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THE COLLECTION FOR THE PROPAGATION AND CLARIFICATION OF BUDDHISM

VOLUME I

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BDK English Tripiṭaka Series

THE COLLECTION FOR THE PROPAGATION AND CLARIFICATION OF BUDDHISM

VOLUME I

(Taishō Volume 52, Number 2102)

Translated from the Chinese by

Harumi Hirano Ziegler

Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Inc.

2015

—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise— without the prior written permission of the publisher.

First Printing, 2015

ISBN: 978-1-886439-49-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014957879

Published by BDK America, Inc. 1675 School Street

Moraga, California 94556 Printed in the United States of America

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka

The Buddhist canon is said to contain eighty-four thousand different teachings. I believe that this is because the Buddha’s basic approach was to prescribe a different treatment for every spiritual ailment, much as a doctor prescribes a different medicine for every medical ailment. Thus his teachings were always appropriate for the particular suffering individual and for the time at which the teaching was given, and over the ages not one of his prescriptions has failed to relieve the suffering to which it was addressed.

Ever since the Buddha’s Great Demise over twenty-ﬁve hundred years ago, his message of wisdom and compassion has spread throughout the world. Yet no one has ever attempted to translate the entire Buddhist canon into English throughout the history of Japan. It is my greatest wish to see this done and to make the translations available to the many English-speaking people who have never had the opportunity to learn about the Buddha’s teachings.

Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha’s eighty- four thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty- nine of the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project.

It is in the nature of this undertaking that the results are bound to be criticized. Nonetheless, I am convinced that unless someone takes it upon himself or herself to initiate this project, it will never be done. At the same time, I hope that an improved, revised edition will appear in the future.

It is most gratifying that, thanks to the efforts of more than a hundred Buddhist scholars from the East and the West, this monumental project has ﬁnally gotten off the ground. May the rays of the Wisdom of the Compassionate One reach each and every person in the world.

NUMATA Yehan Founder of the English

August 7, 1991 Tripiṭaka Project

Editorial Foreword

In January 1982, Dr. NUMATA Yehan, the founder of Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), decided to begin the monumental task of translating the complete Taishō edition of the Chinese Tripiṭaka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year, the Translation Committee of the English Tripiṭaka was ofﬁcially convened.

The initial Committee consisted of the following members: (late) HANAYAMA Shōyū (Chairperson), (late) BANDŌ Shōjun, ISHIGAMI Zennō, (late) KAMATA Shigeo, (late) KANAOKA Shūyū, MAYEDA Sengaku, NARA Yasuaki, (late) SAYEKI Shinkō, (late) SHIOIRI Ryōtatsu, TAMARU Noriyoshi, (late) TAMURA Kwansei, URYŪZU Ryūshin, and YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWA Atsushi, WATANABE Shōgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium.

After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred thirty-nine texts for the First Series of translations, an estimated one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected are not necessarily limited to those originally written in India but also include works written or composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published.

Frankly speaking, it will take perhaps one hundred years or more to accom- plish the English translation of the complete Chinese and Japanese texts, for they consist of thousands of works. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue unto completion, even after all its present members have passed away.

Dr. NUMATA passed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven, entrust- ing his son, Mr. NUMATA Toshihide, with the continuation and completion of the Translation Project. The Committee also lost its able and devoted Chairperson,

Professor HANAYAMA Shōyū, on June 16, 1995, at the age of sixty-three. After these severe blows, the Committee elected me, then Vice President of Musashino Women’s College, to be the Chair in October 1995. The Committee has renewed its determination to carry out the noble intention of Dr. NUMATA, under the lead- ership of Mr. NUMATA Toshihide.

The present members of the Committee are MAYEDA Sengaku (Chairperson), ICHISHIMA Shōshin, ISHIGAMI Zennō, KATSURA Shōryū, NAMAI Chishō, NARA Yasuaki, SAITŌ Akira, SHIMODA Masahiro, Kenneth K. Tanaka, WATANABE Shōgo, and YONEZAWA Yoshiyasu.

The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established in November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publication of the BDK English Tripiṭaka First Series. The Publication Committee was organized at the Numata Center in December 1991. In 2010, the Numata Center’s operations were merged into Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Inc. (BDK America) and BDK America continues to oversee the English Tripiṭaka project in close coop- eration with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo.

MAYEDA Sengaku

Chairperson

Editorial Committee of

the BDK English Tripiṭaka

Publisher’s Foreword

The initial translation and editing of the Buddhist scriptures found in this and other BDK English Tripiṭaka volumes are performed under the direction of the Editorial Committee in Tokyo, Japan. Both the Editorial Committee in Tokyo and the Publication Committee, headquartered in Berkeley, California, are ded- icated to the production of accurate and readable English translations of the Buddhist canon. In doing so, the members of both committees and associated staff work to honor the deep faith, spirit, and concern of the late Reverend Dr. Yehan Numata, who founded the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series in order to dis- seminate the Buddhist teachings throughout the world.

The long-term goal of our project is the translation and publication of the texts in the one hundred-volume Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, along with a number of influential extracanonical Japanese Buddhist texts. The list of texts selected for the First Series of this translation project may be found at the end of each volume in the series.

As Chair of the Publication Committee, I am deeply honored to serve as the fifth person in a post previously held by leading figures in the field of Buddhist studies, most recently by my predecessor, John R. McRae.

In conclusion, I wish to thank the members of the Publication Committee for their dedicated and expert work undertaken in the course of preparing this volume for publication: Senior Editor Marianne Dresser, Dr. Hudaya Kandahjaya, Dr. Carl Bielefeldt, Dr. Robert Sharf, and Rev. Brian Kensho Nagata, President of BDK America.

A. Charles Muller Chairperson Publication Committee

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka

	NUMATA Yehan	v
Editorial Foreword	MAYEDA Sengaku	vii
Publisher’s Foreword	A. Charles Muller	ix
Translator’s Introduction	Harumi Hirano Ziegler	xv

The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism, Volume I Fascicle One

Preface 3

Mouzi’s [Discourse on] the Elucidation of Delusions (Lihuolun),

or the Exposition by Mouzi Bo, Governor of Cangwu Prefecture 5

The Discourse to Correct Faulty Accusations [against Buddhism] (Zhengwulun) by an Anonymous Writer 37

Fascicle Two

The Discourse to Clarify Buddhism (Mingfolun) by Zong Bing

of the Jin Dynasty 49

Fascicle Three

The Discourse to Explain the [Buddhist] Way (Yudaolun)

by Sun Chuo 91

Response to He Chengtian’s Letter by Layman Zong Bing:

The Criticism on the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy

(Baiheilun) 100

He’s Letter to Zong 100

Zong’s Response to He’s Letter 101

The Elucidation of the Criticism on [the Discourse on] the Equality of Good (Junshanlun) (i.e., the Discourse on

Buddhist Laymen and Clergy) by He Chengtian 107

Response to He of Hengyang, the Criticism on the Elucidation

of the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy by Zong Bing 115

He’s Second Response to Zong 122

Fascicle Four

The Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life (Daxinglun)

by He Chengtian 125

The Expatiation of the Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life

of He of Hengyang by Yan Yanzhi 127

Response to Yan of Yongjia 129

The Second Expatiation to He of Hengyang 132

The Second Response to Yan of Yongjia 138

The Third Expatiation to He of Hengyang 144

Fascicle Five

The Discourse on Regeneration (Gengshenglun)

by Luo Junzhang 161

Sung Changsha’s Letter [to Luo Junzhang] by Anguo (Sun Sheng) 162

Response to Sun [Sheng] 163

The Discourse on the Immortality of the Spirit (Shen bumielun)

by Zheng Daozi 164

The New Discourse on Body and Spirit by Huan Junshan 170

The Discourse on Why Śramaṇas Do Not Bow to the Sovereign

(Shamen bujing wangzhelun) by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan 174

Section One: Lay Buddhists 175

Section Two: The Buddhist Clergy 177

Section Three: Those Who Pursue the Ultimate Law of Nature Do Not Follow the Principle of the Mutation [of Birth and

Death in the Phenomenal World] 178

Section Four: Those Who Have Mastered the Ultimate Way Do Not Respond to the World by Serving Both [for Relief

by Politics and Emancipation by Religion] 180

Section Five: The Body is Mortal but the Spirit is Immortal 183

The Discourse on the Śramaṇa’s Robe Worn with a Bared Shoulder

(Shamen tanfulun) by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan 190

A Criticism by He [Wuji], Zhennan [General] 192

Contents

Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan’s Response [to He] 193

The Discourse on the Clariﬁcation of Reward and Retribution

(Ming baoyinglun) by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan,

Responding to Huan [Xuan] of Nanjun 196

The Discourse on Three Periods of Reward and Retribution (Sanbaolun), Composed for Those Who Doubt That There is No Testimony of [Reward or Retribution] Corresponding to Good

or Bad Conduct, by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan 202

Fascicle Six

The Discourse to Elucidate the Refutation (Shibolun)

by Shi Daoheng 207

The Discourse to Rectify [the Argument on] the Two Teachings

(Zheng erjiaolun) by Ming Zhengjun 221

Family Law (Menlü) by Zhang Rong and the Criticism

by Zhou [Yong, Director of] Shan 230

A Letter Given to He [Dian], He [Yin], Kong [Zhigui], Kong

[Zhongzhi], and Zhou [Yong, Director of] Shan, Shanci 230

Response to Zhang’s Letter Together with Questions to Zhang 231

The Second Letter Given to Zhou with Answers to His Questions 234

The Second Response and Further Questions by Zhou Yong 239

Letter to the Daoist Gu [Huan] by Xie Zhenzhi 245

The Second Letter Given to the Daoist Gu 251

Fascicle Seven

Critique of the Daoist Gu’s Discourse on the Non-Chinese

and the Chinese by Zhu Zhaozhi, Attendant-in-Ordinary 257

Doubts about the Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese

and Inquiries to the Daoist Gu by Zhu Guangzhi 265

The Disputation on the Daoist Gu’s Discourse on the Non-Chinese

and the Chinese by Huitong at Yecheng [Temple] 273

The Discourse on the Western Tribe and China (Rong hualan), Breaking the Daoist Gu’s Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the

Chinese, by Shi Sengmin at Guangling 282

xiii

A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series) 361

Translator’s Introduction

The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, volume 52, number 2102, 1a3–96b3) is a compilation by Shi Sengyou (445–518), a Vinaya master of the Liang dynasty (502–557) consisting mainly of discourses, critical responses to anti-Buddhist discourses, correspon- dence, reports to the emperor, family codes, and written appeals by Buddhist laypeople and monks, mostly from the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420) through the second decade of the sixth century of the Liang dynasty. These writings were intended to protect the Buddhist Dharma from interference by those who valued the teachings based on Confucianism and Daoism, and by the political powers of the time, as well as in order to promulgate Buddhism.

