and lapis.
How did the palaces of the asuras come into being? After the creation of Mount Sumeru, [similar] gusts of wind blew over the great ocean and from out of the sparkling foam around the mountain great palatial structures came into being on all four sides, each extending eighty thousand yojanas long and wide. These structures instantly became palatial buildings richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure.
Again, how did the palaces of the four guardian gods come into being? [Similar] gusts of wind blew the water of the great ocean halfway up the

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side of Mount Sumeru, forty-two thousand yojanas high, and out of that mass of sparkling foam came palaces richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. This is how the palaces of the four guardian gods came into being.
Again, how did the palaces of the Trāyastriṃśa gods come into being? [Similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam over the summit of Mount Sumeru, instantly forming celestial palaces richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure.
Again, how did Mount Khadira come into being? [Similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into a mound not far from Mount Sumeru, and it instantly became a mountain composed of precious materials. That mountain reached down to a depth of forty-two thousand yojanas beneath the ground and was forty-two thousand yojanas long and wide, of limitless vastness, and its variegated colors came from combinations of the seven kinds of treasure. This is how Mount Khadira came into being.
Again, how did Mount Yisha come into being? [Similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into a mound not far from Mount Khadira, and it instantly became a mountain composed of precious materials that was twenty-one thousand yojanas high and twenty-one thousand yojanas long and wide, of limitless vastness, with variegated colors created by combi- nations of the seven kinds of treasure.
From similar causes, a mound of sparkling foam not far from Mount Yisha became Mount Shuchen, twelve thousand yojanas high and twelve thousand yojanas long and wide, of limitless vastness, with variegated colors created by combinations of the seven kinds of treasure. This is how Mount Shuchen came into being.
Then [similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into a mound not far from Mount Shuchen, and it became Mount Abanni, six thousand yojanas high and six thousand yojanas long and wide, of limitless vastness, with variegated colors created by combinations of the seven kinds of treas- ure. This is how Mount Abanni came into being.
Then [similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into a mound not far from Mount Abanni, and it became Mount Milin, three thousand yojanas high and three thousand yojanas long and wide, of limitless vastness, with

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variegated colors created by combinations of the seven kinds of treasure. This is how Mount Milin came into being.
Then [similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into a mound not far from Mount Milin, and it became Mount Binito, twelve hundred yojanas high and twelve hundred yojanas long and wide, of limitless vastness, with variegated colors created by combinations of the seven kinds of treasure. This is how Mount Binito came into being.
Then [similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into a mound not far from Mount Binito, and it became Mount Diaofu, six hundred yojanas high and six hundred yojanas long and wide, of limitless vastness, with variegated colors created by combinations of the seven kinds of treas- ure. This is how Mount Diaofu came into being.
Then [similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into a mound not far from Mount Binito, and it became Mount Jinganglun, three hundred yojanas high and three hundred yojanas long and wide, of limitless vast- ness, with variegated colors created by combinations of the seven kinds of treasure. This is how Mount Jinganglun came into being.
How did the single lunar palace and the seven palaces of the sun appear? [Similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam into piles that instantly became the single palace of the moon and the seven palaces of the sun. Blown by a dark cloud, they returned to their original locations [in the sky]. Thus the palaces of the sun and the moon came into being.
Then [similar] gusts of wind blew on the sparkling foam to instantly create the four continents and the eighty thousand territories under heaven. This how the four continents and eighty thousand territories came into being. Then [similar] gusts of wind blew the sparkling foam to instantly create Mount Dajinganglun, one hundred sixty-eight thousand yojanas in height, length, and width, of limitless vastness, composed of solid diamond that cannot be shattered. This is how the great diamond mountain came into
being.
Now after some time, clouds began to appear and spread in the sky. Rain poured down like drops from a spinning wheel, and the water inun- dated the four continents to a depth equal to the height of Mount Sumeru. Then gusts of wind blew and created deep depressions in the ground,

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which ﬁlled with salty water and became the oceans. This is how the four great oceans came into being.
There are three reasons given for the saltiness of seawater. What are the three? First, clouds spontaneously appeared and ﬁlled the sky as far as Ābhāsvara Heaven, pouring down rain all around. The rain washed over the celestial palaces and thoroughly cleansed everything under the sky, from the palaces of the Brahmakāyika gods, the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods, and the Yama gods to the four continents and the eighty thousand mountains and mountain ranges, including Mount Sumeru. This water collected all the dirty, pungent, and briny scum from the cleansing and washed it downstream to the ocean, forming a single uniform saltiness. This is how seawater became salty. Second, there was once a great sage who cast a spell over the ocean to make its water salty enough for humans to be unable to drink. Because of this, seawater is salty. Third, many crea- tures live in the ocean, some as large as one or two hundred yojanas in size, a few up to seven hundred yojanas, and all of these creatures take in and expel the same water, which contains all the waste material from their bodies. Because of this, seawater is salty. The foregoing is [an account of] the disaster caused by ﬁre.
The Buddha spoke to the bhikṣus:
What is the disaster caused by water? Once every person in the world was fully engaged in practicing the right Dharma, abiding therein without deviation, and they naturally adhered to the ten norms of conduct. One person, while adhering to these norms, attained the third meditative state of absorption and [suddenly] ascended in midair to continue on the path of disciples, the path of heaven, and the path of Brahmā. In a distinct voice, he said, “O venerables, you must know that joy disappears in the third state of concentration, leaving only overwhelming bliss—bliss alone is the third state of concentration!” When the others heard him, they looked up and said, “Very well. Very well, sir. Will you expound for our sake the path that leads to the state of absorption where there is no joy but bliss alone?” The practitioner responded to their request, expounding the path that leads to the third meditative state of absorption that transcends the feeling of joy.

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Hearing this exhortation, all the people of the world decided to attain the third meditative state of absorption, and when their bodies dissolved and their lives came to an end they were born in Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. Then all the sentient beings whose transgressions had been fully expiated in the hell realms were reborn in the human world, and they too took up the practice leading to the third meditative state of absorption, and when their bodies dissolved and their lives came to an end, they were born in Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. In like manner, sentient beings who had been in the animal realm or the realms of the hungry ghosts, the asuras, the four guardian gods, the Trāyastriṃśa gods, the Yama gods, the Nirmāṇarati gods, the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods, and the [gods of the] Brahmā and Ābhāsvara Heavens all came to be born in the human world after their lives came to an end in their respective realms. They too took up the prac- tice leading to the third meditative state of absorption, and upon the dis- solution of their bodies at the end of their lives, they were born in Śubha- kṛtsna Heaven. In this manner, no one remained in the hell realms, or in the animal realm, or in the realms of the hungry ghosts, the asuras, the four guardian gods, and so on up to the world of the Ābhāsvara gods. In other words, as the end of the world approached all the residents of the hells had already died, followed by the deaths of all the animals. When the animals were all dead, the deaths of all the hungry ghosts followed. When the ghosts were all dead, the deaths of all the asuras followed. When the asuras were all dead, the deaths of the four guardian gods followed. When the four guardian gods [and their retainers] were all dead, the deaths of the Trāyastriṃśa gods followed. When the Trāyastriṃśa gods were all dead, the deaths of the Yama gods followed. When the Yama gods were all dead, the deaths of the Tuṣita gods followed. When the Tuṣita gods were all dead, the deaths of the Nirmāṇarati gods followed. When the Nir- māṇarati gods were all dead, the deaths of the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods followed. When the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods were all dead, the deaths of the Brahmā gods followed. When the Brahmā gods were all dead, only then did the deaths of the Ābhāsvara gods occur, followed by the deaths of all the humans. And when the humans were all dead no one remained.
The world was about to be destroyed, an incipient disaster.

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After an indeterminate length of time, a great black cloud loomed in the sky. As it rose to Śubhakṛtsna Heaven hot rain began to fall all around. The steaming water fell on the heavenly worlds and boiled them away, leaving no residue. The palaces of the Ābhāsvara gods were totally destroyed, just as when ghee is thrown into a ﬁre nothing remains. Because of this, you must know that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing that one can hold to or rely on. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and deliverance from it.”
Then the [steaming] rain fell on the palaces of the Brahmakāyika gods and boiled them away, leaving no residue. Next, the rain drenched the palaces of the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods, the Nirmāṇarati gods, the Tuṣita gods, and the Yama gods, one after another, boiling them all away and leaving no residue, like ghee thrown into a ﬁre. Then the deluge fell on the four continents as well as all the mountains and mountain ranges of the eighty thousand territories, together with Mount Sumeru, boiling them away and leaving no residue, like ghee thrown into a ﬁre. Because of this, you must know that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing that one can hold to or rely on. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁle- ments are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and deliverance from it.”
Then the [steaming] water boiled away the earth, leaving no residue. The layer of water beneath the ground was gone and the wind below that water was gone too. Because of this, you must know that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing that one can hold to or rely on. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and deliverance from it.”
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
[You have heard that] the celestial palaces of the Śubhakṛtsna gods were boiled away, leaving no residue. Only those who have witnessed it and known these events themselves can believe it. The celestial palaces of the

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Brahmakāyika gods, too, were boiled away, totally extinguished, and so on, down to the water beneath the ground and the wind below it, all gone, as has been described. Only those who have witnessed it and known these events themselves can believe it. The foregoing is [an account of] the dis- aster caused by water.
How is it possible to recover from water? After some time, a great black cloud appeared in the sky, spreading through space. As it rose to Śubhakṛtsna Heaven, rain poured down like drops from a spinning wheel for uncountable hundreds of millions of years. The water gradually accu- mulated, eventually reaching Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. Now the four powers of wind arose to hold up that mass of water. What are the four winds? They are a steady wind, a supporting wind, an immovable wind, and a ﬁrm wind. In time, as the water level gradually diminished by uncountable hundreds of thousands of yojanas, four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew up from the four corners of the mass of water, agitating it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering sheets of whitewater. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of the palaces of the Ābhāsvara gods, richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. Thus the celestial palaces of the Ābhāsvara gods came into being.
[Now] as the water level continued to diminish by uncountable hundreds of thousands of yojanas, four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew up from the four corners of the mass of water, agitating it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering sheets of whitewater. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of the palaces of the Brahmakāyika gods, richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. In this manner, [the process of creation] proceeded down to the appearance of ocean water with its uniform saltiness, exactly like the recovery after the disaster caused by ﬁre.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
What is the disaster caused by wind? Once every person in the world was fully engaged in practicing the right Dharma, abiding therein without deviation, and they naturally adhered to the ten norms of conduct. One

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person, adhering to these norms, attained the fourth meditative state of absorption, a pure and genuine consolidation of mindfulness, and [sud- denly] ascended in midair to continue on the path of disciples, the path of heaven, and the path of Brahmā. In a distinct voice, he said, “O ven- erables, you must know that the fourth state of absorption is a pure and genuine consolidation of mindfulness.” When the others heard him, they looked up and said, “Very well. Very well, sir. Will you expound for our sake the path that leads to the state of absorption where a pure and genuine mindfulness is consolidated?” The practitioner responded to their request, expounding the path that leads to the fourth meditative state of absorption where a pure and genuine mindfulness is consolidated.
Hearing this exhortation, the people of this world decided to attain the fourth meditative state of absorption, and when their bodies dissolved and their lives came to an end they were born in Bṛhatphala Heaven. Then all the sentient beings whose transgressions had been fully expiated in the hell realms were born again in the human world, and they too took up the practice leading to the fourth meditative state of absorption, and when their bodies dissolved and their lives came to an end they were born in Bṛhatphala Heaven. In a similar manner, sentient beings who had been in the animal realm or in the realms of the hungry ghosts, the asuras, the four guardian gods, and so on, up to the Śubhakṛtsna gods, all vacated their respective worlds and were reborn in the human world.
All the residents of the hells had already died, followed by the deaths of all the animals. When the animals were all dead, the deaths of all the hungry ghosts followed. When the ghosts were all dead, the deaths of all the asuras followed. When the asuras were all dead, the deaths of the four guardian gods followed. When the four guardian gods [and their retainers] were all dead, one after another followed in the same manner, all the way to the deaths of the Śubhakṛtsna gods. When these gods were all dead, the deaths of all the humans followed. And when the humans were all dead no one remained. The world was about to be destroyed, an incipient disaster.
After an indeterminate length of time, a great wind called mahāsāṃkhya gathered, reaching as far as Bṛhatphala Heaven. It stormed in all directions and blew down the palaces of the Śubhakṛtsna and Ābhāsvara gods. Those

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celestial structures were hurled together and blown into bits, just as if a strongman had seized two implements made of copper and smashed them together, producing an explosion. Because of this, you must know that “every- thing impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing that one can hold to or rely on. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and deliverance from it.”
Then the wind assaulted the palaces of the Brahmakāyika and the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods. Those celestial structures too were hurled together and blown into bits, just as if a strongman had seized two imple- ments made of copper and smashed them together, producing an explosion. Because of this, you must know that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence, there is nothing that one can hold to or rely on. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and deliverance from it.”
Next, the wind assaulted the palaces of the Nirmāṇarati, the Tuṣita, and the Yama gods. Those celestial structures were also hurled together and blown into bits, just as if a strongman had seized two implements made of copper and smashed them together, producing an explosion. Because of this, you must know that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing that one can hold to or rely on. The psychophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlements are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of tran- scendence out of this world and deliverance from it.”
After that, the wind ravaged the four continents and the eighty thousand territories, blowing the mountains and maintain ranges, together with Mount Sumeru, one hundred thousand yojanas into space. Those mountains were hurled together and blown into bits, just as if a strongman had picked up rice bran and scattered it in the air. Because of this, you must know that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruction; hence there is nothing that one can hold to or rely on. The psychophysical ele- ments that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁlement are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and deliverance from it.”

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Then the wind blew away the ground and drained the water beneath the ground and depleted the wind below the water. Because of this, you must know that “everything impermanent is bound for decay and destruc- tion; hence there is nothing that one can hold to or rely on. The psy- chophysical elements that perdure through the inﬂuence of one’s deﬁle- ments are to be abhorred. You must seek the path of transcendence out of this world and deliverance from it.”
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
[You have heard that] the celestial palaces of the Śubhakṛtsna and the Ābhāsvara gods were hurled together and blown into bits. Only those who have witnessed it and known these events themselves can believe it. If anyone wishes to believe that the water beneath the ground was drained and the wind below the water depleted, he must himself witness it and know it directly. The foregoing is [an account of] the disaster caused by wind.
How is it possible to recover from wind? After some time, a great black cloud appeared in the sky, spreading through space. As it rose to Bṛhatphala Heaven, rain poured down like drops from a spinning wheel for uncount- able hundreds of millions of years. The water gradually accumulated, eventually reaching Bṛhatphala Heaven. Now the four powers of wind arose to hold up that mass of water. What are the four winds? They are a steady wind, a supporting wind, an immovable wind, and a ﬁrm wind. In time, as the water level gradually diminished by uncountable hundreds of thousands of yojanas, four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew up from the four corners of the mass of water, agitating it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering sheets of whitewater. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of the palaces of the Śubhakṛtsna gods, richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. Thus the celestial palaces of the Śubhakṛtsna gods came into being.
[Now] as the water level continued to diminish by uncountable hundreds of thousands of yojanas, four great gusts of wind, called sāṃkhya, blew up from the four corners of the mass of water, agitating it violently and creating great thunderous waves that cascaded and broke in towering

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sheets of whitewater. The sparkling foam that shot into the air instantly solidiﬁed into the forms and structures of the palaces of the Ābhāsvara gods, richly adorned with the seven kinds of treasure. In this manner, [the process of creation] proceeded down to the appearance of ocean water with its uniform saltiness, exactly like the recovery after the disaster caused by water. The foregoing is [an account of] the disaster caused by wind. Altogether, the three disasters are called the threefold cycle.

Article 10: Celestial Wars

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
In ancient times, the heavenly gods engaged in armed battles with the asuras. Śakra, lord of the gods, assembled the Trāyastriṃśa gods and said, “Let us go to ﬁght the asuras. If we are victorious, make sure to capture Vimalacitra, the asura general, bind him in ﬁve chains and bring him to Sudharma Hall. I want to see him.”
After receiving these commands, the Trāyastriṃśa gods readied their armor. At the same time, the leader of the asuras, Vimalacitra, gave his orders, “Now let us go to ﬁght them. If we are victorious, capture Śakra, bind him in ﬁve chains, and bring him to Saptaparṇa Hall. I want to see him.” After receiving these commands, the asuras readied their armor. Then the gods and the asuras met on the battleﬁeld and fought each other. The gods were victorious and the asuras withdrew.
The leader of the asuras, Vimalacitra, was captured, and the Trāyas- triṃśa gods bound him in chains and brought him to Sudharma Hall, where he was given to Śakra, lord of the gods. As he looked around him, the asura general saw the attractions of a celestial life and reﬂected, “This place is so extraordinary. What would be the point of returning to the asuras’ palace?” As soon as he formulated this thought, the ﬁve chains fell away and images of the pleasures to be gained through the ﬁve senses appeared before him. Whenever his thoughts returned to his palace among the asuras, however, the ﬁve chains reappeared, the objects of his pleasure disappeared at once, and he found himself back in bondage.
In effect, the leader of the asuras was more tightly bound than he would have been by the devil’s own spell. Those who become obsessed with

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themselves are likely bound by the devil. Those who never become caught up in themselves are likely free of the devil’s bondage. To consider sen- sation (vedanā) as proof that one exists is bondage. Being attached to sen- sation is bondage. Believing that the self exists is bondage. Believing that the self does not exist is bondage. Believing that material objects (sarūpa) exist is bondage. Believing that material objects do not exist is bondage. Believing that material objects both exist and do not exist is bondage. Believing that the self forms ideas is bondage. Believing that the self does not form ideas is bondage. Believing that the self forms and does not form ideas is bondage. The self is the main issue, the thorn and the infection. Therefore, wise and saintly disciples (śrāvakas) realize that the self has become the main problem, the thorn and the infection. One must abandon the idea of a self and adhere to practicing non-self in order to see that the habitual discriminations that one makes between oneself and others are caused by a lack of discipline and constitute the greatest burden. Whether one views a contingent phenomenon (i.e., causally produced) as having a reality of its own (self) or no reality, or a material form (sarūpa) of its own or no form, or its own concept or no concept—in all cases, the conviction that a contingent phenomenon exists is the main problem, the thorn and the infection. Because of this, wise and saintly disciples regard the compounding of phenomena as the chief difﬁculty, the thorn and the infection. Hence, forsaking the realm of phenomena, they adopt the transcendent practice.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Once, when the heavenly gods were at war with the asuras, Śakra, lord of the gods, assembled the Trāyastriṃśa gods and said, “Let us go ﬁght the asuras. If we are victorious, make sure to capture Vimalacitra, the asura general, bind him in ﬁve chains, and bring him to Sudharma Hall. I want to see him.” After receiving these commands, the Trāyastriṃśa gods readied their armor. At the same time, the leader of the asuras, Vimalacitra, gave his orders, “Now let us go ﬁght them. If we are victorious, capture Śakra, bind him with ﬁve chains, and bring him to Saptaparṇa Hall. I want to see him.” After receiving these commands, the asuras readied their armor. Then the gods and the asuras met on the battleﬁeld and fought each other. The gods were victorious and the asuras withdrew.