Sengyou was deeply concerned about delusions and misinformation held by anti-Buddhists, which he saw as a major cause of negative views toward Buddhism. In his Afterword to the Collection for the Propagation and Clari- ﬁcation of Buddhism (in Volume II, forthcoming), he lists six kinds of secular scholars’ doubts about Buddhism: (1) what the Buddhist scriptures expound is preposterous and unveriﬁable; (2) since one’s spirit perishes when one dies, it is hardly possible that the spirit will transmigrate in the three periods of existence;

(3) no one has ever seen the real Buddha and his teaching has no beneﬁt to state governance; (4) the Dharma teaching did not exist in ancient times and emerged only recently during the Han period; (5) the Buddhist teaching should exist only in the region of the western tribes as its ediﬁcation is not for Chinese people; and (6) the Dharma was rarely practiced in the Han and Wei periods and began ﬂourishing only during the Jin period.

Sengyou believed that “The Way is propagated by people, and the teaching is clariﬁed by literature.” By collecting literary works from distinctive scholars of former ages that were intended to dispel wrong views toward Buddhism, which included expressions to protect Buddhism and were advantageous in pro- tecting the Three Treasures, he hoped to disperse these doubts.

Historical Background

Buddhist teachings transmitted to China before the Common Era were initially practiced only among non-Chinese groups. During the Han dynasty, the Buddhist clergy consisted of śramaṇas from India or Central Asia, and there was not a large number of Chinese followers. Around the middle of the third century we see the remarkable activities of a Chinese Buddhist group led by Zhu Shixing (or Zixing). More conspicuous activities of Chinese monks can be seen during the time of the Eastern Jin dynasty. Thanks to eminent Chinese monks such as Zhi Dun (314–366), Daoan (312–385), and Huiyuan (334– 416), who expended great effort to spread Buddhist teachings, the number of Chinese monks notably increased. Intellectuals who were well versed in the Chinese classics, such as the Zhuangzi and the Laozi Daodejing, and who enjoyed “pure talks” (qingtan), became increasingly devoted to Buddhism. By the early sixth century, when Sengyou compiled the Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (hereafter, the Collection), Buddhism had come to ﬂourish in both north and south China.

The growth of Buddhism subsequently caused serious conﬂicts between Buddhists and non-Buddhists in political and social arenas and thought. People became more aware that the Buddhist teachings differed signiﬁcantly from Confucianism and Daoism in many ways. Moreover, lay Buddhists’ enthusiasm resulted in the construction of many Buddhist temples and pagodas, which caused ﬁnancial burden on civil administration and society, and the increasing number of monks who did not observe the precepts and engaged in secular life and business contributed to the deterioration of the sangha. In the north, where non-Chinese groups had ruled continuously since the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty (316), government reaction to the ascendancy of Buddhism resulted in Emperor Wu’s persecution of Buddhists between 446 and 452 during the Northern Wei dynasty. In the south, where the Chinese established political power successively, there was no such large-scale Buddhist perse- cution, but there were longstanding serious conﬂicts between Buddhists and non-Buddhists. Accordingly, Buddhist groups became the target of criticism from anti-Buddhist groups and were compelled to explain their positions and protect Buddhism at the same time.

Translator’s Introduction

Characteristics and Significance

The Collection is widely known as an invaluable source to examine the early development of Chinese Buddhism. It offers much insight into how Buddhism, a foreign religion, was accepted in Chinese society, mainly by intellectuals of the southern dynasties, and how these early adopters understood the Buddhist tenets in relation to their abundant knowledge of the Chinese classics. In fact, we ﬁnd various issues encountered by Buddhists to be deeply rooted in Chinese society and belief: whether or not the spirit perishes after death; the causality of reward and retribution in the three periods of existence; the differing viewpoints of the sovereign and of monks; Chinese monks’ beliefs and Chinese customs and thought on such notions as ﬁlial piety, taking the tonsure, and styles of personal deportment (such as manners of sitting, eating, and dress); lay Buddhists’ religious practices; a ruler’s attempt to recruit monks for his brain trust; and criticism of Daoism.

A notable aspect of this work is that Buddhist tenets are explained using Confucian and Daoist terminology. It is widely known that geyi, a way to interpret Buddhist scriptures by means of the philosophy asserted in the Laozi Daodejing and the Zhuangzi, was popular during the Eastern Jin period. It began with Zhu Faya and Kang Falang who studied with Daoan under Fotu- deng. Even though Daoan criticized geyi, it is known that he allowed only Huiyuan, his eminent disciple, to explain Buddhist doctrines using non- Buddhist texts. We see many examples of this tendency in this work.

In addition to geyi, throughout the Hongmingji authors quote from the Chinese classics and historical records to support their arguments. Wherever possible I have tried to indicate in the notes the sources of these quotations together with available English translations.

Moreover, the Collection is a valuable source to examine the early stage of Daoism in the south, particularly the Daoist school called the Way of the Five Pecks of Grains (Wudoumidao), or the Way of the Celestial Master (Tianshidao). For instance, in fascicle eight (in Volume II of this translation, forthcoming), in Shi Xuanguang’s criticism of Daoism, Daoist practices, and rituals such as the “unity of the yin-yang vapors” (heqi) and the “mud and ash fête” (tutanzhai) are described. In addition, we ﬁnd the titles of each

xvii

position of the organization together with their derivations. A scarcity of clearly dated Daoist sources for studies of early Daoism is a crucial problem in current scholarship. Although the Collection is a Buddhist work from chieﬂy the fourth and ﬁfth centuries, it also serves well as a primary source for contemporary Daoism.

Finally, it should be noted that this text served as inspiration for Dao- xuan (596–667), who took Sengyou’s compilation as his model in compiling his own Extensive Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Guang Hongmingji) in 664.

Questions on the Compilation

The text of the Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism currently circulated consists of fourteen fascicles, with ﬁfty-eight headings. Sengyou, however, lists this work as consisting of ten fascicles together with a table of contents, with thirty-three headings, in his compilation Collection of Records Derived from the Tripiṭaka (Chusanzangjiji), completed around 515 in the last years of his life. The Buddhist catalogue Zhongjing mulu com- piled by Fajing in 593 lists this text as being comprised of ten fascicles as well, but Fei Changfang’s catalogue Lidai sanbaoji completed in 597 records the Collection as consisting of fourteen fascicles. Questions about the com- pletion of the fourteen-fascicle text are still controversial and require further research.

Note on the Translation

Citations from the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō are listed in this form: Taishō serial number; volume number; page; register (a, b, or c); line number(s). For example, Taizi ruiying benqi jing, T.185.3:472c1–483a13.

Transliterations of Chinese language follow the Pinyin system. Japanese Romanization follows the modiﬁed Hepburn system as employed in Kenkyūsha’s New Japanese-English Dictionary (third and later editions).

THE COLLECTION FOR THE PROPAGATION AND CLARIFICATION OF BUDDHISM VOLUME I

Compiled by Shi Sengyou at Jianchu Temple in Yangdu during the Liang dynasty

Fascicle One

Preface

The awakening [of the Buddha] is as boundless as the ocean. The wisdom [of the Buddha] is as completely illuminating as a mirror. The ediﬁcation [of the Buddha] ingeniously spreads throughout the universe; in fact, it created [the sage kings] Yao and Shun, as if molding ceramic art or casting metal. The law [of the Buddha] dominates beyond the world in which we cling to language; therefore it created the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, just as if fashioning clay into ﬁgures.

Nevertheless, the greater the Way is, the more difﬁcult it is to believe; the higher the tone of the music, the fewer there are who can sing it harmo- niously. Mount Sumeru is lofty and steep, where very strong winds (Skt. vairambhaka) arise. Treasures accumulate in a depository and then theft occurs. Once upon a time, when the Tathāgata resided in this world, his edi- ﬁcation shook the trichiliocosm, and yet the four devils harbored grudges and the six masters embraced poisonous thoughts;1 not to speak of today, the last phase of the period of the Semblance Dharma.

Almost ﬁve hundred years have passed since the time the Great Dharma reached the east. When conditions are good, people have faith [in Buddhism], but when conditions are not, they do not; the fortune [of Buddhism] has its ups and downs as well. Those who have right views propagate and support [the teaching], and those who are evil and deluded slander [it]. As for perverse Confucianists who abide by literature, they keep their distance [from Buddhism] because it is considered heathen. The honey-tongued heretics (i.e., Daoists) adopt [Buddhism] in their teaching and consider both to be the same teaching. Those who keep their distance [from Buddhism] suffer drastic delusion, and those who adopt [Buddhism in their teaching] experience con- fusion about the colors of vermilion and purple.2 As a consequence, sophis- ticated arguments have gradually become more complicated and corrupted forms of words have exceedingly ﬂourished.

1a3

The hedan bird screeches in the night [in search of daybreak], yet it cannot split the darkness for broad daylight. The legendary jingwei bird holds pebbles in its mouth [and drops them in the sea in order to ﬁll it up], yet it fails to mar the natural features of the blue ocean.3 Nevertheless, if brightness is disturbed by darkness and greatness is slandered by smallness, even though nothing can be changed at all, it would pollute people’s eyes and ears. This will cause those of weak and inﬁrm natures to follow false debates and go astray for a long time, and those who have disordered logic to pursue heretical doctrines and indulge in everlasting [delusion]. This is why it is easy to fall into hell and difﬁcult to ascend to the pure state.

I, Sengyou, am of superﬁcial learning, but I am deeply bent on propa- gating and guarding [Buddhism]. I resent in my mind ﬂattering statements and groundless customs. Thereupon, making use of short intervals of medical treatment or spare moments while dwelling in the mountains, I have compiled intelligent writings of ancient and modern times and collected polished essays by Buddhist clergy and laypeople. Among them, I made use of all those [writ- ings] that painstakingly eliminate evil [teachings] and are irrefutable expres- sions to protect the Dharma, regardless of the length of the works. In addition, among written records and literature by distinguished scholars of former ages, I have compiled all those that are advantageous [for the Three Treasures] as well. They are classiﬁed and arranged in fourteen fascicles.

The Way is propagated by people, and the teaching is clariﬁed by liter- ature. [This work] is [intended] to propagate the Way and clarify the teaching. Therefore, it is called the Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism] (Hongmingji). At the same time, led by my shallow thought, I append my own discussion at the end. I pray that by a drop of water and a particle of dust I will be able to help increase the water of the ocean and raise the height of Mount Dai. However, my learning is solitary and uncultivated and my knowledge is limited. I am ashamed of being narrow-minded. Well- versed expert gentlemen, please grant your aid to enlarge this compilation.

Mouzi’s [Discourse on] the Elucidation of Delusions (Lihuolun), or the Exposition by Mouzi Bo, Governor

of Cangwu Prefecture4

Mouzi has already studied the Classics, commentaries on them, and all philoso- 1b

phers’ works. Regardless of the size or length, there was no book he did not like. Although he was not delighted with books on the art of war, he still read them. He read books on the immortals and immortality, but restrained himself and never believed [in these things]; he considered them to be preposterous. In the time after Emperor Ling (r. 168–189) [of the Later Han dynasty]

had passed away, the world was in turmoil. Only Jiaozhou was relatively peaceful. People of the heterodoxy moved en masse from the north to settle there. Many practiced the art of the immortals, abstaining from [eating] grain to prolong their life spans. There were many contemporary people who learned [the art of the immortals from these people]. Mouzi always rebuked them by [referring to] the Five Classics. None among the Daoists and practitioners of the heterodox arts dared respond to [his rebuke]. [People] compared this with the case where Meng Ke (i.e., Mencius) drove off Yang Zhu and Mo Di.5 Before this, Mouzi ﬂed with his mother to Jiaozhi (present-day Vietnam).

At the [Chinese] age of twenty-six he returned to Cangwu and took a wife. The governor [of Cangwu prefecture] heard that Mouzi abided by learning, and visited him to ask him to become a civil ofﬁcial. At that time, [Mouzi] was just in the prime of his youth, and had intensely set his heart on learning. Moreover, he saw that the world was in chaos and he had no intention of entering government service. He did not accept the offer after all.

During this period, all the provinces and prefectures were suspicious of each other and isolated from one another, without communication. Since [Mouzi] had profound learning and great knowledge, the governor [of Cangwu prefecture] wanted to send him as a diplomatic envoy to pay homage to Jingzhou (in present-day Hubei province). Mouzi believed that while it is easy to decline honor and rank, it is difﬁcult to shirk a mission. Consequently he dressed properly and was about to go. As it happened, the regional governor of the province [learned that] Mouzi was a well-educated recluse and sum- moned him. Again Mouzi feigned illness and excused himself.

A younger brother of the regional governor, the governor of Yuzhang prefecture (in present-day Jiangxi province), had been murdered by the Leader of Court Gentlemen Ze Rong (d. 195). The regional governor then planned to send the Commandant of Cavalry Liu Yan, who commanded troops and who was about to head to [Yuzhang]. [But the regional governor] was afraid that [this action] would provoke reciprocal suspicion from the outer world and the troops would not be able to proceed. So he asked Mouzi, “My younger brother was killed by a rebel. My great indignation about this, [as his brother who shares] the same ﬂesh and bones, arises from the bottom of my heart. I am about to send the Commandant of Cavalry Liu there, [but] I am afraid that the outer world is in turmoil and travelers cannot get through. You are well learned in both literary and military arts and especially talented in diplo- macy. Now I would like you to oblige us by giving your consent to going to Lingling and Guiyang (in present-day Hunan province) and to making their roads available for our passage. What do you think?”

Mouzi replied, “Just like a horse that has been fed and waits at your stable, I have been treated [kindly] for a long time. [When the moment arrives], a patriot forgets himself and hopes to devote himself as much as he can.” Accordingly, [Mouzi] dressed and was about to depart. At this point, his mother suddenly passed away and he was not able to make the trip. For a long time [Mouzi] reﬂected, “Since I have a ﬂuent tongue, I am handily appointed for a mission. Just now the world is in disturbance, and it is not a time to distinguish myself in the world.” Then he lamented, “Laozi wrote, ‘Exterminate sagacity and reject knowledge.’6 If one cultivates himself and maintains truth, all of nature does not take away his ambition, the world does not deny his pleasure, a son of Heaven cannot subjugate him, and feudal

princes cannot befriend him. Therefore, he ﬁnds approval as noble.”

Then Mouzi had the earnest intention [to learn] the Buddhist Way, and concurrently studied Laozi’s Five Thousand Words (i.e., the Daodejing). He took in the profound subtle meanings as if they were wine and drink, and played on the Five Classics as if they were [musical instruments like] the Chinese zither (qin) and the reed organ. Many common people con- demned him, thinking that he had gone against the Five Classics and turned to a heterodox way. Even if he wished to engage these people in disputation, it was not [in accordance with] the [Buddhist] Way. Even if he wanted to

keep silent, he was unable to do so. Consequently, he spent time with brush and ink to brieﬂy cite the words of the sages and wise ones in order to make a testament of [his response to the condemnation of Buddhism] with expla- nations. This is called Mouzi’s [Discourse on] the Elucidation of Delusions (Lihuo[lun]).

A person asked, “From whom was the Buddha born? Does he or does 1c he not have ancestors and a country [to which he belonged]? What does he bestow on all people? What does he look like?”

Mouzi replied, “You have big questions. I am dull, but I will roughly explain the outline [of the biography of the Buddha]. I have heard the state of the Buddha’s transformations. It is impossible to record his [entire] chron- icle, since he accumulated moral conduct for several hundreds of billions of years. Nevertheless, when he came into [the existence in which he would become] the Buddha, he was born in India, in the provisional form of the son of [Lady Māyā], the queen of King Śuddhodana. Once, while taking a midday nap, she had a dream that she rode upon a white, six-tusked elephant. She was very delighted and accordingly felt that she had become with child. On the eighth day of the fourth month, [the child] was born from the right armpit of his mother. He landed upon the ground, took seven steps forward, and said, raising his right arm, ‘There is no one in Heaven and Earth who goes beyond me.’ At that time, Heaven and Earth quaked tremendously and the palace became bright all over. On the same day, a servant of the royal family also gave birth to a child, and a white horse in the stable bore a white colt. The [servant’s] baby was called Chandaka and the white colt was named Kaṇṭhaka. The king instructed them to always attend the prince.

“The prince had thirty-two major marks and eighty minor marks of physical excellence. He was one zhang and six chi tall, and his body was of a golden color all over. He had a protuberance (rouji; Skt. uṣṇīṣa) on the top of his head. His jaws were just like those of a lion. His tongue [was so long that it] could cover his face. His palms had the pattern of a thousand- spoked wheel. The light radiating from the top of his head illuminated every- thing for ten thousand li. This is a rough description of the major marks of the Buddha.

“When [the prince] was seventeen years old, his [father,] the king, chose as [the prince’s] consort a girl from a neighboring state. Whenever the prince

seated himself, he moved his seat away from her. When he slept, he did not share a bed with her. The Way of Heaven is, [however,] quite evident; yin and yang had relations [with each other]. Consequently she conceived a son, who was born six years later. The king regarded the prince as invaluable and extraordinary, and he built palaces for him and arranged female entertainers and precious amusements in a row in front of him. But the prince did not wish for worldly pleasure; his intention lay in morality.

“At midnight on the eighth day of the fourth month of the year [the prince] turned nineteen years old. He called Chandaka, had him put the bit and bridle on Kaṇṭhaka, and mounted the horse. Spiritual beings helped them, lifting them up, and [they all] ﬂew out of the palace.

“The next day [the prince’s quarters] were found empty and no one knew where [he] was. There was none among the king, the ofﬁcials, and the people who did not sob, [missing him]. They pursued [the prince] and caught up with him in a ﬁeld. The king said [to the prince], ‘Before you were born, I prayed and asked the gods [for you]. Now I already have you, you who are just like a precious stone or a jade tablet. You must succeed to the throne, and yet you have left [the palace]. What are you going to do?’ The prince replied, ‘All things are impermanent; any existence will pass away. I would like to learn the way [to enlightenment] and liberate all sentient beings in the ten directions.’ The king realized that [the prince’s resolution] was steady and ﬁrm. So the king rose and returned [to the palace]. The prince promptly departed. He contemplated the Way for six years, and ﬁnally attained buddhahood.

“The reason [the Buddha] was born in the ﬁrst month of the summer season is because it is the time of the fourth month of the year (zhonglü),7 when it is neither [too] cold nor [too] hot, when grasses and trees bloom, and when people take off the fox-fur robes and put on linen clothes. The reason he was born in India is because it is located in the center of the universe, which maintains its justice and peace. There are altogether twelve kinds of scriptures he authored, eight hundred and forty million fascicles in all. Among them, a large fascicle contains less than ten thousand words and a small fas- cicle consists of more than a thousand words. The Buddha gave the teaching all over the world and liberated the people. Accordingly, on the ﬁfteenth day of the second month, he entered nirvana.

“His teaching and precepts continuously exist. If we follow [the teaching

and precepts] and are capable of practicing them, we will be able to attain 2a

wuwei as well, and happiness will be passed on to later generations.8 “Those who observe the ﬁve precepts have six puriﬁcation days in a

month. On the day of puriﬁcation, one concentrates his or her mind, repents, and turns over a new leaf. Śramaṇas observe two hundred and ﬁfty precepts and have puriﬁcation every day. Their precepts are not what laymen (Skt. upāsaka) are not able to learn. Their proper deportment and course of action are not different from those of the [Chinese] classical rites of antiquity. Throughout the day and night, they talk about the [Buddhist] Way and recite sutras, and do not take part in worldly affairs. Laozi said, ‘Deportment [of those who] have exceeding virtue is just to follow the Way.’9 This is what he meant [about śramaṇas].”

A person asked, “For what reason precisely is he called the Buddha?

What is the meaning of ‘buddha’?”