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The leader of the asuras, Vimalacitra, was captured, and the Trāyas- triṃśa gods bound him in chains and brought him to Sudharma Hall, where he was given to Śakra, lord of the gods. When Indra, lord of the gods, appeared and made his way to the central platform in the hall, the asura general shouted at him with many abusive terms. Indra’s attendant looked at his lord and asked:
Lord of the gods, what are you afraid of? Does your hesitation show
Condescension or weakness [to the asura]? How can you listen to the foul words
That the asura general says To your face directly?
Śakra, lord of the gods, immediately composed a verse in reply:
The asura is helpless and powerless, I have no reason to fear him.
How can one who possesses wisdom Argue with anyone so unworthy?
The attendant responded:
If you don’t punish that fool’s stupidity now, You will face more insults later
That will only become harder to abide. You should let him taste your cudgel And then correct his own insolence.
The lord of the gods again composed a verse in reply: As I say, a wise person should never dispute with a fool. While the foolish aim words of abuse,
Still the wise tolerate them in silence And thereby win them over.
Then the attendant said to Śakra, lord of the gods: Your lordship’s silence seems to come from a fear Of besmirching the digniﬁed attitude of the wise, Yet that stupid one assumes it is from weakness. Unable to measure his own strength,

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That fool believes he is your equal.
Already as good as dead, he demands a ﬁght to the death, Hoping you will ﬂinch like a bull withdrawing.
Śakra then composed a verse in reply:
That fool, with no knowledge or insight, Imagines that I am terriﬁed
When I consider the object of highest importance Is expressing the virtue of silent patience.
The worst vice of all is to pile anger upon anger When the best ﬁght is to control oneself, Instead of inﬂaming anger with anger.
There are two grounds for one’s conduct, Either for oneself or for the sake of others. Many who dispute over a suit
Will consider they have won the case When one refrains from responding.
[Again,] there are two grounds for one’s conduct, Either for oneself or for the sake of others.
Those who refrain from dispute
May be regarded as ignorant and foolish, But one who is endowed with real strength Can tolerate those with the least strength.
That strength is the highest and best part of patience. While fools think they are strong,
Their strength is not at all real.
Those who possess the strength of patience, Understanding how it must be expressed, Have strength indeed that no one can counter.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
You must not think that the lord of the gods of that time was someone else. The Śakra of that time was indeed myself. I was engaged in practicing patience then and refrained from intemperate acts. I also was sure to praise those who could hold fast and persevere. If those who are endowed with

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knowledge and insight wish to propagate the path I teach, they must prac- tice the virtue of silent patience and not engage in any form of dispute.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Once, long ago, when the Trāyastriṃśa gods fought with the asuras, Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the king of the asuras, “Why must we always keep our weapons ready for further belligerence and hostility? Why must we argue and ﬁght? Now, let us conduct our arguments on the grounds of ethics and morality and thereby determine who has won and who has lost.” Citra, the leader of the asuras, replied, “Then we will set our weapons aside and stop our disputes. But who will determine which side has won or lost?” The lord of the gods said, “Let us just engage in debate. There are some on your side, as well as those on mine, who are endowed with the wisdom to know who has won and lost.”
The leader of the asuras then said, “Please go ﬁrst and state your posi- tion in verse.” The lord of the gods replied, “You are a former resident of heaven. You should speak ﬁrst.” Then the asura Citra at once composed a verse:
If you don’t punish the fool’s stupidity now, You will face more insults later
That will only become harder to abide. You should let him taste your cudgel And then correct his own insolence.
When Citra ﬁnished his verse, the asuras in attendance were greatly delighted and loudly proclaimed that the statement was good. The gods in attendance all remained silent. Then the asura leader said to Śakra, “Please compose your verse now.” At once, the lord of the gods gave his verse for the sake of the asuras:
As I say, a wise person should never dispute with a fool. While the foolish aim words of abuse,
Still the wise tolerate them in silence. And thereby win them over.

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When Śakra ﬁnished his verse, all the Trāyastriṃśa gods were delighted and proclaimed in loud voices that the statement was good. The asuras, however, remained silent. Then the lord of the gods said to Citra, “Please compose your next verse.” The asura leader composed the following verse:
Your lordship’s silence seems to come from a fear Of besmirching the digniﬁed attitude of the wise. Yet that stupid one assumes that it is from weakness. Unable to measure his own strength,
That fool believes he is your equal.
Already as good as dead, he demands a ﬁght to the death, Hoping you will ﬂinch like a bull withdrawing.
When Citra ﬁnished his verse, the asuras leapt and danced in delight, proclaiming that the statement was excellent. The Trāyastriṃśa gods all remained silent. The asura leader then said to Śakra, “Please compose your next verse.” The lord of the gods uttered this verse:
That fool, with no knowledge or insight, Imagines that I am terriﬁed
When I consider the object of highest importance Is expressing the virtue of silent patience.
The worst vice of all is to pile anger upon anger When the best ﬁght is to control oneself, Instead of inﬂaming anger with anger.
There are two grounds for one’s conduct, Either for oneself or for the sake of others. Many who dispute over a suit
Will consider they have won the case When one refrains from responding.
[Again,] there are two grounds for one’s conduct, Either for oneself or for the sake of others.
Those who refrain from dispute
May be regarded as ignorant and foolish, But one who is endowed with real strength Can tolerate those with the least strength.

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That strength is the highest and best part of patience. While fools think they are strong,
Their strength is not at all real,
Those who possess the strength of patience, Understanding how it must be expressed, Have strength indeed that no one can counter.
When Śakra ﬁnished his verse, the Trāyastriṃśa gods all leapt and danced in delight, loudly proclaiming that it was good. The asuras who were present remained silent. The two groups, gods and asuras, withdrew after a while and conversed among themselves, “The verses of the asura leader constitute an offense because they harp on ﬁghting and arguing, reinforce feelings of injury and resentment, and stir up an appetite for revenge by any means; thus they further embed the root cause of existence in the three spheres. On the other hand, the verses of the lord of the gods do not convey anything offensive. His teaching does not harp on ﬁghting and arguing, or reinforce feelings of injury and resentment, or stir up an appetite for revenge by any means; thus they tend to terminate the root cause of existence in the three spheres. The teaching of the lord of the gods can therefore be deemed good, whereas that of the asura leader must be deemed deﬁcient.” This is how the Trāyastriṃśa gods were victorious and the asuras defeated.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
You must not think that the lord of the gods of that time was someone else. The Śakra of that time was indeed myself. It was at that time that I won over the band of asuras through gentle words.
The Buddha continued:
Once long ago, when the Trāyastriṃśa gods fought with the asuras, things turned such that the asuras were victorious and the gods defeated. Śakra, lord of the gods, ﬂed in haste, riding a chariot endowed with thousand- spoked wheels. During his escape he saw a bird’s nest on top of an anpoluo tree with two chicks in it. At once, he said to his charioteer:

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I see two chicks on that tree,
Turn around to avoid colliding with it. I might have to pay the consequences, But we must not injure those birds.
Upon hearing his command, the charioteer stopped at once. The chariot was now exposed to the oncoming asuras. Seeing the chariot stop, the asuras said to each other, “It is Śakra who is in the chariot with the thou- sand-spoked wheels. He has turned around to face us. He must want to ﬁght. Don’t attack him.” The asuras withdrew. On that day, the Trāyas- triṃśa gods were victorious when the asuras withdrew.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
You must not think that the lord of the gods of that time was someone else. The Śakra of that time was indeed myself. I was then extending com- passion to as many sentient beings as I could. O bhikṣus, since you have all renounced domestic life and begun practicing the truths of my religion, you must elevate your sense of compassion and extend it to everyone.
The Buddha continued:
Once long ago, when the Trāyastriṃśa gods fought with the asuras, the gods were victorious when the asuras withdrew. Śakra, lord of the gods, returned to his palace from the campaign and built an additional pavilion that extended one hundred yojanas from east to west in length and sixty yojanas wide from north to south. He named it Paramārtha. The pavilion contained one hundred halls, and in each hall were seven raised platforms for seven maidens, each with her own attendant. Śakra, lord of the gods, did not worry about the cost. The maidens were amply provided with gar- ments, food and drink, and jewels. The cost of the hall, along with that of its construction, was borne through the merit earned by his triumphant campaign against the asuras, and as the pavilion was built after a joyous victory, it was also given the name Pavilion of the Supreme Victor. No building could equal it in grandeur in all the thousand worlds, so it was called the Paramount Pavilion.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:

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Once long ago, the king of the asuras was seized by jealousy: “I wield the power of command and my supernormal powers are not few in number. Yet the sun and the moon and the Trāyastriṃśa gods always abide above me, freely moving over my head. How can I conquer the sun and moon and make them my earrings, revolving as I wish?” His anger was intense. He thought of the asura general Chuida, and at once the latter became aware, “Rāhu is calling me. We must ready our armor.” He ordered his attendants to gather their weapons and rode out in his chariot accompanied before and after by the asura legions. When he reached the king of the
asuras, he took his place to one side.
Again, the king of the asuras thought of the asura general Shemoli, and at once the latter became aware, “Rāhu is calling me. We must ready our armor.” He ordered his attendants to gather their weapons and rode out in his chariot accompanied before and after by the asura legions. When he reached the king of the asuras, he took his place to one side. Again, the king of the asuras thought of the asura general Vimalacitra, and at once the latter became aware, “Rāhu is calling me. We must ready our armor.” He ordered his attendants to gather their weapons and rode out in his chariot accompanied before and after by the asura legions. When he reached the king of the asuras, he took his place to one side. Again, the king of the asuras thought of his minister Asurin, and at once the latter became aware, “Rāhu is calling me. We must ready our armor.” He too ordered his attendants to gather their weapons and rode out in his chariot accompanied before and after by the asura legions. When he reached the king of the asuras, he took his place to one side.
Again, the king of the asuras thought of the minor asura leaders, and at once the latter became aware, “Rāhu is calling me. We must ready our armor.” They immediately gathered their weapons and led their legions to the king of the asuras, where they took their places to one side. Then Rāhu, king of the asuras, prepared his weapons, donned his armor, and rode out in his chariot to lead the hundreds of thousands of asura legions to battle. By this time, the nāga kings Nanda and Upananda had encircled Mount Sumeru with their bodies seven times for defense, shaking the hills and valleys, unleashing rain from an increasingly overcast sky, and slapping the ocean surface with their tails to send the water high

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over the top of Mount Sumeru. The Trāyastriṃśa gods thought, “The clouds are growing, rain is falling, the ocean is stirring, and the waves are reaching us here. This can only mean that the asuras are coming.” Now the asuras met a host of nāgas from the ocean, innumerable myr- iads in heavy armor and carrying pikes, bows and arrows, spears and lances, and daggers and swords. When the battle commenced the nāga soldiers pursued the enemy as far as the grounds of the asura palace when they had the advantage, but when they were obliged to withdraw they did not return to their own palace but proceeded at once to report to the garuḍas: “The asuras are on their way to ﬁght the gods. When we tried to block them, they continued to push through. Now you must sharpen
your weapons and get ready to ﬁght with us against the asuras.”
Hearing this report, the garuḍas gathered their weapons, donned heavy armor, and joined the nāgas to battle against the asuras. When they had the advantage they pursued the asuras as far as the grounds of the enemy palace, but when they were obliged to withdraw they did not return to their own palace but proceeded at once to report to the Chihua demigods: “The asuras are on their way to ﬁght the gods. When we tried to block them, they continued to push through. Now you must sharpen your weapons and get ready to ﬁght with us against the asuras.”
Hearing this report, the Chihua demigods gathered their weapons, donned heavy armor, and joined the garuḍas and nāgas to battle against the asuras. When they had the advantage they pursued the asuras as far as the grounds of the enemy palace, but when they were obliged to with- draw they did not return to their own palace but proceeded at once to report to the Changle demigods, “The asuras are on their way to ﬁght the gods. Although we tried to block them, they continued to push through. Now you must sharpen your weapons and ﬁght with us against the asuras.” Hearing this report, the Changle demigods gathered their weapons, donned heavy armor, and joined the Chihua [demigods], garuḍas, and nāgas to battle against the asuras. When they had the advantage they pur- sued the asuras as far as the grounds of the enemy palace, but when they were obliged to withdraw they did not return to their own palace but pro- ceeded at once to report to the four guardian gods: “The asuras are on their way to ﬁght the gods. Although we tried to block them, they continued

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to push through. Now you must sharpen your weapons and get ready to ﬁght with us against the asuras.”
Hearing this report, the four guardian gods gathered their weapons, donned heavy armor, and joined the innumerable hosts battling the asuras. When they had the advantage they pursued the asuras as far as the grounds of the enemy palace, but when they were obliged to withdraw they did not return to their own palace but proceeded at once to Sudharma Hall to report to Śakra and the Trāyastriṃśa gods, “The asuras are on their way to ﬁght you. Although we tried to block their way, they have had the advan- tage. Now, sirs, you must gather your weapons and join us in ﬁghting the asuras.”
Now the lord of the gods called one of his attendants and told him, “Carry this message to the gods of the Yama, Tuṣita, Nirmāṇarati, and Paranirmitavaśavartin Heavens. Tell them, ‘The asuras, with innumerable legions, have come to ﬁght. The gods of all the heavens must now gather their weapons and join us in ﬁghting the asuras.’”
The attendant conveyed the message from Śakra to the Yama gods and so on, as far as the gods of Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven. Hearing the message, the Yama gods gathered their weapons, donned heavy armor, and rode out in their chariots, accompanied by innumerable myriads of hosts, to establish their camp on the east side of Mount Sumeru. The Tuṣita gods gathered their weapons, donned heavy armor, and rode out in their chariots, accompanied by innumerable myriads of hosts, to establish camp on the south side of Mount Sumeru. The Nirmāṇarati gods, meanwhile, assembled their armies and established camp on the west side of Mount Sumeru, while the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods assembled their armies and established camp on the north side of Mount Sumeru.
Then Śakra, lord of the gods, thought of the Trāyastriṃśa gods, and at once the latter became aware, “Śakra is calling us. We must prepare our- selves as quickly as possible.” Accordingly, they ordered their armies to ready their weapons and rode in their chariots, accompanied before and after by innumerable myriads of gods, to the palace of the lord of the gods and took their places to one side. Śakra then thought of the remaining gods of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, and at once the latter became aware, “Lord Śakra is calling us. We must prepare ourselves as quickly as possible.”

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They ordered their armies to ready their weapons and rode in their chariots, accompanied before and after by innumerable myriads of gods, to the palace of the lord of the gods and took their places to one side.
Then the lord of the gods thought of Viśvakarman and at once the latter became aware, “The lord of the gods is calling me. I must present myself before him.” Immediately he stood before Śakra.
Finally, the lord of the gods gathered his weapons and put on his armor. He rode on the head of Viśvakarman, accompanied before and after by innumerable gods, demigods, and spirits, out from his celestial palace to do battle with the asuras. His armies were armored and well equipped with axes and hatchets, pikes and swords, bows and arrows, halberds and long- handled halberds, lassos, and other weapons, all embellished with the seven kinds of treasure. They attacked the asuras ﬁercely, but the sharp points and edges of their weapons only touched [the asuras’] bodies without injur- ing them. The asura armies also wielded axes and hatchets, pikes and swords, bows and arrows, halberds and long-handled halberds, throw nets and other weapons, and they attacked the gods ﬁercely without injuring them. The heavenly gods and the asuras battled out of desire, and their actions were expressed in this manner because of the cause of their desire.

Article 11: Three Medium-length Eons

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
There are three medium-length eons. What are they? The ﬁrst is the eon of warfare. The second is the eon of famine. The third is the eon of pestilence. What is the eon of warfare? People of these times originally have a life span of forty thousand years. This later decreases to twenty thousand years, and again to ten thousand years. It further becomes one thousand years, then ﬁve hundred years, three hundred, then two hundred. Now people live to be around one hundred years of age. After this, human life spans will further decrease, down to ten years. Young women will be
betrothed ﬁve months after being born.
All the delicacies of the age, such as ghee, honey, sugar, sorghum, and so forth, will naturally disappear. The ﬁve grains will not grow; instead

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all there will be is tares. In these times such luxurious fabrics as brocade, ﬁne silk, cotton, and linen will all become unavailable. All there will be is rough textiles and straw clothes.
In these times the earth will produce nothing but thorns, horseﬂies, hornets, vipers, and venomous insects. Gold, silver, beryl, the seven precious metals, gems, and jewels will naturally be buried underground. The only thing there will be is rocks and sand; the world will be teeming with ﬁlth. In these times sentient beings will do nothing but exacerbate the ten kinds of unwholesome behavior. No one will ever even hear mention of the ten kinds of wholesome behavior. There won’t even be mention of the word “wholesome”; how could there be such a thing as wholesome behavior? During these times people do not respect their parents, nor do they respect their teachers. Those who do evil are allowed to make offerings. Their respect [for unwholesome behavior] is like the way present-day people love and obey their parents and respect their teachers, and those who do good are the ones who are able to make offerings. The respect of the people [of this eon] is such that those who do evil are able to make offerings. When the people of these times die they fall into rebirth as ani- mals, the same way that present-day people are able to be reborn in a heaven. When they see each other the people of these times harbor ven- omous thoughts, thinking only of killing each other. They are just like a hunter who on seeing a herd of deer thinks only of killing them, without one wholesome thought. These people are like this. Desiring only to kill
each other, they give rise to not a single wholesome thought.
During these times the earth is covered with ravines, valleys, mountains, and hills—there is no level ground. In these times, people cower in fear and their hair stands on end when others approach them. In these times, people are menaced by swords seven days a week. They grasp hold of plants and trees, tiles and stones, trying to fashion anything into a sword. The swords are so sharp that they cut anything they brush up against, and so people continuously injure each other. Living among them the wise see this continual warfare and run away in fear, hiding in the mountains among steep precipices where there are no other people. Hiding themselves away for seven days, they spontaneously say, “I do not harm others, so

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others should not harm me.” During those seven days they survive on grasses and roots. After seven days, they return from the mountains. Then a person happens to see someone else. Elated, he says, “I see a living person! I see a living person!” Just like parents who have been long separated from their only child, they jump with joy, unable to control them- selves. The person [who has just emerged from the mountain hideout] is the same way—jumping for joy, unable to control himself. During these times the people cry with each other seven days of the week, and then for another seven days they amuse each other with games, joyfully congratulating each other. When these people die they all fall into the hells. Why? Because they have always harbored anger and have inﬂicted harm upon each other.
They lack compassion and kindness. This is the eon of warfare. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
What is the eon of famine? During these times people move around law- lessly. Under the inﬂuence of wrong views and cognitive distortions they carry out the ten kinds of unwholesome behavior. Because of this unwhole- some behavior, the heavens offer no rain and all the plants wither and die. The ﬁve grains do not mature, remaining as mere stalks. What is famine? In these times, just to survive, people scrape the ﬁelds, roads, and highways for garbage and chaff. This is famine. Furthermore, in times of famine people survive by collecting skeletons in the roads, the markets, the slaughterhouses, and burial grounds; they boil them down and drink the broth. This is called famine of starvation.
Furthermore, during an eon of famine the ﬁve cultvated grains become extinct, changing into ordinary plants. During these times people gather the blossoms [of these ordinary plants], boil them down, and drink the broth. Furthermore, in times of famine, when the blossoms of plants drop off they become buried under the ground. People survive in these times by digging up the ground to get these blossoms and boiling them down for consumption. This is called the “famine of [surviving on nothing but] plants.” During these times, when people die they fall into rebirth as hungry ghosts. Why? Because people who live during the eon of famine continually harbor avarice, having no inclinations toward generosity. They

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do not care to share, nor do they think about the trouble they cause for others. This is the eon of famine.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
What is the eon of pestilence? During these times people cultivate the right Dharma and right views, not mistaken views. While the people are fully carrying out the ten kinds of wholesome behavior, spirits come from other realms. These spirits are unruly and debauched, and they are unable to protect people. These spirits from other realms harass the people of this world. They beat them and ﬂog them, sapping their vitality, causing them to be confused, harassing them and chasing them. It is as if a king had directed his generals to allow brigands from other regions to invade and harass those they are supposed to protect, and the unruly brigands menace towns throughout the country. The spirits from these other realms come and snatch the people of this world, beat them and ﬂog them, sap their vitality, and harass and chase them.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Even if the spirits of this world are not unruly and debauched, mighty spirits will come from other realms and the spirits of this world will be scared and ﬂee. These powerful spirits will harass the people. They will beat them and ﬂog them, sap their vitality, slaughter them, and drive them away.
It is as if a king had banished the generals charged with protecting his citizens. The generals, being pure and honest, are not at all self-indulgent. In another land, however, there are ferocious generals who lead their huge armies to attack the towns and cities, plundering with impunity. Even if the spirits in this world do not dare to be self-indulgent, mighty spirits will come from other realms and the spirits of this realm will ﬂee in fright. Those mighty spirits will harass the people, beat them and ﬂog them, sap their vitality, slaughter them, and drive them away.
People who live during an eon of pestilence are reborn into a heavenly realm when they die. Why? Because people who live during these times have compassion for each other. They continually ask each other, “Are you sick? Are you well? Are you alright? Are you troubled?” Because of

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this, one is able to be reborn into the heavens. Hence it is called the eon of pestilence.
These are the three medium-length eons.