Mouzi replied, “The word buddha is a posthumous title, just as the Three Augusts are called gods and the Five Thearchs are called sages [in China]. The Buddha is the founder of morals and the originator of divinities. The term buddha means awakened. [The Buddha] is beyond our sensory perception; he can transform into and manifest as various entities; he sometimes appears and sometimes disappears; he can become smaller or larger; he can be a round or a square shape; he can become old or young; and he can hide and reveal himself. He goes through ﬁre without being burned. He steps on a sword with- out being injured. He can be in ﬁlth without being soiled. Even if he experiences a calamity, it has no effect on him. When he wants to travel, he ﬂies through the air, and when he sits, he emits light. Therefore, his title is Buddha.” A person asked, “What is called the ‘Way’? What category is the Way?” Mouzi replied, “The term ‘Way’ means to lead. It leads people to wuwei.

Pull it forth and it does not advance. Pull it back and it does not retreat. Lift it and it does not ascend. Lower it and it does not descend. Look at it and it has no shape. Listen to it and it has no sound. Outside of the visible world is vastness, [but the Way] meanders beyond it. A breadth of a hair is minute, [yet the Way] is full of twists and turns within it. Therefore, it is called the Way.” A person asked, “Confucius considered the Five Classics to be the teach-

ing of the Way, which should be recited while folding one’s hands before

one’s breast and practiced. Now, the [Buddhist] Way you explain is the absolute vacancy (xuwu) and beyond our sensory perception. It does not expose its signiﬁcance and does not direct its performance. Why is it different from what the sage (i.e., Confucius) said?”

Mouzi replied, “You cannot consider what you are familiar with to be important and what you are unfamiliar with to be trivial. You are confused by matters of the outside world and lose yourself in the mind. In doing some- thing, you should not lose morality. It is just as in the case that one should not lose gong and shang [of the fundamental notes] when tuning the strings of a musical instrument.10 The Way of Heaven is regulated with the four sea- sons and the ways of human beings are regulated with the ﬁve cardinal virtues. Laozi said, ‘There was something mixed, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth. It can be considered as the mother of the world. I do not know its name, but if I dare to give a name to it, it is called the Way.’11 The Way helps people in being able to serve their parents at home, helps those who govern the state in ruling over the people, and helps those who establish themselves [in the world] without the assistance of others in harnessing them- selves. If you practice [the Way], it will ﬁll the universe. If you reject and do not practice it, it will disappear and yet will not leave you behind. You do not understand this. Why [do you think] it is different from [the Way of which Confucius speaks]?”

A person asked, “The greatest reality does not look adorned, and the highest level of expression has no polished [words]. [An expression of]

2b concise words that is comprehensible is elegant. Things that require less work and yet achieve a goal are clever.

“Therefore, pearl and jade are rare and yet valuable, while rubble is common and worthless. The sages [of China] established the foundation of the Seven Classics, which consist of less than thirty thousand words and within which all issues are treated. The Buddhist scriptures are numbered at some ten thousand fascicles, whose words are in the hundreds of millions, which is more than one person is able to sustain. I think they are troublesome and unimportant.”

Mouzi replied, “The reason large rivers and oceans are different from a pool of water on a street is because they are deeper and wider. The reason the Five Sacred Mountains are dissimilar to mounds is because they are taller

and bigger. If [the Five Sacred Mountains] are not extremely higher than [ordinary] mountains and hills, even a crippled sheep could climb up to the peaks. If [large rivers and oceans] are not extremely deeper than small streams, even a small boy could take a bath in the abysses. Qiji (a legendary ﬁne horse capable of covering a thousand li in a day) does not live in a garden, and a ﬁsh that [is capable of] swallowing a boat does not swim in mountain streams that are several ren deep. If you break open a three-cun large oyster to look for a pearl [that is as large as] a bright moon, or if you try to ﬁnd a brood of Chinese phoenixes in a nest of thorny brambles, it will certainly be difﬁcult to ﬁnd them. This is because the minor cannot contain the great.

“The Buddhist scriptures expand issues for hundreds of millions of years in the past, and still state main points for all ages. When the primordial sub- stance had not yet arisen, when the primal beginning had not yet been pro- duced,12 and when Heaven and Earth began to rise, their slightness could not be grasped, and their minuteness could not be entered. [But] the Buddha governed over them all, even the vast world outside [of the universe], analyzed within the profound and subtle world, and missed nothing to record about them. Therefore, the scriptures are counted in some ten thousand fascicles, with words in the hundreds of millions. The more [words there are], the closer to completion [it is] and the richer [the content is]. Why [do you think] it is unimportant? Even though [the scriptures] cannot be sustained by one person, it is like the case where you drink water when arriving at a river. When you have drunk enough and you feel satisﬁed (i.e., your thirst is quenched), would you then care about the remaining water?”

A person asked, “The Buddhist scriptures are numerous. I would like to master their main points and dismiss the superﬂuities. Please simply discuss their essence and eliminate embellishments.”

Mouzi replied, “No. The sun and moon are both bright, but each has its own time to shine. Each of the twenty-eight constellations has its own place over which it rules. Multifarious medicinal herbs grow equally, but each of them has its own effect to heal sickness. Fox-fur robes are worn to protect against coldness, while linen clothes are worn to keep out heat. A boat and a carriage travel different routes from each other, though both of them transport travelers. The reason Confucius did not take the Five Classics to be perfect and further wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) and the Canon

of Filial Piety (Xiaojing) is simply because he wanted to propagate the means of the Way by which people may act freely. Even though Buddhist scriptures are numerous, [they all] result in one. Although the Seven Classics are different from each other, the esteem in which they hold morality, benevolence, and righteousness results in the same, too. The reason why ﬁlial piety is explained in numerous ways is to give instruction according to people’s conduct. It is just as when both Zichang and Ziyou asked the same question about ﬁlial piety Confucius gave each a different answer to correct their individual short- comings. Why [do you think] there is something [in Buddhist scriptures] to dismiss?”

A person asked, “If the Buddhist Way is the most august and the greatest, why did [Emperor] Yao and [Emperor] Shun, the Duke of Zhou, or Confucius not cultivate it? No expression [of the Buddhist teaching] is found in the Seven Classics. Master, you have already indulged in the Book of Odes (Shi- jing) and the Book of History (Shujing), and have been delighted with the Book of Rites (Liji), and the Book of Music (Yuejing). Why are you also fond of the Buddhist Way and happy about this foreign method? How could [Buddhism] surpass the Classics and their commentaries and be better than the sages’ works? If I were you, I would not accept it.”

Mouzi replied, “It is not necessarily that only books of the words of Con- 2c fucius are [useful], just as medicines do not have to be prescribed by the great doctor Bian Que [to be efﬁcacious]. Whatever meets righteousness is followed,

and whatever heals sickness is good. Gentlemen extensively take all that is wholesome in order to complement themselves. Zigong said, ‘What necessity was there for my master to have a regular master?’13 Emperor Yao served Yin Shou, Emperor Shun served Wu Cheng, [the Duke of Zhou] Dan studied with [Taigong Wang] Lü [Shang],14 and Confucius studied with Lao Dan (i.e., Laozi), but none of these are found in the Seven Classics. Even though these four masters [Yin Shou, Wu Cheng, Lü Shang, and Lao Dan] are sages, when compared with the Buddha they are like white deer compared with a kylin, or swallows compared with a Chinese phoenix. [Even so,] Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius still studied with them. “Moreover, the Buddha has the marks of physical excellence, he can transform, he has supernatural powers, and he has no set pattern. How can you reject and not study Buddhism? In the items and meanings of the Five

Classics, there are some lacunae. As for the fact that the Buddha is not men- tioned [in the Seven Classics], how worthwhile is it to be doubtful and sus- picious?”

A person asked, “It is said that the Buddha has thirty-two major and eighty minor marks of physical excellence. Why is he so different from [ordi- nary] people? I am afraid that this is an extravagant expression and a descrip- tion of unreality.”

Mouzi replied, “As the saying goes, ‘The fewer chances to see, the more suspicious [one is].’ A man sees a camel and says that it is a horse with a swollen back. [We also say that] Emperor Yao’s eyebrows were of eight dif- ferent colors, each of Emperor Shun’s eyes had double pupils, the mouth of Gao Yao (a chief judical ofﬁcer for Emperor Shun) was [just like] a crow’s beak, King Wen [of the Zhou dynasty] had four nipples, [the legendary ruler] Yu had three oriﬁces in each ear, the Duke of Zhou was hunchbacked, Fuxi had a nose [just like] a dragon’s, and Confucius had a depression on the top of his head. Laozi had a sun-shaped lump and the mark of a moon on his fore- head, and two nose bridges. He held the Chinese characters of the Ten [Celestial Stems] in his hands, and treaded upon the two [principles of yin and yang] and the ﬁve [primary elements] (i.e., metal, wood, water, ﬁre, and earth).15 These men are not different from [normal] people, are they? How worthwhile is it to be doubtful of the Buddha’s marks of physical excellence?”

A person asked, “The Canon of Filial Piety says, ‘Your body, hair, and skin are received from your parents. Do not dare to damage them.’16 When Zengzi was about to die, he said, ‘Uncover my feet, uncover my hands!’17 Now, śramaṇas shave their heads. Why do they go against the sage’s words? They do not follow the way of ﬁlial piety. You are always fond of discussing right and wrong and correcting wrong to right, yet on the contrary, [you think] it is alright [for śramaṇas to shave their heads], don’t you?”

Mouzi replied, “It is not benevolent to slander sages and virtuous people. It is not intelligent that correction is not much to the point. How can you cul- tivate virtue being neither benevolent nor intelligent? If you are not going to cultivate virtue, you are the same as those who are stubborn and stupid. How can I easily discuss [these matters] with [such a person]?

“Once upon a time a man of Qi crossed a large river by boat, and his father fell into the water. He bared his hands, grasped his father’s head, turned

his father upside down, made him regurgitate the water, and so was able to bring his father back to life. It is the gravest impiety to grasp the head of one’s own father and to turn him upside down, but by doing so this man helped his father escape death. If he had cultivated himself as is usual for a ﬁlial son, folding his arms [and doing nothing], his father would have died by drowning. Confucius said, ‘If you can be faithful to the Way with them, you may not yet take measures suited to the occasion with them.’18 This refers to acting in what is considered a proper manner at the time.

“Moreover, the Canon of Filial Piety says, ‘Kings of previous times had the highest virtue and the essential points [of what is good and appropriate].’ Taibo, however, had his hair cut off and his body tattooed following the custom of the Wu-Yue region [of southern China], disregarding the right- eousness toward one’s body, hair, and skin [stated in the Canon of Filial Piety]. Nevertheless, Confucius praised him [and said], ‘[Taibo] may be said to be a man of the highest virtue.’19 Confucius did not defame Taibo for having his hair cut.