Article 12: The Original Conditions of the World

The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
At the beginning, when this eon began to evolve after the destruction of the previous eon by ﬁre, the remaining sentient beings, having exhausted their predispositional forces, merits, and life spans, died in Ābhāsvara Heaven (i.e., the highest attainable heaven in the second meditative state of absorption) and were reborn in the vast empty space of Brahmā Heaven. They became fond of that abode and wished to be born there again together with other sentient beings. In this way, the [ﬁrst generation] of sentient beings there had already become attached to that abode. As other sentient beings ended their life in Ābhāsvara Heaven and were reborn in the vast empty space of Brahmā Heaven, those who were already there thought to themselves, “I am Brahmā, the great Brahmā. By nature I exist, and there is no one who can create me. I am omniscient and control a thousand worlds in which I am the absolutely free presider, for I have the miraculous power of changing forms and bringing them into being. I am the father and mother of all sentient beings.”
Those who came after the ﬁrst generation thought to themselves, “Our predecessor, the ﬁrst Brahmā, is the king of the Brahmā gods, the great king Brahmā. He has created himself and no one else could create him. He is omniscient and controls a thousand worlds where he is the absolutely free and most honorable presider, receiving no orders from anyone, for he has the miraculous power of changing forms and bringing them into being. He is the father and mother of all sentient beings and we were cre- ated by him.” The countenance of the king of the Brahmā gods always resembled that of a youth, so he has been called a youth. When this world was evolving, many sentient beings who had been born in it were reborn in Ābhāsvara Heaven. Once there, they ﬂew in the air using supernormal power, their bodies were luminous, and they naturally subsisted on joy.

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They enjoyed a life of happiness and ease, free from all obstructions, and their life span was eternal.
Then this world was engulfed in a great ﬂood and totally inundated. Total darkness in heaven and earth prevailed; neither the sun, moon, or stars shone, and there were no days or nights, no months or years, only total darkness. Later, when the water had changed into solid ground, the heavenly beings who had exhausted their predispositional forces, merits, and life spans died in Ābhāsvara Heaven and were reborn in this new world. Yet they still ﬂew in the air with a supernormal power, their bodies remained luminous, and they continued to subsist on joy and to exist in this new world for some time. Though there were distinctions between male and female, noble and ignoble, and those of higher and lower rank, they had no names to distinguish themselves, and since they were born along with other beings they simply called themselves sentient beings. At that time, out of the compassion of nature, an edible form of clay began to well up and congeal on the ground, like cream turning into butter. The outﬂow of the edible clay with the texture of raw cheese and a honey- like taste was exactly like that. The second-born sentient beings used their ﬁngers to taste it and once they came to know its taste, they were addicted to its sweetness. The habit spread from one to another with no letup in sight, and soon they were openhandedly partaking of it, scooping it up in big lumps. Other sentient beings observed their behavior and they too began to imitate it; soon their indulgence also turned into addiction. [Before long] the food they were consuming caused their bodies to turn coarse and their luminosity became intermittent. No longer could they ﬂy through the air. There was still no sun or moon, but now the light the sentient beings had brought with them was lost and heaven and earth were as dark as they had been previously. It was no different from how it had been after the ﬂood. After an indeterminate length of time, a great storm blew in, ripping the great ocean apart to a depth of eighty-four thousand yojanas and cre- ating a palace for the sun on the mid-slope of Mount Sumeru. Now the passage of the sun, arising in the east and setting in the west, rotating over heaven and earth, was set. On the second day, when the sun rose in the east and set in the west, some of the sentient beings said, “This is yester- day.” Others said, “No, this is not yesterday.” On the third day, after going

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around Mount Sumeru, the sun arose in the east and set in the west. The sentient beings then said, “Deﬁnitely, this has been one whole day.” Thus the length of a day is marked by the reappearance of the previous [sun]light. Because of this, it is called “day.”
We think of the sun in two ways: (1) as abiding and perpetually travers- ing, and (2) as the palace [where it abides]. From the palace, all four direc- tions are observable to the farthest distance; hence the palace has a circular shape. The sun is composed, in part, of heavenly gold in which warmth and coldness are mixed, and in part, of glass: (1) the gold is genuine, without admixture, transparent both within and without, and shines its light on the farthest objects; (2) the glass is also genuine, without admixture, transparent within and without, and shines its light on the farthest objects.
The palace of the sun is ﬁfty yojanas long and wide. The palace walls, like the thin surface of the ground beneath, resemble the surrounding [seven] lines of trees. The walls are sevenfold and concentric, embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets from which seven bells are suspended, and seven lines of trees, all adorned with seven kinds of treas- ure. The golden wall is endowed with silver gates, the silver wall with golden gates, the quartz wall with lapis gates, the lapis wall with quartz gates, the ruby wall with agate gates, the agate wall with gates made of rubies, and the emerald wall with gates adorned with a variety of precious stones. The railings are decorated in a similar way: the golden railing is decorated with silver ropes, the silver railing with golden ropes, the quartz railing with lapis ropes, the lapis railing with quartz ropes, the ruby railing with agate ropes, the agate railing with ropes made of rubies, and the emerald railing with a variety of precious stones. Over these railings are draped ornamental nets, on which various treasures are attached. From the golden net hangs a silver bell; from the silver net hangs a golden bell; from the lapis net hangs a quartz bell; from the quartz net hangs a lapis bell; from the ruby net hangs an agate bell; from the agate net hangs a bell made of rubies; and from the emerald net hangs a bell inlaid with various precious stones. The golden trees have silver ﬂowers and fruit. The silver trees have golden ﬂowers and fruit. The quartz trees have lapis ﬂowers and leaves, and the lapis tree has quartz ﬂowers and leaves. The ruby tree has agate ﬂowers and leaves, and the agate tree has ﬂowers and

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leaves made of rubies. The emerald tree has ﬂowers and leaves made of various precious stones. Each of the seven walls has four gates, one on each side, and each gateway stands seven stories high and is protected by railings. On top of each wall is a pavilion with a veranda, and each wall encloses a bathing pond and pleasure garden ﬁlled with ﬂowers made of precious materials. The walls are surrounded by fruit trees with ﬂowers and leaves shining in variegated hues, exquisite fragrances waft in all directions, and innumerable rare birds sing harmoniously together. The palace of the sun is upheld by ﬁve kinds of wind: (1) a wind that maintains, (2) a wind that nurtures, (3) a wind that receives, (4) a wind that changes, and (5) a wind that adjusts. The main pavilion, where the sun god dwells, is composed of genuine gold. It is ﬁfteen yojanas high and endowed with four gates, one on each side, protected by railings. The throne of the sun god, half a yojana long and wide, is made from the seven kinds of treas- ure. The seat is pure and as soft to the touch as a heavenly garment. From it the sun god shines his light to illumine the golden pavilion. The light reﬂecting from this pavilion illumines the entire palace of the sun, and the light reﬂecting from this palace illumines the four heavens and earths of this world. The life span of the sun god is ﬁve hundred years in the celestial scale, and there is no gap in the succession of generations. The palace cannot
be destroyed by any event, except at the end of each eon.
When the palace of the sun traverses the sky, the sun god makes no effort to accomplish its movement. “Ever progressing on this steady pas- sage,” he says, “I enjoy it as an expression of the ﬁve kinds of desire.” As the palace of the sun continues on its journey, innumerable hundreds of thousands of great heavenly spirits participate in the procession before it. There is no end to pleasure, and the sun relishes its swiftness and urgency. Because of this, the sun god is called Swift and Urgent. From his body one thousand lights emanate, ﬁve hundred of which illuminate the world below while the other ﬁve hundred shine around him in every direction. Being in possession of an array of one thousand lights is his reward for merit accumulated in past lives. Because of this, the sun god is also called Thousand Lights.
What kind of merit accumulates in one’s past? One example is the charity people provide by serving food to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas or

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by rescuing people from destitution with food and drink, articles of cloth- ing, perhaps some medicine or transportation on a vehicle, horse, or ele- phant, or offering a room to stay in, perhaps in a hotel, or a lamp to see or even mere candlelight. In providing charity, one gives things to others in accordance with their needs, and one should not do it hastily but strive to give what is needed without offending the person, serving in this way as a representative of the saintly disciples who adhere to moral discipline (śīla). Thus, because of innumerable causes and conditions related to experiences of delight in the Dharma and illumination by the light of wis- dom, one’s mind gradually becomes imbued with a feeling of joy and a spirit of goodness. It is like the kṣatriya king whose head is anointed with water when he ascends the throne for the ﬁrst time, ﬁlling his mind with supreme joy and a spirit of goodwill. Upon his death, based on these causes and conditions, he is reborn as the sun god and accedes to the palace of the sun, endowed with an array of one thousand lights. Thus the proverb says, “Good karma results in the acquisition of a thousand lights.” Why is the sun regarded as the lights of past karma? Suppose that people adhere to the precepts, such as refraining from taking life, refraining from taking that which is not given, refraining from sexual misconduct, refraining from prevarication, refraining from abusive speech, refraining from speaking falsehoods, refraining from ﬂattery, refraining from avarice, refraining from anger, and refraining from holding wrong views. Based on their causes and conditions, they may acquire a mind of joy and goodness. It is like a great bathing pond at the crossroads of a highway: since it is pure and clean, those who have traveled a long distance and who have become extremely tired and thirsty will come to bathe in it, and they will delight in its coolness that brings happiness and joy. It is exactly like the mind of joy and goodness experienced by those who adhere to the ten norms of conduct. After death, they are reborn as the sun god and reside in the palace of the sun, endowed with an array of a thousand lights. Because of this, the sun god is called the Thousand Lights that result from good karma.
Sixty kṣaṇas (moments) make up a single laya; thirty layas make up
a single muhūrta, and one hundred muhūrtas make up a single upamā. The palace of the sun god goes through the southern sky for six months, each day proceeding thirty li. The most southerly course does not go

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beyond the limits of the continent of Jambudvīpa. The course of the sun through the northern sky is exactly parallel to its southern course.
Why does the [warmth from the] sun feel hot enough to burn? There are ten reasons. What are the ten? (1) Not far from Mount Sumeru is Mount Khadira, forty-two thousand yojanas high and forty-two thousand yojanas long and wide, with foothills that are limitless in extent, all con- taining the seven kinds of treasure. When the sun illumines this mountain, heat is created by that contact. This is the ﬁrst reason the sun is burning hot. (2) In front of Mount Khadira is Mount Yisha, twenty-one thousand yojanas high and twenty-one thousand yojanas long and wide, with foothills that are limitless in extent, all containing the seven kinds of treas- ure. When the sun illumines this mountain, heat is created by that contact. This is the second reason the sun is burning hot. (3) In front of Mount Yisha lies Mount Shuti, twelve thousand yojanas high and twelve thousand yojanas long and wide, possessing foothills that are limitless in extent, all containing the seven kinds of treasure. When the sun illumines this mountain, heat is created by that contact. This is the third reason the sun is burning hot. (4) In front of Mount Shuti lies Mount Sudṛśa, six thousand yojanas high and all of six thousand yojanas long and wide, possessing foothills that are limitless in extent, all containing the seven kinds of treas- ure. When the sun illumines this mountain, heat is created by that contact. This is the fourth reason the sun is burning hot. (5) In front of Mount Sudṛśa lies Mount Masi, three thousand yojanas high and three thousand yojanas long and wide, possessing foothills that are limitless in extent, all containing the seven kinds of treasure. When the sun illumines this mountain, heat is created by that contact. This is the ﬁfth reason the sun is burning hot. (6) In front of Mount Masi lies Mount Nimi, twelve hundred yojanas high and twelve hundred yojanas long and wide, possessing foothills that are limitless in extent, all containing the seven kinds of treas- ure. When the sun illumines this mountain, heat is created by that contact. This is the sixth reason the sun is burning hot. (7) In front of Mount Nimin lies Mount Diaofu, six hundred yojanas high and six hundred yojanas long and wide, with foothills that are limitless in extent, all containing the seven kinds of treasure. When the sun illumines this mountain, heat is created by that contact. This is the seventh reason the sun is burning

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hot. (8) In front of Mount Diaofu lies Mount Jinganglun, three hundred yojanas high and three hundred yojanas long and wide, with foothills that are limitless in extent, all containing the seven kinds of treasure. When the sun illumines this mountain, heat is created by that contact. This is the eighth reason the sun is burning hot. (9) Again, ten thousand yojanas out in space is a celestial palace called the “constellation,” [make endnote and give more information on this] made entirely from lapis lazuli. When the sun illumines this palace, heat is created by that contact. This is the ninth reason the sun is burning hot. (10) Again, light from the palace of the sun illumines the earth and heat is created by its contact with the ground. This is the tenth reason the sun is burning hot.
Then the World-honored One uttered the following verse:
On the basis of these ten reasons, The sun is called Thousand Lights. The radiance of the sun’s shining Heats [everything upon contact].
This is the Buddha’s discourse on the sun. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
Why is the winter palace of the sun so cold and difﬁcult to be near? Though the sun is shining, why is [the temperature] cool? There are thir- teen reasons it is cool in winter even though the sun shines. What are the thirteen? (1) There is water between Mount Sumeru and Mount Khadira, an expanse as great as eighty-four thousand yojanas long and wide but of limitless extent. In this lake grow many varieties of water lilies, including the utpala, kumuda, padma, puṇḍarīka, and sugandha. When the sun shines on the ﬂowers, coolness is created by that contact. This is the ﬁrst reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (2) There is water between Mount Khadira and Mount Yisha, an expanse as great as forty-two thousand yojanas long and wide but of limitless extent. In this lake grow many varieties of water plants. When the sun shines on the ﬂowers, coolness is created by that contact. This is the second reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (3) There is water between Mount Yisha and Mount Shuti, an expanse as great as twenty-one thousand yojanas long and wide but of

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limitless extent. In this lake grow many varieties of water plants. When the sun shines on the ﬂowers, coolness is created by that contact. This is the third reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (4) There is water between Mount Shuti and Mount Sudṛśa, an expanse as great as twelve thousand yojanas long and wide but of limitless extent. In this lake grow many varieties of water plants. When the sun shines on the ﬂowers, cool- ness is created by that contact. This is the fourth reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (5) There is water between Mount Sudṛśa and Mount Massu, an expanse as great as six thousand yojanas long and wide but of limitless extent. In this lake grow many varieties of water plants. When the sun shines on the ﬂowers, coolness is created by that contact. This is the ﬁfth reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (6) There is water between Mount Massu and Mount Nimin, an expanse as great as twelve hundred yojanas long and wide but of limitless extent. In this lake grow many varieties of water plants. When the sun shines on the ﬂowers, coolness is created by that contact. This is the sixth reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (7) There is water between Mount Nimin and Mount Diaofu, an expanse as great as six hundred yojanas in length and breadth but with limitless extent. In this lake grow many varieties of water plants. When the sun shines on the ﬂowers, coolness is created by that contact. This is the seventh reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (8) There is water between Mount Diaofu and Mount Jinganglun, an expanse as great as three hundred yojanas long and wide but of limitless extent. In this lake grow many varieties of water plants. When the sun shines on the ﬂowers, coolness is created by that contact. This is the eighth reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (9) Again, there are great oceans, rivers, and streams on the continent of Jambudvīpa. When the sun shines on them, coolness is created by its contact with those waters. This is the ninth reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (10) Although the continent of [Apara-] godānīya has fewer rivers than Jambudvīpa, it contains many water-related objects. When the sun shines on them, coolness is created by that contact. This is the tenth reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (11) Although the continent of Pūrvavideha has fewer rivers than [Apara]godānīya, there are many more bodies of water there. When the sun shines on them, cool- ness is created by that contact. This is the eleventh reason the sun’s light

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is cool [in winter]. (12) Although the continent of Uttarakuru has fewer rivers than Pūrvavideha, there are many more bodies of water there. When the sun shines on them, coolness is created by that contact. This is the twelfth reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter]. (13) Again, light from the palace of the sun shines on the great ocean, and when the sun shines on it coolness is created by that contact. This is the thirteenth reason the sun’s light is cool [in winter].
Then the World-honored One uttered the following verse:
On the basis of these thirteen reasons, The sun is called Thousand Lights.
The sun’s shining is clean and cool.
This is the Buddha’s discourse on the sun. The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The moon has but a single palace, its roundness waxes and wanes, and its light increases and diminishes. Because of this, the palace of the moon is called Juan. We think of the moon in two ways: (1) as abiding and per- petually traversing, and (2) as the palace [where it abides]. From the palace, all four directions are observable to the farthest distance; hence the palace has a circular shape. The moon is composed, in part, of heavenly silver in which coldness and warmth are mixed, and in part, of lapis lazuli:
(1) the silver is genuine, without admixture, transparent both within and without, and shines its light on the farthest objects; (2) the lapis is also genuine, without admixture, transparent within and without, and shines its light on the farthest objects.
The palace of the moon is forty-nine yojanas long and wide. The palace walls, like the thin surface of the ground beneath, resemble the surrounding lines of trees. The walls are sevenfold and concentric, embellished with seven railings, seven ornamental nets from which seven bells are sus- pended, and seven lines of trees, all adorned with the seven kinds of treas- ure, with innumerable rare birds singing harmoniously together.
The palace of the moon is upheld by ﬁve kinds of wind: (1) a wind that maintains, (2) a wind that nurtures, (3) a wind that receives, (4) a wind that changes, and (5) a wind that adjusts. The main pavilion, where

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the moon god dwells, is made of genuine lapis. It is sixteen yojanas high and endowed with four gates, one on each side, protected by railings. The throne of the moon god, half a yojana long and wide, is made from the seven kinds of treasure. The seat is pure and as soft to the touch as a heav- enly garment. From it the moon god shines his light to illumine the lapis pavilion. The light shining from this pavilion illumines the entire palace of the moon, and the light shining from this palace illumines the four heavens and earths of this world. The life span of the moon god is ﬁve hundred years in the celestial scale, and there is no gap in the succession of generations. The palace cannot be destroyed by any event, except at the end of each eon.
When the palace of the moon traverses the sky, the moon god makes no effort to accomplish its movement. “Ever progressing on this steady passage,” he says, “I enjoy it as an expression of the ﬁve kinds of desire.” As the palace of the moon continues on its journey, innumerable hundreds of thousands of great heavenly spirits participate in the procession before it. There is no end to pleasure, and the moon relishes its swiftness and urgency. Because of this, the moon god is called Swift and Urgent. From his body one thousand lights emanate, ﬁve hundred of which illuminate the world below while the other ﬁve hundred shine around him in every direction. Being in possession of an array of one thousand lights is his reward for merit accumulated in past lives. Because of this, the moon god is also called Thousand Lights.
What kind of merit accumulates in one’s past? One example is the charity people provide by serving food to śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas or by rescuing people from destitution with food and drink, articles of clothing, perhaps some medicine or transportation on a vehicle, horse, or elephant, or a room to stay in, perhaps in a hotel, or a lamp to see or even mere can- dlelight. In providing charity, one gives things to others in accordance with their needs, and one should not do it hastily but strive to give what is needed without offending the person, serving in that way as a repre- sentative of the saintly disciples who adhere to moral discipline. Thus, because of innumerable causes and conditions related to experiences of delight in the Dharma and illumination by the light of wisdom, one’s mind gradually becomes imbued with a feeling of joy and a spirit of goodness.

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It is like the kṣatriya king whose head is anointed with water when he ascends the throne for the ﬁrst time, ﬁlling his mind with supreme joy and a spirit of goodwill. Upon his death, based on these causes and con- ditions, he is reborn as the moon god and ascends to the palace of the moon, endowed with an array of one thousand lights. Thus the proverb says, “Good karma results in the acquisition of a thousand lights.” Why is the moon regarded as the lights of past karma? Suppose that people adhere to the precepts, such as refraining from taking life, refraining from taking that which is not given, refraining from sexual misconduct, refraining from prevarication, refraining from abusive spech, refraining from speaking falsehoods, refraining from ﬂattering, refraining from avarice, refraining from anger, and refraining from taking wrong views. Based on their causes and conditions, they may acquire a mind of joyful goodness. It is like a great bathing pond at the crossroads of a highway crossroad: since it is pure and clean, those who have traveled a long distance and who have become extremely tired and thirsty will come to bathe in it and delight in its coolness that brings happiness and joy. It is exactly like the mind of joy and goodness that those who adhere to the ten norms of conduct expe- rience. After death, they are reborn as the moon god and reside in the palace of the moon, endowed with an array of a thousand lights. Because of this, the moon god is called the Thousand Lights resulting from good karma.
Sixty kṣaṇas (moments) make up a single laya; thirty layas make up a single muhūrta, and one hundred muhūrtas make up a single upamā. The palace of the moon god goes through the southern sky for six months, each day proceeding thirty li. The most southerly course does not go beyond the limits of the continent of Jambudvīpa. The course of the moon through the northern sky is exactly parallel to its southern course.
Why does the palace of the moon appear to gradually wane? There are three reasons. What are the three? (1) The moon gets out of “Wei.”28 This is the ﬁrst reason that it wanes. (2) Again, there are ministers in the palace of the moon who wear blue garments in proper order, with the garments of each higher position being a deeper blue. Each day, [the number of the ministers in attendance] diminishes, causing it to wane. (3) Again, the palace of the sun illumines the moon’s palace with sixty lights. Because of the way light reﬂects, some portion of the moon does not appear. Since

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the moon’s appearance depends on the degree of reﬂection, it wanes. These are the three reasons the moon’s light diminishes.
Again, why does the palace of the moon gradually increase? Again, there are three reasons the moon’s light increases. What are the three? (1) The moon gradually turns to face us directly. This is the ﬁrst reason it waxes. (2) All the ministers in the palace of the moon wear blue garments. On the ﬁfteenth day, when the moon god takes his seat at the center to enjoy his meeting with them, his light illumines [the entire palace], out- shining the other lunar gods just as a large bonﬁre [overpowers the light of nearby] candles. This is the second reason it waxes. (3) The sun illumines the moon’s palace with sixty lights but on the ﬁfteenth day the moon god illumines his entire palace with his own light, letting no portion fall under a shadow from the sun’s illumination. This is the third reason the moon waxes to its full extent.
Again, why does the moon have dark spots? The dark shadows on the moon are caused by shadows cast by Jambu trees.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The mind should be as clean and cool as the heatless moon. When visiting donors’ houses your mind must be kept in concentration, so as not to be disturbed. Again, why are there so many great rivers and streams? Tem- peratures rise because of the sun and moon, and because of their heat, moxa is burned. Burning moxa produces sweat, and from the sweat great rivers and streams are created. Hence there are great rivers and streams in this world.
Why are there ﬁve kinds of seeds in this world? Because a great storm blows seeds to this world from the world where everything is preserved without deterioration, we have (1) roots as seeds, (2) stalks as seeds, (3) nodes as seeds, (4) seeds that are hollow inside, and (5) offspring as seeds. Hence there are ﬁve kinds of seed forms in this world.
When it is midday on the continent of Jambudvīpa, the sun is setting on the continent of Pūrvavideha in the east and rising above the continent of [Apara]godānīya in the west, while it is midnight on the continent of Uttarakuru in the north. When it is midday in [Apara]godānīya, the sun is setting in Jambudvīpa and rising in Uttarakuru, while it is midnight in

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[Pūrva]videha. When it is midday in Uttarakuru, the sun is setting in [Apara]godānīya and rising in [Pūrva]videha, while it is midnight in Jambudvīpa. When it is midday in [Pūrva]videha, the sun is setting in Uttarakuru and rising in Jambudvīpa, while it is midnight in [Apara]- godānīya. Here when Jambudvīpa is in the east [at sunrise], [Pūrva]videha is in the west. If Jambudvīpa is in the west [at sunset], [Pūrva]videha is in the east. If [Apara]godānīya is in the west, Uttarakuru is in the east. If Uttarakuru is in the west, [Apara]godānīya is in the east.
The reason the southern continent is called Jambu[dvīpa] is because there is a large gold mine below ground that is thirty yojanas deep. Since there are Jambu trees growing on this continent, the gold there is called jambu gold. The fruit of the Jambu tree is like a mushroom and tastes as sweet as honey. Each Jambu tree has ﬁve clusters of fruit; four are attached on the four sides of the tree while the ﬁfth is on top. The fruit facing east is eaten by the gandharva demigods. The fruit facing south is eaten by the people of the seven countries: (1) Kuru, (2) Kurupa (?), (3) Videha,
(4) Śveta (?), (5) Maṇḍa, (6) Bala, and (7) Bali. The fruit facing west is eaten by the creatures of the ocean. The fruit facing north is eaten by birds and animals. The fruit on top is eaten by the gods of the stars and con- stellations. To the north of the seven countries are seven great dark hills:
(1) Luotu, (2) Baihe, (3) Shougong, (4) Xianshan, (5) Gaoshan, (6) Chan- shan, and (7) Tushan. On these seven hills live seven brāhmaṇa sages and their abodes are called (1) Shanti, (2) Shanguang, (3) Shougong, (4) Xianren, (5) Hegong, (6) Jiana, and (7) Zengyi.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
At the outset of the present eon, sentient beings survived by subsisting on a type of mud cake. Those who ate large quantities lost their complex- ions, while those who ate less retained good complexions. As they began to recognize differences between facial features and complexions, they started to argue about whose was superior, and whose was inferior. “I am superior to you,” they would think. “You do not look like me.” Thus they became aware of differences between themselves and others, and this gave rise to feelings of competition and conﬂict. As the mud cakes began

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to disappear, a new kind of growth in the soil, like a thin rice cake, appeared, and it was fragrant and appetizing.
Since the previous type of food was no longer available, the sentient beings gathered together to beat their breasts and lament, “What a disaster!” This is like people today who enjoy a meal and praise it as good food, and later on, when it is no longer available, they are distressed by the fact that it is no longer available. These cases are exactly alike. The sentient beings reﬁned their taste by eating the new growth in the soil, but those who ate large quantities lost their complexions, while those who ate less retained good complexions. As they began to recognize more differences between facial features and complexions, they argued about whose was superior, and whose was inferior. “I am superior to you,” they thought. “You are not like me.” Thus they became aware of differences between themselves and others, giving rise to feelings of competition and conﬂict. Then the new food growing in the soil disappeared.
A new kind of product began to grow from the soil, rather thick in appearance but as delicate as a heavenly garment inside, with a color like a celestial lotus blossom and its taste was as sweet as honey. All the sentient beings were able to survive on this food for some length of time, but those who ate large quantities lost their complexions, while those who ate less retained good complexions. Then they began to recognize still more dif- ferences between facial features and complexions and features, saying, “I am superior to you” and “You are not like me.” They began to ﬁxate on the differences between themselves and others, accelerating feelings of competition and conﬂict. Then the new food growing in the soil disappeared. Again, a form of rice without gluten or chaff began to grow, providing the sentient beings with a new food that could be eaten without seasoning. Still, however, the people gathered together to beat their breasts and lament, “What a disaster!” since the old food could no longer be found. It is like people today who regard as a disaster when a favorite food is no longer available. It is just like that. So the sentient beings began to harvest the
new form of rice and subsist on it.
Then their physical forms became coarse and crude, with the advent of male and female sexual organs. Staring at each other, some felt desire

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and sought hidden places to engage in sexual intercourse. Observing this, the other sentient beings deplored it: “This is wrong. When we were all born in the same place, how can some of us behave like that?” Seeing their disapproval, the one they condemned regretted his conduct and admit- ted, “What I have done is wrong.” He threw himself to the ground and remained there. [Now] seeing that he would not get up, the woman decided to bring him food. The others asked, “What will you do with this food you have taken?” She replied, “I shall give it to that man who is regretting his fall into wrongdoing.” Because of her reply, the term “no-good husband’ came into this world, and also the name “wife,” from the fact that she brought cooked rice to [the man].
After that, the sentient beings became increasingly indulgent in sexual behavior, and to hide their conduct they began to build private shelters. Because of this, the term “house” came into use for the ﬁrst time. Later gen- erations found their sexual desires increasing, and eventually the institution of marriage between husband and wife was introduced. When sentient beings who had exhausted their predispositional forces, merits, and life spans died in Ābhāsvara Heaven, they came to the human world to enter a mother’s womb. Because of this, we have the term “fetus” [in which the individual person resides].
The city of Campā was built at that time. Then the city of Vārāṇasī was built in the country of Kāśī. Next, the city of Rājagṛha was built, and it was completed at sunrise. Because of this, we have names for all the cities, towns, villages, and territories the kings ruled.
When the sentient beings of that time harvested rice in the morning for breakfast, the rice grains that remained would ripen again by evening. Even when [the rice] was harvested in the evening, it would be ripe again the next morning, and all the rice would grow without any stalks or stubble.
Then some [lazy] people began to think, “Harvesting rice every day is too much work. Why don’t we harvest enough rice for two days?” So they harvested enough to serve two days of meals and put some of it away in storage. Later, when friends would say, “Let us go harvest some rice together,” they would reply, “I have already harvested enough for two days. If you wish to go, why don’t you go without me?” The friend would then think, “He harvested enough rice for two days and stored the amount

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needed. Why don’t I harvest and store up enough for three days?” So that man did so, and when another friend came along to ask him to harvest rice together, he replied, “I have already harvested and stored what I need for three days. If you wish to go, why don’t you go without me?” That friend also thought, “He has harvested enough rice for three days and stored the amount needed. Why don’t I harvest and store enough for ﬁve days?” He did so, and soon all the sentient beings were trying to outdo each other in harvesting rice. Thus the rice crop was overharvested and became barren and weed-ridden, and ﬁnally it began to produce only husks. Once cut, it would not grow again, leaving only withered stubble. So the sentient beings gathered together to beat their breasts and lament, “What a series of disasters! Originally, we were superhuman beings, sub- sisting on thoughts. Our bodies were luminous and we ﬂew through the air and were able to enjoy happiness without any obstacles whatsoever. Then, when food from the ground grew for the ﬁrst time, we were attracted by its color and taste and we ate it, and it kept us in this world for some time. Those who ate large quantities [of the food], however, saw their skin turn rough and ugly, while those who ate less retained good com- plexions. This caused us to begin to discriminate between ourselves and others. Those [who appeared handsome] became conceited, saying, ‘I am superior to you. Your skin is not like mine.’ While we argued about these
things our food disappeared.
“New food began to grow, and it was fragrant and pleasing to the eye and had a good taste. We harvested it and continued to survive in this world by subsisting on it. Those who ate large quantities [of the food], however, lost their complexions, while those who ate less retained good complexions. Because of this, some of us became conceited and thought, ‘I am superior to you. Your skin is not like mine.’ While we argued about these things, the new food disappeared and only something coarse and thick would grow, some of which we could eat, but in much less quantity. “We harvested the new food and continued to live. Those who ate too much lost their complexions, while those who ate less retained theirs. Again, we became conceited and thought, ‘I am superior to you. Your skin is not like mine.’ While we argued about these things the food dis- appeared. What grew after it was nonglutinous rice that had an attractive

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color, scent, and taste. We ate it and began to harvest it. When it was har- vested in the morning for breakfast, the remaining rice grains would ripen by evening. When it was harvested in the evening, it would ripen again by morning. The best thing was that it grew without stalks or stubble. But we competed to harvest the crop and put it in storage. Overharvested, the rice became barren and began to form husks. Once cut, it would not grow again, leaving only withered stubble.”
[The sentient beings said to each other,] “Let us divide the land between us.” They created plots belonging to different owners, and once again they began to discriminate between themselves and others. Some began to store their own rice and to steal crops from ﬁelds belonging to others. Observing this behavior, the others deplored it: “What you have done is wrong. Since you have your own land, how can you steal crops from the others?” Having reprimanded such a person, they warned him, “You must never do it again.” Yet they could not leave the scandal of the theft behind. Again, they reprimanded the thief, “Your conduct is wrong. You must stop it.” Then they beat him with their ﬁsts and with a cane. Then they led him out before an audience and said, “This man, while putting his own rice away, has stolen it from ﬁelds belonging to others.” The accused shouted back, “They struck me!”
Distressed, the audience beat their breasts and said, “Sentient beings have become morally degenerate. Because of these crimes, turmoil and ﬁlth have afﬂicted this society. This is why we suffer from birth, old age, illness, and death, and why we have fallen into the three evil courses of life. These disputes arose because the land was divided into separate parcels and because of disagreements over the boundaries. Now, since there is so much animosity between us, none of the disputes can be resolved. We should select a leader [and let him deal with the disputes]. He will protect those worthy of protection, commend those worthy of praise, and punish those in need of punishment. Each member of the com- munity must advance a portion of their rice harvest in payment for the services the appointed person will undertake to deal with our disputes.” So they chose a person who was tall and physically impressive, hand- some, and who carried an aura of authority. They said to him, “We want you to become our elected leader to protect those in need of protection,

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commend those worthy of praise, and also to punish those who should be punished. Each of us will collect a portion of our rice harvest to make up your stipend.” Then the person chosen by the community assumed the role of chieftain and began to dispense praise to those worthy of praise and punishment to those in need of punishment. Thus the word nāyaka (“people’s guide”) came into being.
In the beginning, the leader Mahāsammata had a son, Ratna by name; Ratna had a son, Surasa by name; Surasa had a son, Jingji by name; Jingji had a son, Sucarita by name; Sucarita had a son, Zhexing by name; Zhexing had a son, Miaomi by name; Miaomi had a son, Miti by name; Miti had a son, Shuixian by name; Shuixian had a son, Śatajña by name; Śatajña had a son, Shiyü by name; Shiyü had a son, Shanyü by name; Shanyü had a son, Duanjie by name; Duanjie had a son, Daduanjie by name; Daduanjie had a son, Ratnākara by name; Ratnākara had a son, Mahāratnākara by name; Mahāratnākara had a son, Sudarśana by name; Sudarśana had a son, Mahāsudarśana by name; Mahāsudarśana had a son, Aśoka by name; Aśoka had a son, Zhouzhu by name; Zhouzhu had a son, Zhisheng by name; Zhisheng had a son, Shanyue by name; Shanyue had a son, Shentian by name; Shentian had a son, Yili by name; Yili had a son, Dṛṣharatha (Laoche) by name; Dṛṣharatha had a son, Daśaratha by name; Daśaratha had a son, Śataratha by name; Śataratha had a son, Dṛṣhadhanu by name; Dṛṣhadhanu had a son, Śatadhanu by name; Śatadhanu had a son, Yangmu by name; Yangmu had a son, Shansi by name.
From Shansi descended ten tribal clans ruled by cakravartins in suc- cession without any gap. The names of the ten clans were (1) Kaṇṇagoccha,
(2) Doluopo, (3) Aśvajit, (4) Gandhāra, (5) Kaliṅga, (6) Campā, (7) Kau- rava, (8) Pañcāla, (9) Mithila, and (10) Ikṣvāku. From King Kaṇṇagoccha ﬁve cakravartins descended; from King Doluopo ﬁve cakravartins also descended; from King Aśvajit seven cakravartins descended; from King Gandhāra seven cakravartins also descended; from King Kaliṅga nine cakravartins descended; from King Campā fourteen cakravartins descended; from King Kaurava thirty-one cakravartins descended; from King Pañcāla thirty-two cakravartins descended; from King Mithila eighty- four cakravartins descended; and from King Ikṣvāku one hundred and one cakravartins descended. The last king was named Anumahā Sujāta