3a “Seeing this, if one has great virtue, he will not be tied down by triﬂing [faults]. It can be said that the utmost concessions are that śramaṇas give up their family property, abandon their wives and children, do not listen to music, and do not look upon [beautiful] worldly things. Why [do you say that] they go against the sage’s words and do not follow [the way of] ﬁlial piety? Yu Rang [of Jin] swallowed charcoal and lacquered his body [for a vendetta]. Nie Zheng ﬂayed the skin of his face and punished himself [after committing a successful assassination]. Princess Bo [of Lu state, who was married to the Duke of Gong of Song state], in order to follow the way of womanhood stayed in the ﬂames [when a ﬁre broke out in her mansion]. Gao Xing, [a widow of Liang state,] mutilated her [beautiful] appearance [by cutting her nose off]. Gentlemen consider that these people were brave and died for righteousness; I have heard no one slander their self-mutilation or suicides. Compared to the actions taken by these four people, śramaṇas’ shaving their beards and hair is not far removed from them.”

A person asked, “There is no happiness beyond having posterity, and there is no impiety greater than having no posterity. Śramaṇas abandon their wives and children and give up wealth, or they never marry for their entire lives. Why do they carry out [such a] practice against happiness and ﬁlial

piety? They themselves suffer and yet they have nothing wonderful. They exhaust themselves and yet they have nothing marvelous.”

Mouzi replied, “One who is strong on the left must be weak on the right. One who formerly had the extensive must later have the narrow. [Confucius says,] ‘Meng Gongchuo is excellent as a chief retainer of [the powerful fam- ilies such as] the Zhao or Wei [of Jin], but he is unﬁt to be a high ofﬁcial of [a small state such as] Teng or Xue.’20 Wives, children, and belongings are extra in secular life. Purity and wuwei are the wonders of the Way. Laozi said, ‘Fame or body, which do you hold more dear? Body or wealth, which do you think more valuable?’”21

Again [Mouzi] said, “One may observe customs handed down from the three preceding dynasties (i.e., Xia, Yin, and Zhou), read the arts of the ways of Confucians and Mohists, recite the Book of Odes and the Book of History, cultivate etiquette, respect benevolence and righteousness, and consider clean- liness [to be important]. The people of the world will hand down [this person’s] virtuous works to the next generation and he will brim over with fame. “Such [acts] are what mediocre people perform, and what people of peace and non-worldly desire do not seek. Therefore, if in front of you there is a pearl like that of the Marquis of Sui22 but there is a tiger behind you, even though you may see [the pearl] you will run away. Why do you dare not take the pearl? [It is because preserving] your life comes before proﬁt. “Xu You lived in the nest of a tree. [Bo]yi and [Shu]qi starved on [Mount] Shouyang. The sage Confucius praised their virtues and said, ‘They are the ones who sought benevolence and attained it.’23 I have never heard them ridiculed for not having posterity or property. Śramaṇas cultivate morality instead of having worldly pleasures, and return to [the ways of] virtuous wise people, having given up the joys of having wives and children. If this is not wonderful, what can be wonderful? If this is not marvelous, what can be

marvelous?”

A person asked, “The Yellow Emperor [sat] with his garments hanging down and established rules for clothing and ornaments.24 The Viscount of Ji recited [to King Wu of Zhou] the Great Model (Hongfan), in which deportment is the most important of the ﬁve issues (i.e., deportment, language, looking, listening, and thinking).25 Confucius authored the Canon of Filial Piety, in which [he considers that the regulation of] clothing is the beginning [of] the

three virtues (i.e., the regulation of clothing, the regulation of manners, and virtuous acts). In addition, [Confucius] said, ‘[A gentleman] adjusts his clothes and cap, and imbues his appearance with dignity.’26 Even though Yuan Xian was poor, he did not take off his cap made of birch bark. When Zilu encountered danger, he did not forget to tie the chin-straps of his cap. Today śramaṇas shave off their hair and wear undyed cloth. When they come across other peo- ple, they make no decorum of kneeling and standing up. They have no proper manners in their course of action. Why do they go against the code of deport- ment and clothing, and denigrate the adornments of the ofﬁcial class?” Mouzi replied, “Laozi said, ‘Those who possess the highest degree of virtue do not consider that they are virtuous, and therefore they possess virtue. Those who possess the lowest degree of virtue [seek] how not to lose it, and therefore they do not [actually] possess virtue.’27 During the times of the

3b Three Augusts, the people ate [raw] meat, wore animal-skin clothing, and lived in nests in trees or caves. They valued the simple and unadorned life. Why would they need zhangfu caps or furs woven with adornments?28 [With- out those things,] the people of that time are said to have been virtuous, honest, trustworthy, and [possessing] wuwei. The conduct of śramaṇas is similar to theirs.”

A person said, “If things were just as you say, such people as the Yellow Emperor, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius would be rejected; they would not be worthy of being emulated.”

Mouzi replied, “If you see things extensively, you will not be confused. If you have a good faculty of hearing, you will not be deluded. Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius cultivated worldly affairs, while the Buddha and Laozi pursued wuwei. Confucius traveled to more than seventy states. Xu You heard that there was to be an abdication of the throne [for his sake], and he then washed his ears in a gulf [because he thought the abdication was so foul that it polluted his ears]. The way to be a gentleman is sometimes to go out [for ofﬁcial service] and sometimes to remain in seclusion, or to sometimes remain silent and to sometimes speak out. He does not let his emotions overﬂow and he does not give full sway to his nature. Therefore, the reason why the way [of a gentleman] is noble lies in the purpose for which it is employed. What reason is there in rejecting them (i.e., the sages)?”

An inquirer said, “In the Way of the Buddha, it is said: ‘People die and then must be reborn.’ I do not believe this is true.”

Mouzi asked, “When a man is about to breathe his last, a family member goes up to the roof and calls his name. He has died. What then is [his family] trying to call back?”

A person replied, “[That person] tries to call the spirit of the dead (hunpo) back [to rejoin the body].”

Mouzi asked, “If the spirit (gui) returns, he revives, [but] if it does not return, what is the spirit then called?”

[A person] replied, “It becomes a spiritual being (guishen).”

Mouzi said, “That is correct! Without doubt, the spirit (hunshen) does not perish. Only the physical body decays and becomes rotten. The body is just like the roots and leaves of the ﬁve major grains, and the spirit is compared to the seeds and kernels of the grains. The roots and leaves come into existence and then inevitably die. How could the seeds and kernels have a termination? [People] attain the Way and only their bodies perish. Laozi said, ‘The reason we have great calamity is because we have a body. If we did not have a body, what calamity would we have?’29 He also said, ‘When the work is done, retir- ing into obscurity is the Way of Heaven.’”30

Someone said, “Those who practice the Way die and those who do not practice the Way also die. What difference is there [between the two]?” Mouzi replied, “[Your question is], so to speak, to ask for a lifetime honor without performing good conduct for even one day. If one attains the Way, even if he dies, his spirit returns to Heaven. If he has committed evil conduct, after death his spirit inevitably receives retribution. Ignorant people are in darkness about the established facts, while intelligent people foresee things that have not yet germinated. Comparison between practicing the Way and not practicing the Way is just like that between gold and grass. Having wholesomeness and being given happiness are [as clear as] the comparison between white and black. How could there not be a difference? Nevertheless,

you ask what is the difference [between the two].”

A person asked, “Confucius said, ‘While you are not able to serve human beings, how can you serve the spirits? While you do not know life, how can you know about death?’31 The sage declined to answer this [question on spir- itual beings and life and death]. Now Buddhists always speak of matters of

life and death, as well as of the affairs of spiritual beings. I am wondering if this goes against the words of sages and saints. Those who follow the Way ought to make the mind absolutely vacant and simple, and return to the principle of simplicity. Why, then, do [Buddhists] disturb our will by talking about life and death? Why do they speak unnecessary words about spiritual beings?” Mouzi replied, “It appears that your words are, so to speak, like those who observe the outside and yet are not aware of the inside. Confucius deplored the fact that Zilu did not consider the whole issue from beginning

3c to end. [Therefore,] he merely restrained [Zilu] with those words. The Canon of Filial Piety says, ‘Build the ancestral shrine [for one’s departed parents]. Present offerings to them in the same way as you would worship spiritual beings. Offer sacriﬁces in the spring and autumn, thinking of them.’ It con- tinues, ‘Devote yourself to loving and respecting them while they are alive. Devote yourself to mourning after their death.’32 Did [the sage] not teach people to serve the spiritual beings and to know about life and death? “The Duke of Zhou begged [spiritual beings] for Emperor Wu’s life and said, ‘I, Dan, am versatile and able to serve spiritual beings.’33 What does this mean? Isn’t the tenor of life and death stated in the Buddhist scriptures of this kind? Laozi said, ‘If one who knows the child (i.e., the phenomenal world) proceeds to guard the child’s mother (i.e., to preserve the One), he will be free from all peril to the end of his life.’34 [Laozi] also said, ‘If he who employs the light reverts to its [source of] brightness, no disaster will befall him.’35 These statements are about the tenor of life and death and the positions of good or bad fortune. The essence of the highest Way is to truly esteem solitude. Why would Buddhists be fond of debate [about life and death]? It is only that they cannot ignore it when someone comes to ask ques- tions. Can there be a bell or a drum that makes a sound by itself? They only

produce sounds when struck.”

A person asked, “Confucius said: ‘The barbarians of the east and north have their rulers, but they are still not as good as the states without rulers in our great land.’36 Mencius ridiculed Chen Xiang, who was learning more of Xu Xing’s teaching, saying, ‘I have heard of people using [teachings of] our great land to change the barbarians’ [customs], but I have never heard that our customs were changed by the barbarians’ teachings.’37 You learned the way of Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius

at an early age, but you abandoned it and are learning more about the bar- barians’ teaching. Are you continuously deluded?”