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149b

(Dashan Shengzong). King Ikṣvāku had a son, Wuluopo by name; King Wuluopo had a son, Kula (Quluo) by name; King Kula had a son, Nikula (Niquluo) by name; this King Nikula had a son, Siṃhahanu by name; King Siṃhahanu had a son, Śuddhodana by name; King Śuddhodana had a son, Bodhisattva (i.e., the Buddha) by name; this Bodhisattva had a son, Rāhula by name. On the basis of the foregoing genealogy, the name kṣatriya came into being.
Once, a sentient being said to himself, “Myriad living species have all been afﬂicted by thorns and infections. I should now forsake all domestic concerns to go off into the mountains to practice meditation.” So he renounced his domestic life, went into the mountains, and practiced med- itation, sheltered under various trees, and every day he went into a village for alms. When the villagers saw him they willingly offered food out of respect, and he praised their good conduct. The fact that this man renounced his domestic ties and sought to follow the path by entering the mountains meant that he was freed from involvement in wrong and evil actions. Because of this, he could be called brāhmaṇa.
Some brāhmaṇas were unable to continue practicing meditation. They came out of the mountains and traveled among human communities, claiming, “I cannot practice meditation.” They called themselves “brāh- maṇas without the practice of meditation.” They came down to villages, got involved in wrong practices, and engaged in activities inconsistent with their original aspiration. Because of this, their means of livelihood may be termed “poisonous.” For this reason, a class of brāhmaṇas came into being in society who depend on various means of livelihood and make their living among sentient beings. For similar reasons, a social class of householders (vaiśya) came into being who learn different arts and skills and in that way make their living among sentient beings. For similar reasons, a social class of those in servitude (śūdra) came into being.
Śramaṇa practitioners came into being after the appearance of the Śākya clan in society. Originally a kṣatriya, one of them thought to himself, “All worldly love and affection in this society is inevitably deﬁled and unclean. Why should I be attached to this kind of relationship? I will renounce domestic life, shave my hair and beard, don mendicant robes, and seek the path of religion. I am a śramaṇa, I am a śramaṇa!” [Now]

302

among the brāhmaṇas, vaiśyas, and śūdras, some thought to themselves, “All worldly love and affection in this society is inevitably deﬁled and unclean. Why should I be attached to this kind of relationship? I will renounce domestic life, shave my hair and beard, don mendicant robes, and seek the path of religion. I am a śramaṇa, I am a śramaṇa!”
If a kṣatriya commits wrongful actions in mind, speech, or conduct, he receives appropriate retribution when his body dissolves and his life comes to an end. If brāhmaṇas, vaiśyas, and śūdras commit wrongful actions in mind, speech, or conduct, they likewise receive appropriate ret- ribution when their bodies dissolve and their lives end. On the other hand, if a kṣatriya adheres to the norms of conduct and does good in mind, speech, or physical action, he is rewarded with absolute happiness when his body dissolves and his life comes to an end. Likewise, if brāhmaṇas, vaiśyas, or śūdras adhere to the norms of conduct and do good in thought, speech, or physical action, they are rewarded with absolute happiness when their bodies dissolve and their lives end. If a kṣatriya commits both good and bad actions in mind, speech, or conduct, he receives appropriate retribution when his body dissolves and his life comes to an end. Likewise, if brāhmaṇas, vaiśyas, or śūdras commit both good and bad actions in mind, speech, or conduct they receive appropriate retribution when their bodies dissolve and their lives come to an end.
If a kṣatriya shaves his hair and beard, dons the three mendicant robes, renounces domestic life, and practices the seven auxiliary disciplines in order to seek the path of religion, and if his faith and determination are ﬁrm, he should be able to transcend worldly matters, maintain the unsur- passed practice of austerity, and directly experience in this life that the cause of birth and death has been exhausted; the practice of austerity has been accomplished; that which must be done [for religious salvation] has been accomplished; and there is no more birth to suffer ever again. Like- wise, if one from the brāhmaṇa, vaiśya, or śūdra classes shaves his hair and beard, dons the three mendicant robes, renounces domestic life, and practices the sevenfold auxiliary disciplines in order to seek the path of religion, and if his faith and determination are ﬁrm, he should be able to transcend worldly matters, maintain the unsurpassed practice of austerity, and directly experience in this life that the cause of birth and death has

303

149c

been exhausted; the practice of austerity has been accomplished; that which must be done [for religious salvation] has been accomplished; and there is no more birth to suffer ever again.
Among the four classes of society, those who have perfected themselves with harmonious practice and insight and realized the state of arhatship (total liberation from attachment) are supreme. At that moment, the god Brahmā utters the following verse:
One born in the kṣatriya family is highest,
He can assemble all the races for the practice of religion, Having perfected himself with harmonious practice and insight, He is the highest among humans and gods.
The Buddha said to the bhikṣus:
The god Brahmā has well uttered this verse. It is not said wrongly but is appropriate. His understanding is not wrong but is good. I approve his statement. Why? Because I also utter the same verse as the Tathāgata, totally liberated from deﬁlement and perfectly enlightened:
One born in the kṣatriya family is highest,
He can assemble all the classes for the practice of religion. Having perfected himself with harmonious practice and insight, He is the highest among humans and gods.
Then, having heard the Buddha’s teaching, the bhikṣus were delighted to receive it and reverentially carried out what the Buddha taught.
The Canonical Book of Lengthy Discourses has been completed in assem- blage. Homage to the Omniscient [One]. May all beings abide in peace and happiness. Let all sentient beings abide in the state of transcendence, and may I myself also be in that realm with them.
[End of Sutra 30: Buddhist Cosmology]

304
Notes

1 Étienne Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era, trans. Sara Webb-Boin (Louvain-la-Neue: Institut Orientaliste, 1988), p. 272.
2 The ninefold or twelvefold categories of scriptures in which the Buddha’s discourses were grouped as an aid for memorization. The Tripiṭaka categories of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma were a later development.
3 Cf. Dīpavaṃsa VII, 34–43; Mahāvaṃsa V, 267–282.
4 The Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāśtra; the Sanskrit original is lost, and there is no Tibetan translation of this text. There is a Chinese translation by Xuanzang, the Api- damo da pibosha lun in two hundred fascicles (Taishō 1545). Xuanzang concludes his epilogue: “Four hundred years after [the Buddha’s] nirvana, King Kaniṣka called an assembly of ﬁve hundred arhats and Kāśmīri Tripiṭaka masters to discuss the analy- ses of Abhidharma study.” Canonical revision was accomplished on all three divisions in chapter 3 of Xuanzang’s Xi you ji (Record of the Western Regions, Taishō 2087); see Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, p. 586. An English translation of Xuanzang’s text by Li Rongxi is published under the title The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2016, reprint.).
5 According to Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana, in his renowned work A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Schools (Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1931), pp. 49–50; p. 49, n. 2, the Hindu literary works, the Purāṇas and Śāstras, were compiled by the brāhmaṇa assemblies in the region of Vidarbha under the leadership of Jātūkarṇya Vyāsa. This movement was inspired by the Fourth Buddhist Council that had been held in Kāśmīra half a century earlier.
6 See Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953), esp. Ch. 1, Introduction.
7 Chizen Akanuma, Kanpashibushi agon goshōroku (The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Āgamas and Pāli Nikāyas) (Nagoya: Hajinkaku-shobō, 1929), pp. 3–6.
8 The missing seven texts are: DN 6, Mahalī Suttanta; DN 7, Jāliya Suttanta; DN 10, Subha Suttanta; DN 22, Mahā-Satīpaṭṭhāna Suttanta; DN 30, Lakkhaṇa Suttanta; and DN 32, Āṭānāṭiya Suttanta; and “The Sutra on Buddhist Cosmology,” not found in the Dīgha Nikāya (Sutra 30 in this volume).
9 See Kaijō Ishikawa, Agon-kyō seiritsu no kenkyū (A Study on the Establishment of Āgama Sūtras (Tokyo: Gendaisha, 1982), especially the Conclusion, pp. 246–247.
10 Kumārajīva had been the king’s counselor in his native land, Kuccha. General Lüguang destroyed the state in 383 C.E. and brought Kumārajīva as a captive to the neighboring

305
city of Liangzhou. In 401 Kumārajīva was invited to Chang’an to serve as the religious counselor to Yaoxing.
11 Genmyō Ono, et al., eds., Bussho kaisetsu daijiten (The Expositional Dictionary of Buddhist Texts in the Chinese Tripiṭaka Collection) (Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1933), Fascicle 6, pp. 45–46.
12 Faxian left Chang’an with a few co-travelers in 399 and returned alone by the sea route in 413, bringing with him copies of the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya, the Saṃyukta Āgama, and the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, among other texts.
13 The section of doctrinal commentaries: vols. 33–39; the section of Vinaya commentaries, vol. 40; the section of treatise commentaries, partially sectarian: vols. 41–44; the section of Chinese and Japanese sectarian schools, vols. 45–48; the section of historical traditions, vols. 49–52; the section of incidental and non-Buddhist texts, vols. 53–54 (which comprises both); and the section of textual catalogues, vol. 55.
14 T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols. (London: Pali Text Society, 1899, 1910, 1921).
15 King Bimbisāra of Magadha in the Pāli text.
16 The ﬁve kinds of deﬁlement are belief in a self, attachment to practices and observances other than those approved by the Buddha, doubt, sexual desire, and malice.
17 Videha (Pāli: Vaidehī) was the queen of King Ajātaśatru’s father, Bimbisāra (Skt. Vidmi- sāra).
18 Maskarin Gośālīputra: Pāli Makkhali-gosāla.
19 “That affair” refers to King Ajātaśatru’s patricide of his father, King Bimbisāra.
20 The three kinds of supernormal knowledge are that derived from knowledge of past lives, from supernormal vision, and from awareness of total freedom from deﬁlements.
21 Vidmisāra is Sanskrit for the Pāli Bimbisāra.
22 I.e., the ﬁve fundamental precepts undertaken by all Buddhists on entering the path.
23 A yojana is an ancient Indian unit of measuring distance, roughly equal to seven miles.
24 A xin is a Chinese unit of measure roughly equal to eight feet.
25 A li is a Chinese unit of measure roughly equal to one-quarter mile.
26 A youyingdao is an oil-coated blade or knife.
27 A hu is a Chinese unit of measure roughly equivalent to a bushel (about eighty pounds of grain).
28 “The moon gets out of ‘Wei’” means that the moon appears to grow smaller, i.e., a waning moon.

306

Bibliography

Primary Sources
Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāstra (nonextant Sanskrit original; no Tibetan translation);
Apidamo dapibosha lun (T. 1545), in two hundred fascicles. Translated by Xuanzang.
Chu sanzang ji ji (Collection of the Tripiṭaka Textual Records) (T. 405) by Sengyou (445–518). An expanded version of Dao’an’s Zhongjing mulu.
Datang Xi yu ji (T. 2087). Translated by Xuanzang. English translation in Li Rongxi, The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1996).
Dharmaguptaka-vinaya; Sifen lü (Vinaya in Four Divisions) (T. 1428), in sixty fascicles.
Translated by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian.
Dīrgha Āgama (Pāli: Dīgha Nikāya); Chang ahan jing (Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses) (T. 1), in twenty-two fascicles. Translated by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian. English translation in T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols. (London: Pali Text Society, 1899, 1910, 1921).
Dīpavaṃsa (Chronicle of the Island). English translation in B. C. Law, “Chronicle of the Island of Ceylon or the Dīpavaṃsa,” Ceylon Historical Journal 7 (1958): 1–266.
Dvādaśamukha-śāstra; Shiermun lun (T. 1568), in one fascicle. Translated by Kumārajīva in 409.
Fochui ban lüeshuo jiaojie jing (T. 389), in one fascicle. Translated by Kumārajīva in 402–412.
Gaoseng faxian zhuan (Biography of Faxian) (T. 2085), in one fascicle. English translatiion in Li Rongxi, The Journey of the Eminent Monk Faxian, in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2002), pp. 155–214.
Gezhong qinding zhongjing mulu (Buddhist Canonical Textual Catalogues) compiled by four northern dynasties: (1) Liang in 519, (2) Northern Wei in 532; (3) Northern
Qi in 570–578, and (4) Northern Chou in 563.
Jātakas (Birth Stories), e.g., Bhaddasālajātaka no. 465, IV, 144–153.
Kaiyuan shijiao mulu (Kaiyuan Record of Buddhist Textual Catalogues) (T. 2154). Com- piled in 731.
Mahāprajñāpāramitōpadeśa-śāstra; Dazhidu lun (T. 1509), in one hundred fascicles, by Nāgārjuna (ca. 50–150). Translated by Kumārajīva.

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308
Lamotte, Étienne. History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era. Sara Webb-Boin, trans. Louvain-la-Neue: Institut Orientaliste, 1988.
Malalasekera, G. P. Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names, 2 vols. London and Boston: Pali Text Society, 1974.
Mettanando Bhikkhu. “After the Buddha.” Unpublished monograph.
Ono, Gemmyō, et al., eds. Bussho kaisetsu daijiten (Expositional Dictionary of Buddhist Texts in the Chinese Tripiṭaka Collection). Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1933.
Toynbee, Arnold, and Jane Caplan. A Study of History: The First Abridged One-Volume Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.
Vidyabhusana, Satis Chandra. A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Schools. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1931.
Weber, Max. The Sociology of Religion. Ephraim Fischoff, trans. Boston: Beacon Press, 1863. See especially the Introduction by Talcott Parsons, pp. xlvi–lii.

309

Index

A
Abhaya, Prince, 110 Abhidharma, 305n3
categorized in the Tripiṭaka, xiv, xx– xxiii, 305n2
Mahayana and Hinayana, xx, xxii
See also commentaries/treatises, Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāśtra; Tripiṭaka
Ādarśamukha, 214 Āgama(s), xiii, xv, xxiv
four/fourfold, xiv, xv, xxiii, Hinayana, xxiv
See also Dīrgha Āgama; Ekkotarīka Āgama; Madhyama Āgama; Saṃyukta Āgama
Ajātaśatru, King, 107–122, 306nn17, 19
Ajita-keśakambalin, 109, 115
alms/almsfood, 71, 73, 85, 142, 173, 302
almsbowl, 6, 72, 121, 123, 142
almsround(s), 3, 4, 123, 151 anāgāmin. See nonreturner Ānanda, 32
Anāthapiṇḍika Monastery, 81, 123, 151
Kareri-kuṭika cloister, 151
Anavatapta Palace, 162
Aṅgamāṇava, 45
Aṅgirasa, 96
Aṅguttara Nikāya, xv
See also Ekottarika Āgama; Nikāyas, ﬁvefold

animal(s)/creature(s), 6, 8, 31, 160, 165,
179, 205, 211, 214, 244, 251, 263,
266, 281, 296
bird(s), xvii, 6, 76, 81, 99, 152, 154,
155, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166,
168, 175, 182, 203, 205, 207, 208,
216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 223, 224,
225, 226, 227, 262, 275, 276, 287,
292, 296
hummingbird, 165, 166, 169, 170, 180
iron, 188, 190
ravens, 99
youweichanjia, 172
boar(s), 6, 8
bulls/calves/cattle/cows, 49, 51, 52, 58,
59, 61, 67, 71, 86, 156, 162, 171,
180, 210, 233, 242, 272, 274, 275
deer, 61, 210, 281
dog(s), 6, 8, 85, 210
donkey, 9
elephant(s), 6, 9, 40, 56, 61, 62, 111,
112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118,
160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 176, 182,
192, 214–215, 288, 293
king, Shanju, 163–165
royal/white, 111, 160, 163, 164, 173,
176
ewes/rams/sheep, 6, 49, 52, 58, 67, 71,
233, 242
goats, 8
hens/roosters, 6, 8

311

animal(s)/creature(s) (continued): horse(s), 6, 7, 40, 56, 61, 62, 113, 114,
115, 116, 117, 118, 162, 173, 176,
182, 288, 293
leopards, 166, 170
lion, 89, 90, 112, 162
realm, 251, 263, 266
rat, 9
snake(s)/vipers, 160, 166, 179, 281
tigers, 166, 170
water lizards, 166, 170, 179
See also insect(s)
Anumahā Sujāta, 301
anuttara samyaksaṃbodhi. See enlight- enment, perfect
arhat(s), 87, 146, 305n4
arhatship, 92, 140, 304
Aruṇa, 96
ārūpyadhātu. See realm(s), formless ascetic(s)/asceticism, xvii, 3, 83–84, 85–88
brāhmaṇa, 3, 4, 83, 88, 92, 123–135,
139
feats/practice(s), 9, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88,
210
See also austerity, practice of Ashiyi, 82
Aśoka, xiv, 301
Aṣṭaka, 96, 97
asura(s), xvii, 157, 217, 218–220, 228,
229, 231, 233, 234, 238, 239, 240,
243, 244, 249, 251, 259, 263, 266
ﬁve great, 219–220
Cuifu, 220
Tichi, 219
Touju, 220
Wuyi, 220
Xiongli, 220
warring with demigods, garuḍas, gods, and nāgas, 269–280
See also Asurin; Citra/Vimakacitra; Rāhu; Shemoli

Asurin, 219, 277
See also asura(s)
Aśvajit, King, 298
austerity, practice of, 5, 34, 47, 50, 51,
74, 78, 89, 90, 91–92, 95, 100, 113,
124, 130, 131, 133, 139–140, 142,
143, 144, 145, 206, 242, 243, 300
four kinds of, 68
See also ascetic(s)/asceticism
B
Bhāradvāja
bhikṣu(s), xix, 3–4, 10, 31, 46–48, 69,
72, 73–74, 75–82, 83–85, 87–90,
93, 100, 104–105, 107, 111, 119–
121, 123, 141, 142, 151–156, 162,
165–166, 173, 182, 190, 191, 193–
195, 197, 199–203, 206, 207, 210,
214–220, 22, 229, 230, 232, 237,
240–242, 244–248, 250, 252, 254–
257, 262, 264, 265, 268–270, 272,
273, 275, 276, 280, 282, 283, 284,
290, 292, 295, 296, 304
See also disciple(s); monk(s); śra- maṇa(s); śrāvaka(s)
Bimbisāra, King, 37, 39, 53, 55,
306nn15, 17, 19, 21
See also Vidmisāra, King
birth, 22, 43, 44, 128, 140, 156, 172, 206,
207, 216, 232, 240, 241, 300, 303,
304
cause of, 29, 31, 125, 216
four ways of, 207, 211
See also birth and death, cause of; rebirth
birth and death, cause of, 31, 91, 139, 303
Boboxi, 96 bodhisattva, xxiii Bodhisattva, 302
See also Buddha
Brahmā, xvii, 13, 14, 36, 39, 41, 52, 55,

56, 80–81, 95, 96–97, 100–102,
103, 104–105, 284, 304
net, 3, 32
path of, 96, 251, 262, 266
See also Heavens, named: Brahmā Brahmadatta, 3, 4
Brahmā Hall, 123
brāhmaṇa(s), xvii, 6–31, 33–37, 39, 41–
48, 49–53, 55, 57–58, 61–62, 64–
73, 75–76, 78, 84–88, 93–102, 109–
111, 113, 114, 123–133, 134, 135,
141–143, 149, 173, 204, 205, 211,
215, 232–240, 287, 293, 302–303,
305n5
ascetic(s), xvii, 3, 4, 83, 88, 92, 123–
135, 139
lineage, 43, 44
sages, seven, abodes of, 296 Hegong, 296
Jiana, 296
Shanguang, 296
Shanti, 296
Shougong, 296
Xianren, 296
Zengyi, 296
scriptures, 33, 36, 43, 49, 52, 61, 64,
93, 141
village, 93, 141
See also class(es), four
brahmavihāras. See four immeasurables/ four kinds of immeasurable mind
Buddha, xix, 3–5, 6, 10, 22, 25–28, 30–
34, 42, 49, 74, 75, 83, 84, 91, 93,
95, 107, 111, 112, 118, 123, 124,
141, 151, 152–154, 156, 162, 165,
173, 182, 190, 191, 193–195, 197,
199, 201–203, 206, 207, 210, 215,
216, 220, 222, 230, 232, 237, 240–
248, 250, 252, 254, 255–257, 262,
264, 265, 268–270, 272, 273, 275,