Mouzi replied, “[Words like] this sound only like the idle talk of the time when I did not yet understand the Great Way. It may be said that you see the elegance of ceremonial forms and yet lack knowledge about the truth of morality, or that you catch a glimpse of the light of a torch or candle but you have not yet seen the sun in the sky. What Confucius spoke of are the ways to correct social customs or practices. Why Mencius spoke thus is merely that he deplored [that Chen Xiang] concentrated his attention on [Xu Xing’s teaching]. Formerly wishing to live in the region of the nine barbarian tribes of the east, Confucius said, ‘If a gentleman dwelled among them, what vileness would there be?’38 When Confucius could not ﬁnd an ofﬁcial position in the states of Lu and Wei, and when Mencius was not employed in the states of Qi and Liang, how could they have taken service in the states of the barbarian tribes of the east and north?

“[The legendary ruler] Yu is from Qiang, the barbarian tribe in west China, and yet he was a sage. Gusou is the father of [the sage king] Shun and yet he was foolish. You Yu was born in [the barbarian state of] Di [to the north of our great land], and yet [he helped] Qin establish hegemony. Guan[shu Xian] and Cai[shu Du] (i.e., the Duke of Zhou’s brothers) came from the basin between the Yellow River and the Luo River, but they spread a false rumor [to cause trouble for the Duke of Zhou].

“A commentary says, ‘The polestar is located in the middle of the sky, in the north above us.’ Seen from this point of view, the land of Han (i.e., China) is not necessarily the center of the universe. According to what the Buddhist scriptures state, all sentient beings of the entire universe belong to the Buddha. Therefore, I heartily esteem Buddhism and study it. What reason do I have to abandon the way of Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius? Gold and pearl never impair each other. The Marquis of Sui’s pearl and emerald never hindered each other. You say that other people are deluded, yet it is you yourself who is deluded!”

A person asked, “It cannot be said to be charitable to give away one’s father’s property to a stranger. It cannot be said to be benevolent to sacriﬁce oneself for others while one’s parents are still alive. Nowadays a Buddhist scripture states that Prince Sudāna gave his father’s property to complete

strangers, granted a precious elephant belonging to the state to its enemies, 4a and [gave away] his own wives and children to others.39 It is said to be uncivil to not respect one’s own parents and yet to respect others. It is said to be immoral to not love one’s own parents and yet to love others.40 Prince Sudāna

was neither ﬁlial nor kind, but Buddhists respect him. Isn’t this peculiar?”

Mouzi replied, “In the doctrine of the Five Classics, the ﬁrst son [from the legal wife] is designated as heir. Yet the Great King [of the Zhou dynasty] saw [his grandson] Chang’s ambition. [So] he moved his youngest son [Jili, who was Chang’s father, up in the succession] to become his heir. Conse- quently, the enterprise of the Zhou dynasty was achieved, and by means of this a peaceful world was realized. In the custom of marrying a woman, a man must inform his parents [to obtain their approval]. [Nevertheless,] Emperor Shun married [two daughters of Emperor Yao] without telling [his parents]. By this means, he achieved the important relation of husband and wife. People of integrity must be invited for service and talented vassals wait to be drafted for public services. Yi Yin, [however,] carried a heavy three- legged caldron on his back and besought King Tang [of the Yin dynasty for an ofﬁcial position]. Ning Qi knocked on [his ox’s] horns to beseech [Lord Huan of] Qi [to grant him an ofﬁcial position]. With [the help of Yi Yin,] King Tang won the throne, and with [the help of Ning Qi,] Qi state attained hegemony.

“According to etiquette, a man and a woman should not put their hands on each other, [but] if the wife of one’s elder brother is drowning, it is an expedient way in [such an] emergency to put one’s hands on her [in order to pull her out of the water]. If we can comprehend the greatness of things, then we should no longer pay attention to minor details. Why should a great person comprehend ordinary matters? Prince Sudāna saw that the world is imper- manent, and money and property were not real treasures for him. Therefore, he donated at his will, and by doing so he achieved the Great Way. His father’s kingdom received the blessings, and enemies were unable to invade [his father’s kingdom]. When [Prince Sudāna] attained buddhahood, his parents and brothers were all able to attain liberation as well. If this is not a ﬁlial and benevolent [act], then what is benevolent and ﬁlial?”

A person asked, “In Buddhism, wuwei is of value, giving alms is pleas- urable, and observing the precepts requires as much caution and attention as

if one were approaching an abyss. Today, śramaṇas give themselves up to wine. Some have wives and children, or purchase [goods] at a low price and sell [them] at a high price [for proﬁt]. They devote themselves to such swin- dles. This is a great hypocrisy in the world.41 Is this what is called wuwei in Buddhism?”

Mouzi replied, “Gongshu [Ban, a master carpenter in Lu state during the Spring and Autumn period,] was able to give people a hatchet, an ax, and an ink line [with which to do construction], but he was not able to make them as skillful as himself. Sages are able to impart their ways to others, but they cannot make others follow and perform them. Gao Yao was able to punish thieves, but he couldn’t make greedy people become [as upright as] Boyi and Shuqi. The ﬁve penalties can punish villains, but they cannot regenerate such evil people to be [as virtuous as the disciples of Confucius,] Zeng Shen and Min Ziqian. Emperor Yao was not able to educate [his son] Dan Zhu, and the Duke of Zhou was unable to admonish [his brothers] Guan[shu Xian] and Cai[shu Du]. Wouldn’t Tang’s (i.e., Emperor Yao) teaching be clear? Wouldn’t the Duke of Zhou be possessed of morality? [Yes, they were.] Nevertheless, there was no help for bad people.

“Figuratively speaking, if people who are well versed in the Seven Clas- sics are smitten with money and women, can it be said that the six arts [that these people have mastered] are depraved and lustful? Hebo, even though he is the god [of the Yellow River], cannot drown people who stay on land. A violent wind, though it blows swiftly, cannot ﬂing dust onto the surface of deep water. You must be worried about the fact that people are unable to practice. How can you say that Buddhism has vice?”

A person asked, “Confucius said, ‘Luxury leads to haughtiness, and fru- gality to meanness. It is better to be mean than to be haughty.’42 Shusun [Qiaoru] said, ‘Frugality is respectful. Luxury is the worst among evil acts.’43 Today Buddhists consider donating all one’s property to be honorable and giving all one’s money to others to be valuable. How can there be merit [in doing so]?”

Mouzi replied, “‘That was one [critical] time, and this is another.’44 This 4b

expression by Confucius [indicates that] he detested luxury and impoliteness, and Shusun’s comment [is intended] to admonish the arrogance of Lord [Zhuang], who carved pillars. Neither case prohibits making donations. When

[Emperor] Shun tilled on Mount Li, his benevolence did not reach even the neighboring area. Taigong [Wang Lü Shang] butchered cows [to make a liv- ing],45 but his kindness did not extend to his wife and children. After these two men were employed, their benevolence ﬂowed all over the world and their kindness was bestowed upon the world. For those who have abundant property and plenty of money, it is valuable to give alms to others. For those who live in poverty and who are often poor, it is valuable to follow the Way. “Xu You was not greedy to ascend the throne. Boyi was not contented

to take the reins of the state. Yu Qing gave up a ﬁef of tens of thousands of households, and gave relief to destitute people in a crisis. These are all [acts of] their goodwill. Xi Fuji [of Cao state took his wife’s advice and] gave a pot of food to [Zhong’er, who defeated Cao], and his kindness helped keep his community intact (i.e., Zhong’er did not attack the community).46 Xuan Meng (i.e., Zhao Dun) saved his most important life and body in return for a meal [he had given to Ling Zhe].47 If you have done good in secret, without expecting return, you will receive a positive reward as bright as the sun. Needless to say, if you sink in fortune in order to give rise to good intentions, your merit and virtue are as lofty as Mount Song or Mount Tai, and as vast as a great river or the ocean. Those who embrace a compassionate heart are rewarded with happiness, and those who harbor evil receive misfortune as retribution. It has never happened that those who have planted rice will harvest wheat, or that those who have caused disaster will obtain happiness.” A person said, “Among qualities, nothing surpasses sincerity; in speech, nothing goes beyond truth. Laozi eschewed artful expressions and showed respect for simple words. Buddhist scriptures, [however,] do not directly indicate the matter and yet extensively take allegories in vain. Allegory is not the essence of reason. It is a combination of different matters in order to express one thing, which is not an excellent explanation. Even though [Buddhist scriptures] have numerous expressions and extensive words, they are similar to a cart full of fragments of jade pieces, which are not considered

to be treasure.”

Mouzi responded, “Things that both [a speaker and a listener] have seen can be explained with the real thing, but things that only a speaker has seen are difﬁcult to explain in exact words. Formerly a person who had not seen a kylin asked someone who had seen one, ‘What kind [of animal] is a kylin?’

The one who had seen it answered, ‘A kylin is just like a kylin.’ The questioner said, ‘If I had seen a kylin, then I would not have asked you the question. Nevertheless, you said only that a kylin is just like a kylin. How can I under- stand this?’ The one who had seen a kylin said, ‘The kylin has a body like a roe deer, a tail like a cow, hooves like a deer, and a back like a horse.’ The questioner understood right away.

“Confucius asked, ‘Is one not like a gentleman when he does not feel depressed even though people do not know of him?’48 Laozi said, ‘Can the space between Heaven and Earth not be compared to a bellows?’49 Moreover, he said, ‘How the Way is in the world is compared to waterways between mountains that ﬂow into large rivers and oceans.’50 Would these be considered artful expressions? The Analects (Lunyu) of Confucius states, ‘He who takes the reins of government by means of virtue can be compared to the north polestar.’51 Here, a celestial body is referred to and compared to a human being. Zixia said, ‘It is just as all plants have differences [in their growth].’52 The three hundred chapters in the Book of Odes [were compiled], collecting events and arranging them into each category. In writings by the thinkers of the numerous schools [in the late Zhou dynasty] and books about the occult, up to books classiﬁed for sages, there is none that does not employ allegories or use parables. Do you maliciously say that when he expands the teaching, the Buddha alone uses allegories and parables?”

A person asked, “There is no one among the people who, while conducting 4c

themselves in life, does not like wealth and high position, does not hate poverty, is not pleased by joy and leisure, or does not avoid troubles. The Yellow Emperor considered the ﬁve kinds of meat (i.e., beef, lamb, pork, ﬁsh, and venison) to be the best to keep us in good health. Confucius said, ‘He does not detest ﬁnely cleaned rice and ﬁnely minced meat.’53 Nowadays śramaṇas put on red robes, have only one meal a day, and shut off their six sense organs throughout their lifetimes. If they are like this, what fun do they have?” Mouzi replied, “[Confucius said,] ‘Wealth and high position are what people desire, but if a gentleman does not obtain them in the proper way, he would not place himself there. Poverty and meanness are what people detest, but if a gentleman cannot avoid them in the proper way, he would not abandon them.’54 Laozi said, ‘The ﬁve colors (i.e., blue, yellow, red, white, and black) cause people to become blind. The ﬁve notes [of traditional Chinese music]

(i.e., gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu) cause people to become deaf. The ﬁve ﬂavors (i.e., sweet, sour, bitter, pungent, and salty) cause people’s tastebuds to be paralyzed. Going at full speed in the wild while hunting makes people crazy. Rare goods distract people from having [proper] conduct. [As a result,] sages take care of their bellies and not their eyes.’55 How could these words be false? Hui of Liuxia [of Lu state] did not change the way he acted even after he was offered a position as one of the three highest-ranking ofﬁcials.56 Mu of Duangan did not barter his body for the wealth offered by Lord Wen of Wei state.57 Xu You and Chaofu lived high up in a tree, which they said was more peaceful than the imperial palace. Boyi and Shuqi starved on Mount Shouyang, but they said they were more satisﬁed than King Wen and King Wu. Probably they were satisﬁed just with their resolutions. Why [do you say that śramaṇas] have no fun?”

A person asked, “If Buddhist scriptures are profound and extravagant, why do you neither talk about them at court nor discuss them with your supe- rior and father? You cultivate only at home and relay [the teaching] to your friends. Why do you also study the Classics and commentaries and read var- ious philosophers’ works?”

Mouzi replied, “You have not yet reached the origin, and yet you ask about the streams [that emanate from the source]. I do not mean that it is not magniﬁcent to set out a sacriﬁcial stand and pot at a camp gate, to hoist mil- itary ﬂags and banners in a palace hall, to cope with [the heat of] the ﬁfth month by wearing a fox-fur robe, or to ward off [the coldness of] the eleventh month by putting on a hemp garment. These actions are perverse in their ori- entation of time and place.58 Therefore, if you sustain the teaching of Confucius and become a disciple of [the Legalist Gongsun] Yang, the lord of Shang, or if you have the theory of Mencius [who advocated the rule of right] in your mind yet call on Su Qin or Zhang Yi [who advocated the rule of might], you will have no accomplishment at all but you will have made a big mistake. “Laozi said, ‘When scholars of the highest class hear about the Way, they diligently practice it. Scholars of the middle class, when they hear about the Way, keep only half in their mind. Scholars of the lowest class, when they hear about the Way, have a great laugh at it.’59 Since I am afraid that [scholars of the lowest class] will burst into laughter, I will not talk [about Buddhism]. When one is thirsty, he does not necessarily drink the water of

a large river. But how can he be dissatisﬁed with the water of wells and foun- tains? For this reason, I study the Classics and commentaries as well.” A person asked, “What is the history of the land of Han (i.e., China)

hearing about Buddhism for the ﬁrst time?”

Mouzi replied, “Many years ago, Emperor Xiaoming (r. 57–75) saw in a dream a holy man who had sunlight on his body and who ﬂew in front of the palace. [The emperor] was greatly delighted with this. Next day, he asked of the entire body of ministers, ‘What god is this?’ Fu Yi, a well-read, greatly experienced person, answered, ‘I have heard that in India there was a man who had attained the Way. He is called the Buddha. He could ﬂy in the air

and had sunlight on his body. I am worried that [you saw] that god.’ Then 5a the emperor came to realize this and dispatched [to the west] eighteen people, including the Inner Gentleman Cai Yin, the Gentleman of the Palace Guard

Qin Jing, and the Disciple of the Erudite Wang Zun. They copied the Buddhist scripture [called] the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters (Sishierzhang), in [the country of] Dayuezhi [in Central Asia]. The sutra was deposited in the four- teenth cubicle of the Lantai stone chambers [in Luoyang]. Then, outside the Yong gate to the west of Luoyang a Buddhist temple was built. On the walls [of the temple] was painted an illustration of a large military group of mounted soldiers circumambulating a pagoda thrice clockwise. Furthermore, buddha images were made and placed on the Qingliang Tower of the southern palace and on the Kaiyang Gate of the city wall. During his reign, Emperor Ming had his mausoleum called Xianjie (“Prominence and Uprightness”) con- structed in advance. Illustrations and images of the Buddha were made and placed on it as well. At that time, the nation was rich, the people enjoyed peace, and barbarians in distant regions admired our morality. Hence, the number of those who studied Buddhism increased.”

A man asked, “Laozi said, ‘Those who know do not speak, while those who speak do not know.’60 He also said, ‘He who is greatly eloquent speaks with a stammer, and he who is greatly skillful looks clumsy.’61 [Just as Con- fucius said,] ‘A gentleman is ashamed that his words are greater than his con- duct.’62 Supposing that śramaṇas have attained the highest Way, why do they not practice it instead of sitting [and doing nothing]? Why do they talk about right and wrong and take up right and wrong for discussion? I think that these [śramaṇas] commit the theft of virtue.”

Mouzi replied, “Suppose you are afraid that next spring there will be a serious famine, so you do not eat in the autumn [in order to save food]. Or, fearful that it will be cold in the eleventh month, you wear two fur robes, one over the other, in the ﬁfth month. Although these actions are taken in order to be fully prepared beforehand, it is unavoidable that you look stupid. Laozi’s maxim refers only to those who have attained the Way. What do those who have not attained the Way know? When the Great Way is explained in one word, the whole world is joyful. Isn’t this great eloquence? Didn’t Laozi say that ‘When the work is done, to retire into obscurity is the Way of Heaven’?63 When a person has already retired into obscurity, what more does he have to say? Śramaṇas of today have not yet attained the Way. How can they help but to speak? Even Laozi, [who said ‘those who know do not speak,’] still made speeches. If he remained silent, [as he taught,] how could he give the account of the Five Thousand Words (i.e., the Daodejing)? “It is all right if one knows [the Way] and does not speak it. But if one

is unable to know [the Way] and furthermore unable to speak it, he is just stupid! Consequently, he who is able to speak [the Way] but unable to carry it out is the teacher of the nation. He who is able to carry out [the Way] but unable to speak it is the force of the nation. He who is able to carry out [the Way] and also speak it is the treasure of the nation. Each of these three types of people has an applicable point. How then could they commit the theft of virtue? Only those who are unable to speak and also unable to carry out [the Way] can be said to commit the theft [of virtue].”

A person asked, “If things are just as you say, we should only have to learn how to progress in our debates and study speeches and discussions. Why do we have to regulate our minds and follow morality as well?” Mouzi replied, “How slow to understand you are! Spoken language and discussion have their own proper and adequate times. It is said about Qu Yuan [in the Analects of Confucius], ‘When the Way prevails in the world, he is straightforward. When the Way does not prevail in the world, he can roll up [his principles] and keep them close to his heart.’64 About Ning Wuzi, it is said [in the Analects], ‘When the Way prevailed in the world, he displayed his intelligence. When the Way did not prevail in the world, he behaved like a stupid person.’65 Confucius said, ‘Not to talk to one with whom you may talk is to waste a person [of talent]. To talk to one with whom you may not

talk is to waste your words.’66 Therefore, to be intelligent or to behave like 5b a stupid person both have their proper times. [Based on time and place,] speech and discussion serve several purposes. Why [do you say that] we [only have to learn how to progress in] debates and discussion without carrying

out [the Way]?”

A person asked, “Why do you say that Buddhism is the most esteemed and the happiest teaching of wuwei and freedom from avarice? Many people and scholars in the world slander [Buddhism], saying that ‘Its words and theory are vague, difﬁcult to take up [for practice], and [the notion of] absolute emptiness is hard to believe.’ Why [do they say this]?”

Mouzi replied, “The most delicious food does not satisfy every palate. Great music is not familiar to every ear. Even if [the noble music] Xianchi [composed by the Yellow Emperor] is played, [the reﬁned music] Dazhang [composed by Emperor Yao] is set forth, [the lofty music] Xiaoshao [com- posed by Emperor Shun] is set out, and the music is sung nine times, no one joins in the chorus. [On the contrary,] if music from a stringed instrument of [the ruined states] Zheng and Wei is played, or if current popular songs are sung, [many people] unexpectedly clap their hands on the beat without fail. Therefore, Song Yu, [replying to King Xiang of Chu state,] said, ‘A visitor sang in Ying, [the capital city of Chu]. When he performed simple and crude folk songs, those who joined in the chorus numbered a thousand people. When he played [highbrow music], making the [reﬁned] note shang and stringing up to the clear note jue, no one in the audience responded.’67 This indicates that all the people were pleased with vulgar music and did not understand well-cultivated [music].

“Han Fei criticized Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun from a narrow view- point, as if looking at [the sky] through a tube. Jie Yu reproached Confucius with a view as small as a [strand of] hair.68 They all stand pat in their inferior [views] and disregard great [views]. To hear the clear note shang and say that it is the note jue is not the fault of the player but due to the listener’s poor faculty [of listening]. To see [Bian] He’s jade and call it a stone is not because the jade is ignoble but due to the beholder’s lack of knowledge.69 A snake with supernatural powers can regenerate its body into one even if it is cut into many pieces, but [the snake] cannot cause people not to cut it apart. A turtle with mysterious powers appeared to Lord Yuan of Song state in a

dream, but [the turtle] could not evade the net of [the ﬁsherman] Yu Qie.70 The Great Way is wuwei, which is neither what ordinary people understand, nor what may increase its value by praise, nor what may lose its value by slander. Whether or not it is employed is up to Heaven. Whether or not it is practiced is up to the turn of time. Whether or not it is believed is up to fate.”

A person asked, “You interpret the Buddha’s teaching with the Classics and their commentaries. Your expressions are rich, and the meanings are clear. Your compositions are energetic and the explanations are beautiful. Isn’t this due to your rhetorical skill rather than being the truth?”

Mouzi replied, “No, it is not. Since I have a broad view of things, I am simply not deluded.”