276, 280, 287, 288, 292, 293, 298,
300, 301, 304n16
demise/nirvana, xiii, 305n4 discourses/teaching(s) of, xiv, xvi,
290, 292, 304, 305n2
and Hastiśāriputra, 136–139
and Kāśyapa, 83–92
and Kevaddha, 75–82
and King Ajātaśatru, 112–122 and Kūṭadanta, 57–73
and Lohitya, 142–149
and Poṭṭhapāda, 123–135, 139–140
and Soṇadaṇḍa, 42–48
and Vāseṭṭha, 95–105
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; Gautama; Śākyamuni; Tathāgata; World-honored One
Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, 3, 4, 39,
48, 70, 71, 73, 120, 122, 138, 149,
245, 246, 247, 248
See also Three Treasures buddha land, 153
buddhas, 202, 245, 246, 247, 248
Buddhayaśas, xvii–xviii, xix, xxi Buddhist(s), xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, xviii, xx,
xxi, xxiv, 71, 306n22 canon/canonical tradition, xiv, xx Chinese, xviii, xix
communities, xiii, xx, xxiv cosmology, 151–304 Japanese, xx, xxiv
literature/scriptures/texts, xiv, xvi, xx, xxi, xxii, xxv
studies, xviii, xxiv Tripiṭaka, xxi, xxii, xxiv
Buddhist councils, four, xiii–xiv First Council, xiii
Second Council, xiii
Third Council, xiii, xiv, xv Fourth Council, xiv, 305n5

Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, xv
See also Sanskrit
C
cakravartin(s), 40, 56, 160, 173–182, 301
See also universal ruler Campā, King, 301
catalogues/collections, xiii, xv, xvi, xx, xxi–xxii, xxiv, 306n13
Chu sanzang ji ji (Collection of the Tripiṭaka Textual Records), xx
Gezhong qinding zhongjing mulu (Buddhist Canonical Textual Cata- logues/Complete Buddhist Tripiṭaka Library), xxi
Kaiyuan shijiao lu (Kaiyuan Record of Buddhist Textual Catalogues), xxi
Renshou zhongjing mulu (Renshou Record of Textual Catalogues), xxi
Sui Kaihuang lidai sanbao ji (Sui Kaihuang Record of the Threefold Buddhist Treasures of the Succes- sive Dynasties), xxi
Taishō shinshū daizōkyō (Taishō New Tripiṭaka Edition), xx
Zhongjing mulu (Comprehensive Record of the Textual Catalogues), xx
See also scriptures/sutras/texts causal/causality, xvi, xxiii, 19, 127, 251
aggregate(s)/aggregation, 131, 133,
215, 216, 230
concatenation of sensation/six sense objects, 16, 18, 21, 31
condition(s), 30, 242
dependence, 124, 125–126
origination/origins, 5, 216
cave(s), 160, 163, 197, 199
Forenoon, 163
Noon, 163
Saptaparvata, 88

Chang ahan jing (Canonical Collection of Lengthy Discourses), xiii, xxi, xxiii–xxv
categorized in the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, xx–xxi
and the Dharmaguptaka school, xix “Sutra on Buddhist Cosmology,” xv,
xvii, xix, 151–304, 305n8
sutras of, correlated to the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya suttantas, xv–xvii
See also Dīgha Nikāya; Dīrgha Āgama
Changxiao, 75, 76
See also Kevaddha China, xiv, xviii, xx, xxiv,
dynasty/period:
Han/Late Han, xiv, xviii Jing, xxii
Ming, xxii
Northern Song/Song, xxii Sixteen States, xviii
Sui, xxi
Tang, xviii, xxii Yuan, xxii
Chinese, xix, xx, xxii, 306nn13, 24, 25, 27 Buddhists, xviii, xix
language, xxiv, xxv, xviii, 162 texts/translations, xv, xx, xxv, 305n4
Citra/Vimalacitra, 269, 270–271, 273–274,
277
See also asura(s) city(ies)/town(s)/village(s), 33, 34, 40,
49, 50, 51, 55, 57, 75, 93, 94, 96,
97, 134, 141, 142, 163, 175, 177,
216–217, 220–221, 222, 223, 224,
241, 283, 298, 305–306n10
Anupiya, xvii Bhaya (Heyi), 221
Campā, 33, 34, 35, 41, 42, 298
Chang’an, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, xxiv, 305–306n10, 306n12

Chūḍasudarśana, 220
Icchānaṅkala, 93
Kaṇṇakaṭṭha, 83
Khānumata, 49, 57
Liangzhou, xviii, xx, 305–306n10 Louyang, xviii
Lushan, xix Nālandā, 75, 76
Pāṭaliputra (Patna), xiv Rāhvasurin, 216
Rājagṛha (Rājgīr), xiii, 88, 107, 111,
298
Sālavatikā, 141, 148
Śrāvastī, 81, 123, 151
Sudarśana, 220, 223, 224
Tianjing, 221
Vaiśālī (Vesālī), xiii, 163 Vārāṇasī, 298
Xianshangcheng, 220, 221
Zhonggui, 221 clans:
Aśvajit, 301
Campā, 301
Doluopo, 301
Gandhāra, 301
Ikṣvāku, 301
Kaliṅga, 301
Kaṇṇagoccha, 301
Kaulya, 39, 55
Kaurava, 301
Malla, 39, 55
Mithila, 301
Pañcāla, 301
Śākya, 33, 34, 39, 49, 50, 51, 55, 94,
141, 302
Somanā, 39, 55
Uttarakā, 39, 55
Vṛji, 39, 55
class(es), four, 302, 303, 304
See also brāhmaṇa(s); kṣatriya(s); śūdra(s); vaiśya(s)

commemorative tower(s), xix, 173, 181 commentaries/treatises, xviii, xxiii, xxxii,
306n13
Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāśtra, xiv, 305n4
Apidamo da pibosha lun, 305n4
Satyasiddhi-śāstra (Cheng shi lun; Treatise on the Establishment of Truth), xix
See also scriptures/sutras/texts Confucian, xviii, xx contemplation/contemplative recollec-
tion, xix, xxiv, 103 country(ies)/region(s), xviii, 10, 41, 49,
50, 51, 57, 58, 59, 60, 67, 68, 69,
102, 103, 108, 109, 110, 156, 172,
174, 175, 178, 182, 241, 242, 249,
250
Aṅga, 33, 34, 35
Bala, 296
Bali, 296
Central Asia(n), xvii, xviii, xix India, vii, xix
Northern/north-central, xv Kāśī, 298
Kāśmīra, xiv, xviii, xviii, xix, 305n5 Kauśala, 33, 37, 49, 50, 51, 53, 93, 94,
141
Khotan, xviii, xix
Kuccha (Eastern Turkestan), xviii, 304n10
Kuru, 296
Kurupa, 296 Kuṣāṇa, xiv
Magadha, 3, 37, 53, 120, 121, 306n15
Maṇḍa, 296
Manasākaṭa, 102 Southeast Asia, xiv
Burma, xiv Indochina, xiv Thailand, xiv

country(ies)/region(s) (continued): Sri Lanka, xiv
Śveta, 296
Ujuññā, 83 Vidarbha, 305n5 Videha, 296
D
Daduanjie, 301 Dao’an, xx–xxi Daoist, xviii, xx, xxi
deﬁlement(s), 47, 71, 72, 73, 87, 88, 89,
103, 105, 119, 120, 135, 143, 144,
145, 146, 16, 170, 177, 179, 202,
240, 245, 246, 247, 248, 304, 306n20
ﬁve kinds of, 74, 306n16
inﬂuence of, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256,
257, 264, 267, 268
of passion, 245, 246, 247, 248
Daśaratha, 301
deity(ies), 154, 222, 227
Mālādhāra, 154
Sadāmatta, 155
See also god(s)
delusion, 71, 88, 120, 146, 206
See also desire, hatred, and delusion; ignorance
demigod(s), 216, 217, 221, 280, 292
Changle, 278
Chihua, 278
See also asura(s); gandharva(s); god(s) desire(s), 5, 20, 29, 30, 38, 54, 72, 124,
125, 130, 131, 133, 245, 246, 247,
248, 280, 297
carnal/sexual, 5, 124, 177, 234, 298, 306n16
ﬁve kinds of, 99, 120, 122, 287, 293
See also realm(s), desire
desire, hatred, and delusion, 240, 241
devas. See god(s)

dhāraṇī. See contemplation/contempla- tive recollection; magical incanta- tions/spells
Dharma, xvi, 5, 10, 73, 74, 76, 83, 87,
89–90, 91, 105, 120, 121, 122, 131,
132, 139, 141, 142, 146, 147, 148,
149, 206, 228, 245, 246, 247, 248,
288, 293
right, 47, 48, 71, 73, 120, 122, 138, 149,
175, 206, 246, 247, 248, 250, 262,
265, 283
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha Dharmaguptaka school, xiii, xiv, xv, xix
See also Vinaya, texts, Dharmaguptaka- vinaya
dhyāna. See meditative absorption, four states of
Dīgha Nikāya (Lengthy Discourses), xix, xxv, 305n8
and the Dīrgha Āgama, xiv–xvii
suttantas of, correlated with Dīrgha Āgama sutras, xv–xvi
and the “Sutra of Buddhist Cosmology” in the Chang ahan jing, xvi, xix
See also Chang ahan jing; Dīrgha Āgama; Nikāyas, ﬁvefold
Dīrgha Āgama (Lengthy Discourses), xiii, xviii
and the Dīgha Nikāya, xiv–xvii
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold;
Chang ahan jing; Dīgha Nikāya
disciple(s), xiii, xix, xxi, 3, 4, 33, 36, 38,
39, 45, 49, 54, 55, 75, 76, 84, 85,
108, 109, 110, 118, 240, 241, 270
path of, 251, 262, 266
saintly, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21, 29, 39, 55,
120, 122, 127, 144, 145, 146, 152,
198, 202, 206, 270, 287, 293
student, 33, 35, 49, 52, 68, 93, 94
See also bhikṣu(s); monk(s); śrāvaka(s)

discipline(s), 78, 84, 87, 88, 103, 270
moral, 4, 5, 6, 46, 288, 293
seven auxiliary, 303
Vinaya, 5, 47, 48, 144, 145, 146
See also practice(s); precept(s) dragon(s), 152, 207, 208–210
lords/kings:
Aboluo, 210
Alü, 210
Anavatapta, 210
Dechajia, 210
Jiapiluo, 210
Jiatu, 210
Jiejuluo, 210
Nanda, 207
Qujiatu, 210
Sāgaranāgarāja, 207
Sudṛśa, 210
Supratiṣṭhita, 210
Titoulaicha, 210
Upananda, 207
Yinapoluo, 210
Yushanqiebotou, 210
See also nāga(s) Doluopo, King, 301
Dṛṣhadhanu, 301
Dṛṣharatha (Laoche), 301
Duanjie, 301
E
eightfold noble path, 216
Ekkotarika Āgama (Gradually Increased Discourses), xv
emptiness, xxi, 250
enlightenment, 34, 35, 47, 50, 51, 78, 94,
141
perfect, 131, 133, 202
eon(s), xiii, 11, 13, 231, 232, 249, 284,
287, 293, 296
evolving and devolving, 11, 12

ﬁnal, 10, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
31
initial, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 21, 22, 30, 31
major, 201
median, 201
three medium-length, 280–284
eon of famine, 280, 282–283
eon of pestilence, 280, 283–284 eon of warfare, 280–282
evil(s), 5, 6, 9, 29, 45, 84, 113, 162, 198,
199, 202, 203, 234, 281
action(s)/deeds, 198, 199, 202, 203,
206, 302
course of life/destiny/paths, 146, 147,
148, 152, 172, 173, 300
habits, 204, 205, 206
mind, 146, 147, 148
evil ones, 32, 33, 34, 35, 50, 51, 78, 94,
141, 155, 244
See also Māra; Pāpīyas expediency/expedient means, 6, 116
F
Faxian, xix, 306n12
ﬂower(s), 6, 154, 160, 161, 162, 163,
164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171,
180, 182, 218, 219, 222, 223, 224,
227, 229, 286–287, 290, 291
bimbā, 229
garland(s), 7, 168, 169, 173, 180
jasmine, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 180
jiajiali, 229
mahābimbā, 229
mahāmāndāra, 229
māndāra, 229
shudishajiali, 229
See also lotus(es)/lotus blossom(s); trees; water lilies
forest(s)/grove(s), 3, 49, 50, 51, 57, 94,
95, 96, 107, 112, 123, 141, 142, 153,

forest(s)/grove(s) (continued);
159, 160, 163, 165, 169, 170, 175,
179, 188, 200, 228
Deer Forest, 83
Prince Jeta’s Grove, 81, 123, 151
Pāvārikamba, 75
See also pleasure garden(s)/grove(s); trees
four guardian gods/princes, xvii, 79, 152,
155, 221–222, 229, 231, 233, 234,
235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 244, 251,
256, 259, 260, 263, 266, 278, 279
Dhṛṭarāṣṭra, 220, 221
Vaiśravaṇa, 220, 221–222
Virūḍhaka, 220, 222
Virūpākṣa, 220, 222
four continents, 152, 182, 199, 255, 256,
257, 261, 262, 264, 267
Aparagodānīya, 156, 230, 231, 233,
234, 242, 291, 295–296
Jambudvīpa, 151, 156, 160, 162, 171,
173, 174, 175, 179, 181, 203, 228,
230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236, 242–
244, 289, 291, 294, 295, 296
Pūrvavideha, 156, 230, 231, 233, 234,
242–243, 291–292, 295–296
Uttarakuru, 156, 165, 166, 172–173,
230, 231, 233–234, 243, 292,
295–296
See also four quarters of the earth four immeasurables/four kinds of
immeasurable mind, 68, 103
Four Noble Truths, 73, 131, 133, 230 four quarters of the earth, 40, 56
See also four continents Fujian, xviii, xx, xxi
G
Gandhāra, King, 301
gandharva(s), 163, 221, 296

garuḍa(s), 152, 154, 157, 162, 208–210,
233, 234, 243, 278
Gautama, 5–10, 33–45, 49–52, 54–58,
68, 71, 83–89, 91, 94–96, 98, 102–
103, 123–124, 129–133, 141–142
See also Buddha; Śākyamuni; Tathā- gata
god(s), 21, 31, 33–35, 39, 47, 50, 51, 55,
72, 78–80, 94, 96, 114, 133, 141,
155, 174, 221, 222, 224, 227–236,
238–240, 244, 256–257, 269–276,
278–280, 295, 304
Ābhāsvara, 230, 232, 244, 256, 263,
264, 265, 266, 268, 269
Ābhāsvarasmṛti, 257
Akaniṣṭha, 230, 232, 244
Ākāśajñā, 244
Ākāśānantyāyatana, 155, 232
Ākiṃcanajña, 244
Ākiṃcanyāyatana, 155
Anabhraka, 244
Apramāṇa, 244
Apramāṇābha, 244
Apramāṇaśubha, 244
Asaṃjñi, 244
Asaṃjñika, 230
Asaṃjñisattva, 232
Atapa, 230, 232, 244
Avṛha, 230, 232, 244
Bhūmivaśavartin, 230
Brahmā, 14, 15, 80, 251, 252, 256, 257,
263, 284
Brahmagaṇa, 244
Brahmakāyika, 80, 230, 232, 244, 258,
262, 264, 265, 267
Brahmapurohita, 244
Bṛhatphala, 232, 244
heavenly, 58, 81, 175, 182, 206, 269,
270, 280
Mahābrahmā, 244

moon, 182, 293–294, 295
Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyātana, 155, 244
Nirmāṇarati, 229, 230, 23–232, 233,
234, 237, 244, 251, 252, 256, 258,
263, 264, 267, 279
Paranirmitavaśavartin, 229, 230, 232,
233, 234, 237, 244, 251, 252, 256,
258, 262, 263, 264, 267, 279
Parītta, 244
Parīttābha, 244
Parīttaśubha, 244
Puṇyaprasava, 230
of the stars and constellations, 296 Śubha, 244
Śubhakṛtsna, 230, 232, 244, 264, 266,
268
Sudarśana, 230, 232, 244
Sudṛśa, 230, 232, 244
sun, 182, 287–288
thirty-three/Trāyastriṃśa, 79, 155, 167,
170, 171, 222, 223, 224, 229, 231,
233, 234, 236, 239, 240, 244, 251,
252, 256, 260, 263, 264, 269, 270,
271, 273–279
ten great:
Bala, 228
Dhāra, 228
Indra, 228
Gopaka, 228
Jīva, 228
Lingxidu, 228
Nantou, 228
Pilou, 228
Piloupoti, 228
Wuluo, 228
Tuṣita, 79, 155, 229, 230, 231, 233, 234,
237, 244, 252, 256, 259, 263, 264,
267, 279
Vijñānajña, 244
Vijñānānantyāyatana, 155, 232

Yama, 231, 233, 234, 237, 244, 251,
252, 256, 259, 262, 263, 264, 267,
279
See also Brahmā; deity(ies); four guardian gods/princes; goddess(es);
Heavens, named; Indra; Śakra goddess(es):
earth, 245, 246, 247, 248
ﬁre, 247, 248
water, 246, 247, 248
wind, 248
See also god(s)
H
happiness, xvii, 30, 111, 112, 113, 114,
115, 116, 117, 118, 133, 206, 207,
215, 228, 233, 285, 288, 294, 299,
303, 304
heaven(s), xii, 15, 28, 74, 79–80, 83,
172, 203, 204, 205, 206, 210, 221–
222, 229, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236,
237, 250, 251, 261, 273, 279, 282,
284, 285, 287, 293
rebirth in, 72, 146, 147, 148, 245, 246,
247, 248, 281, 284
See also heavenly Heaven(s), named:
Ābhā, 244
Ābhāsvara, 13, 155, 230, 232, 244, 249,
250, 251, 256, 258, 262, 263, 264,
265, 266, 268, 269, 284, 285, 298
Abṛha, 155
Akaniṣṭha, 155, 230, 232, 244
Ākāśajñā, 244
Ākāśānantyāyatana, 155, 232
Ākiṃcanajña, 244
Ākiṃcanyāyatana, 155
Anabhraka, 155, 244
Apramāṇa, 244
Apramāṇābha, 244
Apramāṇaśubha, 244

Heaven(s), named (continued): Asaṃjñi, 244
Asaṃjñika, 230
Asaṃjñisattva, 155, 232
Atapa, 155, 230, 232, 244
Avṛha, 230, 232, 244
Bhūmivaśavartin, 230
Brahmā, 13, 14, 15, 41, 56, 68, 77, 80,
81, 94, 95, 96–97, 99, 100, 102, 103,
105, 152, 181, 202, 251, 252, 256,
257, 263, 284
Brahmagaṇa, 244
Brahmakāyika, 79–80, 155, 230, 232,
244, 258, 262, 264–265, 267
Brahmapurohita, 244
Bṛhatphala, 155, 232, 244, 250, 266,
268
Mahābrahmā, 244
Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyātana, 155, 244
Nirmāṇarati, 79, 152, 155, 229, 230,
231–232, 233, 234, 237, 244, 251,
252, 256, 258, 263, 264, 267, 279
Paranirmitavaśavartin, 79, 152, 155,
229, 230, 232, 233, 234, 237, 244,
251, 252, 256, 258, 262, 263, 264,
267, 279
Parītta, 244
Parīttābha, 244
Parīttaśubha, 244
Puṇyaprasava, 155, 230
Śubha, 244
Śubhakṛtsna, 155, 230, 232, 244, 250,
263, 264, 265, 266, 268
Sudarśana, 155, 230, 232, 244
Sudṛśa, 155, 230, 232, 244
Trāyastriṃśa, xvii, 79, 152, 157, 167,
170, 171, 222, 229, 231, 233, 236,
239, 240, 244, 251, 252, 256, 260,
263, 269, 270, 271, 273–279
Tuṣita, 79, 152, 155, 229, 230, 231,

233, 234, 237, 244, 252, 256, 259,
263, 264, 267, 279
Vijñānajña, 244
Vijñānānantyāyatana, 155, 232
Yama, 79, 152, 231, 233, 234, 237, 244,
251, 252, 256, 259, 262, 263, 264,
267, 279
heavenly, 14, 13, 174, 204, 205
beings/spirits, 229, 285, 287, 293
body/bodies, 97, 98, 128, 129, 135,
136–137, 138
consciousness, 235, 236
domain/realm/world(s), 173, 235, 264,
283
ﬂavor/tastes, 233, 235
fragrance(s), 167, 170
garment, 163, 165, 166, 168, 170, 180,
224, 225, 287, 293, 297
gold, 225, 286
Bhadra, 225
Subhadra, 225
maidens, 236
messenger(s), 204, 205, 206
path of, 262, 266
radiance, 40, 56
silver, 292
treasures, seven, 163
See also god(s), heavenly; heaven(s) hell(s), xvii, 83, 152, 182–207, 282
eight great, 183
Black Rope, 183, 190–191, 198, 199
Compression, 183, 191–192, 199
Conscious Recovery, 183–184, 198,
199
Fiery Heat, 183, 194–195, 199
Great Fiery Heat, 183, 196–197, 199
Great Screaming, 183, 193–194, 199
Screaming, 183, 193, 199
Unremitting Suffering, 183, 197–198,
199

realm(s), 251, 263, 266
sixteen smaller, 183
Axes and Hatchets, 183, 189
Black Sands, 183, 184, 191, 192,
193, 194, 195, 197, 198
Bladed Trees, 183, 189–190
Blood and Pus, 183, 187
Boiling Excrement, 183, 184–185
Cold and Icy, 183, 190, 191, 192,
193, 194, 195, 197, 198
Copper Cauldron, 183, 186
Copper Cauldrons, 183, 186
Fire Tending, 183, 187
Five Hundred Nailings, 183, 185
Grindstone, 183, 186–187
Iron Fetters, 183, 189
River of Ashes, 183, 187–188
Starvation, 183, 185
Thirst, 183, 185–186
Wolf Pack, 183, 189
Padma, 202
heretic(s)/heretical, 30, 241
See also Hindu; non-Buddhist hill(s)/hillock(s), 76, 88, 153, 160, 200,
215, 277, 281
seven, 163, 296
Baihe, 296
Chanshan, 296
Gaoshan, 296
Luotu, 296
Shougong, 296
Tushan, 296
Xianshan, 296
See also mound(s); mountain(s) Hinayana, xiv, xv, xx, xxi, xxii, xxiv
See also Theravāda Hindu, xiv, xvi
literary works, Purāṇas and Śāstras, 305n5
See also heretic(s)/heretical; non- Buddhist; Vedas

householder(s), 8, 33, 34, 40, 41, 42, 47,
49,50, 56, 57, 75, 76, 77, 78, 173,
177–178, 181, 182, 302
See also lay, devotee(s); vaiśya(s) Huibian, xix
Huiyüen, xix
hungry ghost(s), 231, 243, 244, 251, 266
realm, 251, 263, 266
I
ignorance, 48, 71, 78, 88, 120, 146, 206
See also delusion Ikṣvāku, King, 301–302
impermanence, 15, 128, 135, 232 Indian (language), 173, 306n23
See also Sanskrit
Indra, xvi, 224, 227, 228, 240, 271
See also Śakra insect(s), 166, 178, 281
bees/hornets, 170, 179, 281
ﬂeas/lice, 170
ﬂies/gadﬂies/horseﬂies, 85, 166, 170,
179, 281
grubs, 170, 179
mosquitoes, 166, 170, 179
See also animal(s)/creature(s) Īśvara, 96
J
Jātūkarṇya Vyāsa, 305n5 Jingji, 301
Jīvaka, Prince, 107, 110–112, 121, 122
K
Kaliṅga, King, 301 kalpa. See eon Kalyāṇa-jātika, xvii
kāmadhātu. See realm(s), desire Kaniṣka, King, xiv, 305n4 Kaṇṇagoccha, King, 301
Kakuda-katyāyana, 109, 116

Kāśyapa, 83–85, 86–88, 89–92, 96
Kaukālika, 202
Kaurava, King, 301
Khuddaka Nikāya (Short Discourses), xv
See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold
kṣatriya(s), 38, 54, 58, 61, 62–69, 97,
114, 115, 116, 118, 134, 174, 288,
294, 302–303, 304
See also class(es), four Kula, King, 302
Kumārajīva, xviii, xix, xx–xxi, 305–306n10
kumbhāṇḍa, 222
Kūṭadanta, 39, 49–53, 57, 58, 65, 66, 68–
74
L
lake(s), 160–162, 164, 166, 168, 169, 171,
218, 253, 290–291
Anavatapta, 160, 161–162, 164, 166,
180, 253
Sifangyan, 253
Sudarśana, 168, 169, 171, 253
Udyāna, 160
Upananda, 218, 219
See also pond(s) lay:
brāhmaṇas, 123
devotee(s)s, 48, 71, 73, 88, 120, 122,
138, 149, 245, 246, 247, 248
ordination, 39, 55
See also householder(s); laywoman laywoman, 87
lion’s roar, 89–90
lion throne, 112
Lohitya, 141–149 Lotus Association, xix
lotus(es)/lotus blossom(s), 160, 221, 26,
227, 297
blue, 177, 201, 221, 226

pink, 160
red, 160, 221, 226
yellow, 221, 226
white, 160, 221, 226
See also ﬂower(s); water lilies lotus posture, 76
Lüguang, General, xviii, 305–306n10
M
Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Dis- courses), xv
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold;
Majjhima Nikāya Madhyamaka, xxiii magic/magical, 76, 77
Gāndhārī, 77
gem, 167, 170
incantations/spells, 9
Mahāratnākara, 297
Mahāsammata, 297
Mahāsudarśana, 298 Mahayana, xvi, xxiii
sutras/texts, xx–xxiv Tripiṭaka, xv, xix, xx–xxi, xxiv
Majjhima Nikāya (Middle-length Dis- courses), xv
See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold; Madhyama Āgama
Maṇḍikā, 110
Māra, 155
See also evil ones; Pāpīyas
Maskarin Gośālīputra, 108, 115, 306n18
Maudgalyāyana, 202
meditation, 15, 112, 133, 152, 302 meditative absorption, four states of, 29–
30, 87, 103
ﬁrst, 29, 125
fourth, 30, 47, 125, 266
second, 29, 125, 251, 284
third, 29, 125, 262, 263

mendicant, three robes of, 47, 68, 78, 90,
119, 143, 144, 145, 206, 302, 303
See also robe(s); śramaṇa(s)
Miaomi, 301
mindful/mindfulness, 29, 78, 120, 125,
135, 146, 266
concentrated/of one’s point of obser- vation, 17, 47, 48, 203
Miti, 301
Mithila, King, 301 monk(s), xiii, xiv, xix, 119
See also bhikṣu(s); disciple(s); śra- maṇa(s); śravaka(s)
mound(s), 219, 222, 227, 260, 261
cemetery, 115, 205, 241
stone, 225
Anusudarśana (Shunshanjian), 225
Bhadra, 225, 227
Dina, 225
Mahāsukha (Taxi), 225
Subhadra, 225, 227
Sudarśana (Shanjian), 225
Sudina, 225
Sukha (Xi), 225
See also hill(s)/hillock(s); mountain(s) mountain(s, 100, 152, 153, 155, 157–159,
160, 163, 165, 166, 191, 196, 200,
241, 255, 256, 259, 260–261, 262,
264, 267, 281–282, 289–290, 302
Fragrant Mountain, 163
Himalaya/Snow Mountain, 160, 163
Jingangwei, 158–159
Mount Abanni, 260
Mount Binito, 261
Mount Jinganglun, 261, 290, 291
Mount Khadira, 207, 260, 289, 290
Mount Mashi, 158
Mount Dajinganglun, 261
Mount Diaofu, 158, 159, 261, 289, 290,
291

Mount Masi, 289
Mount Massu, 291
Mount Milin, 260–261
Mount Nimi, 289
Mount Nimin/Nimintoluo, 158, 289,
291
Mount Qu/Qutoluo, 157
Mount Shuchen/Shuchentoluo, 157,
158, 260
Mount Shuti, 289, 290, 291
Mount Sudarśana, 158
Mount Sudṛśa, 289, 291
Mount Sumeru, 152, 153, 154, 155,
156, 157, 200, 207, 216, 220, 222,
230, 252, 253, 255, 256, 257, 259,
260, 261, 262, 264, 267, 277, 278,
279, 285, 286, 289, 290
Mount Yisha/Yishatoluo, 157, 260,
289, 290
Mount Youzhan, 160
Suvarṇavarṇa (“Golden Wall”), 160
N
nāga(s), 157, 207–208, 222, 231, 233,
234, 243, 277–278
lord/king, 157, 162, 171, 180, 207,
224, 227
Irāpatra, 224, 227
Nanda, 277
Upananda, 277
See also dragon(s) Nikāyas, ﬁvefold, xiv–xv
See also Aṅguttara Nikāya; Dīgha Nikāya; Khuddaka Nikāya; Majjhima Nikāya; Saṃyutta Nikāya
Nikula, King, 302
Nirgrantha Jñātiputra, 110, 117
nirvana, 29–30, 31, 131, 133, 305n4
ﬁnal, 74, 90, 91, 207
non-Buddhist, xvi, 306n13
See also heretic(s)/heretical; Hindu

nonreturner, 126, 146
See also anāgāmin
non-self, 270
See also self/selfhood Numata, Dr. Yehan, xxiv Nyagrodha, 88
O
offering(s), 39, 40, 55, 69, 70, 72, 88, 89,
90, 97, 98, 108, 109, 110, 175, 182,
281
omniscient, 13, 14, 284
once-returner, 146
P
Pāli, xiv, xv, xvi, xix, xxiv, xxv, 29, 38, 83, 96, 306nn15, 17, 18, 21
See also Sanskrit Pali Text Society, xxv Pañcāla, King, 301
Pāpīyas, 244
See also evil ones; Māra Paramārtha/Paramount Pavilion/Pavilion
of the Supreme Victor, 276
parinirvāṇa. See nirvana, ﬁnal
path(s), 38, 40, 54, 56, 68, 75–78, 85, 90,
91, 94–98, 102, 113–119, 124, 143,
230, 251, 262, 266, 273, 302, 303,
306n22
of austerity/renunciation, 40, 47, 56,
100
authentic/right/ultimate, 8, 9 10, 245,
246, 247, 248
of Brahmā/to Brahmā Heaven, 95, 96,
103, 251, 262, 266
to the cessation/of liberation from suffering, 73, 131, 133, 215, 216,
230, 245, 246, 248
of disciples, 251, 262, 266
of distancing oneself from both pleasure and suffering, 245, 246, 247, 248

evil/false, 8, 9, 10, 152
of heaven, 251, 262, 266
of transcendence out of this world, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 264, 267,
268
See also eightfold noble path Pāyāsi, xvi
pleasure garden(s)/grove(s), 7, 154, 162,
164, 165, 169–171, 179, 182, 222,
224, 225, 226, 227, 236, 287
Abhilāṣa, 217, 218, 219
Citraprīti, 225, 227, 228
Cuse, 225, 227, 228
Denghua, 171
Jiapiyantou, 221
Mahāsudarśana, 171
Mahāsukha, 225, 226, 227, 228
Śāla, 217, 218, 219
Saṃsarga, 225, 226, 227, 228
Śobhanatara, 217, 218, 219
Sudarśana, 169, 171
Yāma, 217, 218, 219
Yuluo, 171
See also forest(s)/grove(s)
Poluosuntuo, 96
pond(s) 7, 31, 41, 49, 154, 160, 161, 162,
163, 164–165, 182, 221, 224, 226,
227, 236, 253, 287, 288, 294
Motuoyan, 163, 164, 166
Nalinni, 221
Nanda, 225, 227
Queen Gaggarā’s, 33, 34, 35, 41, 42
See also lake(s)
Poṭṭhapāda, 123–135, 139–140 practice(s), xvi, xvii, xviii, xxiii, xxv, 14,
15, 20, 22, 38, 40, 47, 54, 56, 71, 72,
73, 78, 85, 86, 90, 97, 98, 100, 103,
116, 151–152, 172, 212, 230, 302
ascetic/of austerity, 5, 34, 35, 47, 50,
51, 68, 78, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90,
91–92, 95, 113, 124, 130, 131, 133,

139–140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 206,
210, 242, 243, 303, 304
attachment to, 306n16 defective/wrong, 100, 302
of equanimity, 119
of the four immeasurable minds, 68, 103
harmonious, 299, 304
leading to meditative states of absorp- tion, 251, 252, 266
of non-harm, 38, 55
of patience, 273
prescribed/right, 22, 85
of silent introspection and analysis of doctrine, 151–152
of the threefold sacriﬁcial rite, 68 transcendent, 270
See also discipline(s); meditation Prasenajit, King, 33, 37, 39, 49, 53, 55,
141, 147
precept(s), 5, 38, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 54,
173, 237, 238, 239, 240, 288, 294
ﬁve, 39, 48, 55, 70, 71, 73, 306n22
Vinaya, 47, 48, 144, 145, 146
See also discipline(s), moral; Vinaya psychophysical elements, xix, 232, 252,
253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 264, 267,
268
ﬁve, 156
Purāṇa Kāśyapa, 108, 113 Pure Land, xix
Puṣkarasvādi, 39, 55, 93, 94, 95
Q
quiescence, 13, 16, 18, 21, 88, 131, 133
R
Rāhu/Rāhvasurin, King, 219–220, 277
See also asura(s) Rāhula, 302
Ratna, 301

Ratnākara, 301
realm(s), 68, 125, 156, 251, 263, 266,
270, 283, 304
of desire, 28, 74, 128, 129, 135, 136,
137, 138, 244
of form, 28, 129, 135, 136, 137, 138,
244
formless, 28, 129, 135, 136, 137, 138,
233, 244
of inﬁnite consciousness, 28, 126,
129, 135, 136, 137
of inﬁnite space, 28, 125, 126, 129,
135, 136, 137
of neither thought nor nonthought, 28, 126, 129, 135, 136, 137, 138
of nothingness, 28, 126, 127, 135,
136, 137, 138
rebirth, 46, 73, 92, 206, 210, 233, 281, 282
in heaven, 72, 146, 147, 245, 246, 247,
248
in the Pure Land, xix
See also birth
rite(s), 89, 99, 109, 181
sacriﬁcial, 33, 36, 37, 43, 49, 51–52,
53, 57–60, 62–64, 65–72, 83, 93,
94, 114, 141
river(s), 72, 76, 99, 100, 114, 165, 166,
168–169, 188, 200, 241, 253, 291,
292, 293
Aciravatī, 99, 253
Amoqie, 253
Ganges, 114, 162, 253
Guangying, 169
Gushe, 253
Indus, 162
Miaomi, 169
Miaoti, 169
Pochache, 162
Poluo, 253
Shandao, 162, 168
Sindhu, 253

river(s) (continued):
Situohe, 162
Yamunā, 253 Yangzi, xviii robe(s), 6, 302, 303
outer, 32, 72, 121, 123, 142
three, ix, 14, 15, 21, 47, 68, 78, 90, 119,
143, 144, 145, 206, 303
See also mendicant, three robes of
rūpadhātu. See realm(s), of form
S
Śakra, 227, 228, 239, 240, 269, 270,
271–275, 276, 279–280
See also Indra
sakṛdāgāmin. See once-returner sage(s), 34, 35, 50, 51, 95, 96–97, 142,
262, 296
Śākyamuni, xiii, xvi, xix, xxiii–xxiv, xxv
See also Bodhisattva; Buddha; clan(s), Śākya; Gautama
Saṃyukta Āgama (Mixed Discourses), xv
See also Āgamas, four/fourfold;
Saṃyutta Nikāya
Saṃyutta Nikāya (Mixed Discourses), xv, 306n12
See also Nikāyas, ﬁvefold; Saṃyukta Āgama
Sandhāna, xvi
sangha, xx, 5, 41, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 79,
91, 121
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha Sañjayī Vairaṭṭiputra, 110, 116
Sanskrit, xiv, xv, xxiv, xxv, 305n4, 306n21
See also Indian (language); Pāli Saptaparṇa Hall, 269, 270
Śāriputra, 202
śāstra. See commentaries/treatises Śatadhanu, 301
Śatajña, 301
Śataratha, 301

self/selfhood, 11–18, 23–26, 82, 89, 96,
123, 124, 125, 128–129, 130,
131–133, 211–213, 270, 283, 306n16
See also non-self Sengyou, xx, xxi Sengzhao, xxi, xxiv, xxv
sensation(s), 13, 16, 18, 20, 21, 30, 31,
126, 127, 171, 181, 270
See also sense(s)
sense(s), 31, 99, 118, 224, 228
faculties, six, 128, 134, 135, 136, 137,
138
ﬁve, 29, 40, 56, 58, 98, 120, 122, 227,
228, 269
object(s), 31, 99 scriptures/sutras/texts, xiii– xvii, xix, xxi,
xxii–xxv, 7, 32, 45, 82, 305nn4, 8;
306nn12, 15
astronomical, 9
brāhmaṇa/non-Buddhist, 33, 36, 43,
49, 52, 61, 64, 93, 141, 306n13
categories, ninefold/twelvefold, 305n2 esoteric, xxiii
Hinayana, xxii, xxiii Mahayana, xxii, xxiii
Prajñāpāramitā/Wisdom, xx, xxi, xxiii, xxiv
See also catalogues/collections; com- mentaries/treatises; Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma; Vinaya, texts
scriptures/sutras/texts, named:
Daśabhūmika-sūtra (Sutra on the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva Career), xviii
Dīpavaṃsa, 305n3 Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, 306n12 Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra, xxiv
Mahāsaṃnipāta-sūtra (Great Collec- tion Sutra), xxiii
Mahāvaṃsa, 305n3

Xukongyun pusa jing (Ākāśagarbha- sūtra; Sutra on Ākāśagarbha Bodhi- sattva), xx
Shansi, 301
Shanyü, 301
Shanyue, 301
Shemoli, 277
See also asura(s) Shentian, 301
Shiyü, 301
Shouzhi, 96
Shuixian, 301
Siṃhahanu, King, 302
skandhas. See psychophysical elements Soṇadaṇḍa, 33–35, 37, 41–42, 43–46, 48
spirit(s), 6, 9, 39, 40, 55, 56, 114, 124,
223, 228, 241, 242, 280, 283, 287,
293
ancestral, 204, 205
ﬁve great, 222
Daṇḍala, 222
Dīpaṃkara, 222
Hemabhadra, 222
Pañcāla, 222
Xiuyilumo, 222
guardian, 241–242
Manda, 228
śramaṇa(s), xvii, xviii, xix, 6–31, 34, 35,
47, 50, 51, 78, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88,
94, 100, 107–114, 117, 118, 119,
120, 123, 131, 133, 134, 135, 141,
142, 143, 146, 147, 173, 204, 205,
211, 215, 237, 238, 239, 240, 287,
293, 302–303
See also ascetic(s); bhikṣu(s); monk(s)
śrāvakas, 270
See also bhikṣu(s); disciple(s); monk(s) śrāvakayāna. See disciple(s), path of srotaāpanna. See stream-enterer Sthāvira/Sthāvira-Sarvāstivāda school,
xiii, xiv, xv

stream-enterer, 146
stupa. See commemorative tower(s) Sucarita, 301
Sudarśana, 301
Śuddhodana, King, 302
Sudharma Hall, 224, 225, 227, 228, 239,
269, 270, 271, 279
See also heaven(s), Trāyastriṃśa
śūdra(s), 97, 134, 302, 303
See also class(es), four Suniddha, 108
supernormal blessings, 173, 181 supernormal knowledge, three kinds of,
88, 120, 146, 306n20
supernormal power(s), 3, 4, 19, 42, 75, 76,
77, 78, 95, 134, 151, 277, 284, 285
three kinds of, 48, 71, 76, 78, 79
Sukamāṇavatodeyya, 39, 55
Suppiya, 3–4
Surasa, 301
Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma, xx, 305n2
See also Abhidharma; Tripiṭaka; Vinaya Swift and Urgent, 287, 293
See also god(s), moon, sun
T
Tathāgata, 3, 4, 6, 10, 12, 13, 16, 18, 21,
22, 31, 33, 34, 35, 41, 46, 47, 49,
57, 69, 71, 81, 87, 89–90, 94, 103–
104, 119, 121, 124, 130, 131–132,
133, 146, 152, 202, 206, 304
See also Buddha; World-honored One ten kinds of unwholesome behavior, 281,
282
ten kinds of wholesome behavior/ten norms of conduct, 65–66, 172, 173,
181, 242, 250, 262, 265, 281, 283,
288, 294
ten supreme titles, of Buddha/Tathāgata, 33, 34, 35, 49, 50, 51, 78, 94, 124,
141

Theravāda, xiv, xv
See also Hinayana
Thousand Lights, 287, 288, 294
See also god(s), moon, sun
three ancient collections of hymns. See
Vedas
Three Treasures, 39, 55, 72
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha Tibetan (language), xxiv, 305n4 Tipiṭaka. See Tripiṭaka
transcendental insight, 38, 54
treasure(s), 37, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66,
67, 154, 160, 177–178, 179, 286
seven kinds of, 157, 158, 159, 160,
161, 163, 164, 166, 168, 169, 170,
207, 208, 217, 218, 220, 221, 223–
224, 25, 226, 227, 258, 259, 260,
261, 265, 268, 269, 280, 286, 287,
289–290, 292, 293
seven, of a cakravartin/universal ruler, 173–174, 175–179, 182
dark blue horse, 173, 176, 182
divine gem, 173, 176–177
gentleman householder, 173, 177–
178, 181, 182
golden wheel, 173, 174–176
jadelike queen, 173, 177, 181
military commander, 173, 178–179,
181, 182
white elephant, 173, 176, 182
tree(s), 31, 49, 152, 153, 154, 155,
156–157, 159–160, 161, 162,
163–164, 165, 166, 167–168, 169,
170, 171–172, 175, 178, 180, 181,
182, 188, 190, 200, 203, 207, 208,
215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 224,
226, 228, 229, 236, 241, 252, 257,
276, 281, 286, 292, 296, 302
amolei, 159
anpoluo, 275–276
anshilin, 159

bamboo, 157, 158, 159
bonapoluo, 159
campaka/sandalwood, 159, 229
duoluoli, 160
grape, 160
helilei, 159
Jambu, 156, 159, 295, 296
jiaya, 160
Jielanfou, 156
jietuo, 160
Jinti, 156
Julishanpoluo, 157
kūṭaśālmali, 207, 208–210
mango/Mango, 107, 156, 159, 168
mokṣaka, 229
na, 159
nadoluo, 159
nannü, 159
Pārijāta, 218, 219, 226, 227, 228
pātalī, 229
piluo, 159
pine, 157, 158, 159
pixilei, 159
poluoluo, 160
poshi, 160
quchouoluo, 159
qugong, 167, 170
śāla, 141, 159, 163, 165
sanna, 159
made of seven kinds of treasure, 222– 224, 225, 226–228, 286–287, 292
Shanhua, 157
Shanju, 163, 164, 165
śiṃśapā, 49
sumanā, 229
tāla, 31, 159, 161, 254
tongnü, 229
vārṣika, 229
weigan, 159
weili, 159
weinan, 159

weinü, 159
xiangna, 159
xiumona, 160
yenpo, 159
zhanpo, 160
Zhoudu, 157, 228
Tripiṭaka, xiii, xiv, xv, xix, xx–xxiv, 303nn2, 4
U
Udāyibhadra, Crown Prince, 112 Udāyin, 110
universal ruler, xvi, xvii, 160, 173–174,
179
See also cakravartin
V
vaiśya(s), 97, 134, 302, 303
See also class(es), four; householder(s) Vaiśyamitra, 96
Vāmaka, 96
Vāmadeva, 96
Varṣakāra, 108
Vāseṭṭha, 93, 94–105
Vedas, 33, 36, 43, 49, 52, 61, 64, 93–94,
96–102, 141
Vidmisāra, King, 120, 121, 306nn17, 21
See also Bimbisāra, King view(s), 3, 4, 10–19, 21–23, 25, 26,
28–32, 123, 128, 129–133, 211, 212,
213, 215
common/worldly, 16, 18, 19, 22
eternalist, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18
evil/mistaken/wrong, 66, 143, 172,
175, 199, 210, 241, 242, 245, 246,
247, 248, 250, 283, 288, 294
right, 66, 181, 242, 283
Vinaya, xiii, xxi, 5, 47, 48, 144, 145, 146, 305n2
texts, xvii–xix, xxii, xxiii, xxiv, 47, 306n13

Daśabhāṇavāra-vinaya, xviii
Dharmaguptaka-vinaya (Sifen lü/Vi- naya in Four Divisions), xviii–xix
Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya, 306n12
See also Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma
W
water lilies, 157, 158, 159, 161, 164,
229, 290
blue/utpala, 157, 161, 164, 229, 290
pink/padma, 157, 229, 290
red/kumuda, 157, 161, 164, 229, 290
sugandha, 229, 290
white/puṇḍarīka, 157, 161, 164, 229,
290
yellow, 161, 164
See also ﬂower(s); lotus(es)/lotus blossom(s)
world(s), 5, 11–19, 21–23, 25–27, 30, 31,
46, 71, 74, 78, 80, 87, 94, 95–98,
103, 114, 119, 124, 130–133, 146,
151, 152, 173, 174, 180–200, 206,
210–213, 232, 236–240, 250–257,
262–268, 276, 281, 283–285, 287,
293, 295, 298, 299
heavenly, 235, 264
human, 14, 15, 21, 89, 174, 237–240,
251, 263, 266, 298
World-honored One, 3–4, 42, 44–45, 46,
57, 58, 69, 72–73, 75, 81, 82, 83,
95, 112–113, 115–122, 123–124,
127, 131, 132, 136, 138, 142–143,
146 149, 151–152, 198, 205, 208,
214, 215, 290, 292
See also Buddha; Tathāgata worldly, 38, 40, 54, 56, 302, 303
mentality/views, 19, 78, 120, 146
Wuluopo, King, 302
X
Xuanzang, xiv, xxiv, 305n4

Y
yakṣa(s), 165
Yamataggi, 96
Yangmu, 301
Yaoxing, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, 305–306n10 Yili, 301
Yogācāra, xxii

Z
Zhexing, 301 Zhi Faling, xix Zhisheng, 301
Zhouzhu, 301 Zhu Fonian, xviii

BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series)

Abbreviations
Ch.: Chinese Skt.: Sanskrit Jp.: Japanese
Eng.: Published title

Title Taishō No.
Ch. Skt. Eng. Chang ahan jing (長阿含經) Dīrghāgama
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses
(Volume I, 2015)
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses
(Volume II, 2016)
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses
(Volume III, 2018) 1
Ch. Skt. Eng. Zhong ahan jing (中阿含經) Madhyamāgama
The Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Discourses),
(Volume I, 2013) 26
Ch. Dasheng bensheng xindi guan jing (大乘本生心地觀經) 159
Ch. Skt. Eng. Fo suoxing zan (佛所行讃) Buddhacarita
Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha’s Acts (2009) 192
Ch. Eng. Zabao zang jing (雜寶藏經)
The Storehouse of Sundry Valuables (1994) 203
Ch. Eng. Faju piyu jing (法句譬喩經)
The Scriptural Text: Verses of the Doctrine, with Parables (1999) 211
Ch. Skt. Xiaopin banruo boluomi jing (小品般若波羅蜜經) Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra 227

331

(勝鬘師子吼一乘大方便方廣經)

(藥師琉璃光如來本願功徳經)

(大方廣圓覺修多羅了義經)
Eng. The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment
(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)
Ch. Da Biluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing 848
(大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經)
Skt. Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi-vikurvitādhiṣṭhāna-vaipulyasūtrendra- rājanāma-dharmaparyāya
Eng. The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra (2005)
Ch. Jinggangding yiqie rulai zhenshi she dasheng xianzheng dajiao
wang jing (金剛頂一切如來眞實攝大乘現證大教王經) 865
Skt. Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṃgraha-mahāyānā-bhisamaya-mahākalparāja Eng. The Adamantine Pinnacle Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)
Ch. Suxidi jieluo jing (蘇悉地羯囉經) 893
Skt. Susiddhikara-mahātantra-sādhanopāyika-paṭala
Eng. The Susiddhikara Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)
Ch. Modengqie jing (摩登伽經) 1300
Skt. *Mātaṅgī-sutra
Eng. The Mātaṅga Sutra (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)

Ch. Skt. Mohe sengqi lü (摩訶僧祇律)
*Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya 1425
Ch. Skt. Sifen lü (四分律)
*Dharmaguptaka-vinaya 1428
Ch. Pāli Shanjianlü piposha (善見律毘婆沙) Samantapāsādikā 1462
Ch. Skt. Eng. Fanwang jing (梵網經)
*Brahmajāla-sutra
The Brahmā’s Net Sutra (2017) 1484
Ch. Skt. Eng. Youposaijie jing (優婆塞戒經) Upāsakaśīla-sutra
The Sutra on Upāsaka Precepts (1994) 1488
Ch. Skt. Eng. Miaofa lianhua jing youbotishe (妙法蓮華經憂波提舍) Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-upadeśa
The Commentary on the Lotus Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013) 1519
Ch. Skt. Shizha biposha lun (十住毘婆沙論)
*Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā 1521
Ch. Skt. Eng. Fodijing lun (佛地經論)
*Buddhabhūmisutra-śāstra
The Interpretation of the Buddha Land (2002) 1530
Ch. Skt. Apidamojushe lun (阿毘達磨倶舍論) Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya 1558
Ch. Skt. Zhonglun (中論) Madhyamaka-śāstra 1564
Ch. Skt. Yüqie shidilun (瑜伽師地論) Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra 1579
Ch. Eng. Cheng weishi lun (成唯識論)
Demonstration of Consciousness Only
(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999) 1585
Ch. Skt. Eng. Weishi sanshilun song (唯識三十論頌) Triṃśikā
The Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only
(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999) 1586

(金剛頂瑜伽中發阿耨多羅三藐三菩提心論) Eng. The Bodhicitta Śāstra (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)
Ch. Dasheng qixin lun (大乘起信論) 1666
Skt. *Mahāyānaśraddhotpāda-śāstra Eng. The Awakening of Faith (2005)

Ch. Shimoheyan lun (釋摩訶衍論) 1668
Ch. Pāli Naxian biqiu jing (那先比丘經) Milindapañhā 1670
Ch. Eng. Banruo boluomiduo xin jing yuzan (般若波羅蜜多心經幽賛) A Comprehensive Commentary on the Heart Sutra (Prajñāpāramitā-hṛdaya-sutra) (2001) 1710
Ch. Miaofalianhua jing xuanyi (妙法蓮華經玄義) 1716
Ch. Guan wuliangshou fo jing shu (觀無量壽佛經疏) 1753
Ch. Sanlun xuanyi (三論玄義) 1852
Ch. Dasheng xuan lun (大乘玄論) 1853
Ch. Eng. Zhao lun (肇論)
Essays of Sengzhao (in Three Short Treatises by Vasubandhu, Sengzhao, and Zongmi, 2017) 1858
Ch. Huayan yisheng jiaoyi fenqi zhang (華嚴一乘教義分齊章) 1866
Ch. Eng. Yuanren lun (原人論)
Treatise on the Origin of Humanity (in Three Short Treatises by Vasubandhu, Sengzhao, and Zongmi, 2017) 1886
Ch. Mohe zhiguan (摩訶止觀) 1911
Ch. Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao (修習止觀坐禪法要) 1915
Ch. Eng. Tiantai sijiao yi (天台四教儀)
A Guide to the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings
(in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013) 1931
Ch. Guoqing bai lu (國清百録) 1934
Ch. Eng. Zhenzhou Linji Huizhao chanshi wulu (鎭州臨濟慧照禪師語録)
The Recorded Sayings of Linji (in Three Chan Classics, 1999) 1985
Ch. Eng. Foguo Yuanwu chanshi biyan lu (佛果圜悟禪師碧巖録)
The Blue Cliff Record (1998) 2003
Ch. Eng. Wumen guan (無門關)
Wumen’s Gate (in Three Chan Classics, 1999) 2005
Ch. Eng. Liuzu dashi fabao tan jing (六祖大師法寶壇經)
The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (2000) 2008

Ch. Xinxin ming (信心銘) 2010
Eng. The Faith-Mind Maxim (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)
Ch. Huangboshan Duanji chanshi chuanxin fayao 2012A (黄檗山斷際禪師傳心法要)

Ch. Eng.
Ch. Datang xiyu ji (大唐西域記)
The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (1996)
Youfangjichao: Tangdaheshangdongzheng zhuan 2087

2089-(7)
(遊方記抄: 唐大和上東征傳)
Ch. Eng. Hongming ji (弘明集)
The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Volume I, 2015)
The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Volume II, 2017) 2102
Ch. Fayuan zhulin (法苑珠林) 2122
Ch. Eng. Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan (南海寄歸内法傳)
Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia (2000) 2125
Ch. Fanyu zaming (梵語雑名) 2135
Jp. Eng. Shōmangyō gisho (勝鬘經義疏)
Prince Shōtoku’s Commentary on the Śrīmālā Sutra (2011) 2185
Jp. Eng. Yuimakyō gisho (維摩經義疏)
The Expository Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sutra (2012) 2186
Jp. Hokke gisho (法華義疏) 2187
Jp. Hannya shingyō hiken (般若心經秘鍵) 2203
Jp. Daijō hossō kenjin shō (大乘法相研神章) 2309
Jp. Kanjin kakumu shō (觀心覺夢鈔) 2312
Jp. Eng. Risshū kōyō (律宗綱要)
The Essentials of the Vinaya Tradition (1995) 2348
Jp. Eng. Tendai hokke shūgi shū (天台法華宗義集)
The Collected Teachings of the Tendai Lotus School (1995) 2366
Jp. Kenkairon (顯戒論) 2376
Jp. Sange gakushō shiki (山家學生式) 2377
Jp. Eng. Hizōhōyaku (秘藏寶鑰)
The Precious Key to the Secret Treasury (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2426

Jp. Eng. Benkenmitsu nikyō ron (辨顯密二教論)
On the Differences between the Exoteric and Esoteric Teachings (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2427
Jp. Eng. Sokushin jōbutsu gi (即身成佛義)
The Meaning of Becoming a Buddha in This Very Body
(in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2428
Jp. Eng. Shōji jissōgi (聲字實相義)
The Meanings of Sound, Sign, and Reality (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2429
Jp. Eng. Unjigi (吽字義)
The Meanings of the Word Hūṃ (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2430
Jp. Eng. Gorin kuji myōhimitsu shaku (五輪九字明秘密釋)
The Illuminating Secret Commentary on the Five Cakras and the Nine Syllables (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2514
Jp. Eng. Mitsugonin hotsuro sange mon (密嚴院發露懺悔文)
The Mitsugonin Confession (in Shingon Texts, 2004) 2527
Jp. Eng. Kōzen gokoku ron (興禪護國論)
A Treatise on Letting Zen Flourish to Protect the State
(in Zen Texts, 2005) 2543
Jp. Eng. Fukan zazengi (普勧坐禪儀)
A Universal Recommendation for True Zazen
(in Zen Texts, 2005) 2580
Jp. Eng. Shōbōgenzō (正法眼藏)
Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume I, 2007) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume II, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume III, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume IV, 2008) 2582
Jp. Eng. Zazen yōjin ki (坐禪用心記)
Advice on the Practice of Zazen (in Zen Texts, 2005) 2586
Jp. Eng. Senchaku hongan nenbutsu shū (選擇本願念佛集) Senchaku Hongan Nembutsu Shū: A Collection of Passages on the Nembutsu Chosen in the Original Vow (1997) 2608
Jp. Eng. Kenjōdo shinjitsu kyōgyō shōmon rui (顯淨土眞實教行証文類) Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Enlightenment (2003) 2646

Jp. Tannishō (歎異抄) 2661
Eng. Tannishō: Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith (1996)
Jp. Rennyo shōnin ofumi (蓮如上人御文) 2668
Eng. Rennyo Shōnin Ofumi: The Letters of Rennyo (1996)
Jp. Ōjōyōshū (往生要集) 2682
Jp. Risshō ankoku ron (立正安國論) 2688
Eng. Risshōankokuron or The Treatise on the Establishment of the Orthodox Teaching and the Peace of the Nation (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)
Jp. Kaimokushō (開目抄) 2689
Eng. Kaimokushō or Liberation from Blindness (2000)
Jp. Kanjin honzon shō (觀心本尊抄) 2692
Eng. Kanjinhonzonshō or The Most Venerable One Revealed by Introspecting Our Minds for the First Time at the Beginning of the Fifth of the Five Five Hundred-year Ages (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)
Ch. Fumu enzhong jing (父母恩重經) 2887
Eng. The Sutra on the Profundity of Filial Love
(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)
Jp. Hasshūkōyō (八宗綱要) extracanonical Eng. The Essentials of the Eight Traditions (1994)
Jp. Sangō shīki (三教指帰) extracanonical
Jp. Mappō tōmyō ki (末法燈明記) extracanonical Eng. The Candle of the Latter Dharma (1994)
Jp. Jūshichijō kenpō (十七條憲法) extracanonical

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THE CANONICAL BOOK OF THE BUDDHA’S LENGTHY DISCOURSES

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