A person asked, “How did you come to have a broad view of things?” Mouzi replied, “Through the Buddhist scriptures. When I did not under- stand Buddhist scriptures, I was more deluded than you are. Even though I recited the Five Classics, I just considered them to be ﬂowery and had not come to realize their truth. Now I see the doctrines of the Buddhist scriptures, read the essentials of the Laozi [Daodejing], abide by the nature of tranquility without worldly desires, and contemplate the practice of wuwei. When I come back to view the affairs of the world, I feel as if I am stealing a glance at a gorge from high above the earth,71 or as if I am ascending Mount Song and Mount Dai to look over the small foothills. The Five Classics are just like the ﬁve ﬂavors and Buddhism is just like the ﬁve grains (i.e., staple foods). Since I heard the Way, I have been in a condition that is just like clouds opening up

to reveal the sun, or entering into a dark room holding a torch.”

A person asked, “You said that [the Buddhist] scriptures are [as deep as] great rivers and seas, and the words are [as beautiful as] brocade and embroidery. Why do you respond to my questions referring to [the Classics such as] the Book of Odes and the Book of History instead of using Buddhist

5c scriptures? Do you intend to combine different categories in one?”

Mouzi replied, “A thirsty man does not need [the water of] a large river or the sea to quench his thirst. A hungry man does not need the granary of Mount Ao to ﬁll his stomach. The Way is established for the wise. Debate is well constructed for knowledgeable people. Books are transmitted for those who understand them. Things are clariﬁed for people of insight. I refer to phrases [of the Classics] since I think that you know the meanings. If I

speak with the words of Buddhist scriptures and discuss the essentials of wuwei, it would be like explaining the ﬁve colors to the blind, or playing the ﬁve notes [of traditional Chinese music] for the deaf. Even though [music] master Kuang [of Jin state] was artful, he could not strum a Chinese zither that had no string. Although fox and badger furs are warm, they cannot warm the dead.

“Gongming Yi [of Lu state] played the musical piece Cao in the note qingjue for a cow, but the cow just bent her head down and ate [grass] as before. This does not mean that she did not listen to [the music], but [the music] did not meet her ears. On the other hand, if there were the buzz of a mosquito or gadﬂy or the lowing of an orphaned calf, she would promptly swish her tail, strain her ears, and stamp on the ground, listening to it. This is why I only respond to your questions referring to the Classics.”

A person asked, “Once when I was in the capital, I entered Dongguan Library and studied at Taixue National University, where I saw what talented scholars regulated and I listened to what the circle of Confucian scholars dis- cussed. However, I never heard that to cultivate Buddhism is considered valu- able and that to damage one’s appearance by oneself is considered superior. Why do you indulge in [Buddhism]? When you get lost, alter the route! When you exhaust all methods, return to the old [method]! Don’t you think so?” Mouzi replied, “One who excels in dealing with extraordinary matters cannot be deceived. One who is versed in the Way cannot be surprised by strange things. One who discerns tones in words cannot be deluded by words. One who understands righteousness cannot be swayed by proﬁt. Laozi said, ‘Fame harms oneself. Advantages debauch one’s behavior.’72 He also said, ‘If deception is set up and power is established, the absolute vacancy spon- taneously becomes valuable.’73 To cultivate the art of the inner chamber, to go with the current of the times, and to strive to tune oneself to the present time, taking advantage of unguarded moments, are actions taken by scholars

of the lowest class and rejected even by scholars of the middle class.

“It is needless to speak of the highest Way, which is vast and what sages of the highest class practice. [The highest Way] is as expansive as the sky and as deep as the sea. It is not suitable for people who peep over a wall or for those who consider a several ren-high wall to be tall. This is proper, as a matter of course. [These people] see the gate (i.e., outer factors), while I

see the room (i.e., inner factors). They pluck the ﬂowers (i.e., worldly glory), while I take the fruit (i.e., truth). They seek perfection, while I preserve the One. You should change course immediately! I ask you to follow [Buddhism]. You have not been aware of what the causes of fortune and misfortune are like.”

A person asked, “With the words of the Classics and their commentaries and the splendid doctrines, you praise the Buddha’s conduct and extol his virtue, which [you say] is lofty, as it rides the high clear clouds, and is wide, as it goes beyond the end of the earth. Can it be that [your praises] exceed the essential qualities and surpass the reality [of the Buddha]? Accordingly, my taunt considerably touches Buddhism on its disadvantage and hits the vitals.” Mouzi replied, “Alas! My praises [for the Buddha’s virtue] are just like adding a speck of dust to Mount Song and Mount Tai, or collecting the morn- ing dew and throwing it into a large river or the sea. Your slanderous words [against Buddhism] are like using a ladle and goblet to attempt to reduce [the volume of water in] a large river or the sea, or plowing by foot to attempt to lower Mount Kunlun, or raising a hand to block the sunlight, or lifting a lump of earth to block the ﬂow of the Yellow River. My praises cannot make

the Buddha loftier and your slander cannot bring him low.”

A person asked, “Is the issue of longevity stated in the talisman registers of Wang Qiao, Chisongzi, and the eight immortals, and in the one hundred and seventy fascicles of [Gan Ji’s] Divine Book (Shenshu), the same as that

6a in the Buddhist scriptures?”

Mouzi replied, “A comparison [between these texts of the immortals and the Buddhist scriptures] in category is just like comparing the ﬁve powers (i.e., the ﬁve states of Qi, Song, Jin, Qin, and Chu in the late Zhou dynasty) with the Five Thearchs [who ruled in accordance with virtue], or comparing Yang Huo, [who looked like Confucius,] with Confucius himself. A com- parison [between them] in shape is just like comparing foothills with Mount Hua and Mount Heng, or small creeks and ditches with large rivers and seas. A comparison [between them] in elegance is just like comparing a tiger hide with a sheepskin, or mottled hemp with brilliant and beautiful embroidery. There are ninety-six different teachings, but the most esteemed among them is none other than Buddhism. The texts of the immortals, when we listen to their words, sound great and ﬁll our ears, but when we seek their efﬁcacy, it is like grasping at wind or trying to catch a shadow. Hence, [the texts of the

immortals] are not upheld in the Great Way and are not valued in wuwei.

How could they be the same?”

A person asked, “Some among the practitioners of the Way [of the Immor- tals] avoid grain and do not eat it, yet they drink wine and eat meat. They say also that this is the way of Laozi. In Buddhism, however, to drink wine and eat meat are the heaviest violations to the precepts, and yet [Buddhists] do eat grain. Why do they contradict each other?”

Mouzi replied, “There are extant about ninety-six various teachings in total. So far as having no worldly attachment and wuwei are concerned, nothing is more esteemed than Buddhism. I have inspected the two volumes of the Laozi [Daodejing] and have learned that this scripture prohibits the ﬁve ﬂavors, but I have never seen any word to proscribe against the ﬁve major grains. The sage (i.e., Confucius) formulated the writings of the seven canons in which there is no mention of a prohibition against eating grain. Laozi wrote the Five Thousand Words (i.e., the Daodejing) and yet the issue of abstaining from grains is not indicated. The sage (i.e., Confucius) said, ‘Those who eat grain are intelligent. Those who eat grass are silly. Those who eat meat are violent. Those who eat vapor have a long life.’74 The people of the world do not understand this matter; they see that the six kinds of birds stop breathing and do not eat in the autumn and winter seasons, and then they try to imitate them. They do not know that each thing or being has its own true nature. It is just as a magnet attracts [a heavy piece of] iron and yet it cannot pull a [light strand of] hair.”

A person asked, “Should we rather stop eating grain or not?”

Mouzi replied, “Before I understood the Great Way, I once learned [the way of abstaining from grain] too. There are several thousand and several hundred methods to abstain from grain. When I practiced them, they were not effective at all; when I performed them, there were no [good] signs at all. Therefore, I just gave up [these methods]. I observed the three teachers with whom I studied. They described themselves to be seven hundred, ﬁve hundred, and three hundred years old [respectively], but in less than three years after I had begun to study with them, they all died. The cause of their deaths is probably that they abstained from grain, did not eat it, and [instead] ate various fruits; they went back for second and third servings when they enjoyed meat; they had an entire barrel of wine when they drank; their spirits

were muddled and delirious; the energy of grain did not ﬁll [their bodies]; and their ears and eyes were deluded and were not debarred from lewdness and evil. When I asked them why they did this, they replied, ‘Laozi said that

6b he reduces and again reduces till he comes up to wuwei.75 We need only to reduce day by day.’ As far as I observed them, however, they just increased [their self-interest] day by day and did not reduce [anything at all]. Thereupon, they all died before reaching the age at which one may know the decrees of Heaven (i.e., ﬁfty years old).76 Even Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius were all unable to live to a hundred years of age. Nevertheless, foolish and deluded people of these latter days want to seek inexhaustible longevity by [the alimentotherapy of] ingesting drugs and the avoidance of grain. How sad!”

A person asked, “Those who practice the Way [of the Immortals] say that they can prevent disease and do not get sick, or that they can recover from illness without acupuncture and medicine. Is this true? Why do Buddhists recommend acupuncture and medicine when someone becomes ill?”

Mouzi replied, “Laozi said, ‘When things reach their prime, they begin aging. This may be said to be the deviation from the Way. Anything that devi- ates from the Way soon comes to an end.’77 Only those who have attained the [Buddhist] Way will not be reborn. Since they are not reborn, they will not be in the prime, either. Since they are not in the prime, they will not age, either. Since they do not age, they will not become ill. Since they do not become ill, they will not decay. For this reason, Laozi considered having a body to be a great calamity.78 When King Wu was ill, the Duke of Zhou begged for [King Wu’s] life,79 and when Confucius was ill, Zilu asked leave to pray for [Confucius].80 I see that all the sages became ill, but I have never seen that they did not fall into illness. Shen Nong tasted [the ﬂavors of the various] grasses and he was about to die several tens of times.81 The Yellow Emperor bowed with his head to the ground and received acupuncture from Qi Bo. How could these three sages be inferior to Daoist practitioners of the present time? When I examine [these points], your words are also worthy of rejection.”

A person asked, “All teachings are the same in [regard to learning]

wuwei. Why do you distinguish them from each other, arrange them, and

indicate their differences? Furthermore, you cause those who learn the teaching to be suspicious. I am afraid that this is wasteful and futile.”

Mouzi replied, “Although we call all of them ‘grass,’ the natures of var- ious grasses cannot be distinctively explained. We call them all ‘metal,’ but the natures of various kinds of metals cannot be distinctively explained. Even in the same category, there are differences in their natures. All things are just so. Why would this not be so only in regard to teachings? In bygone days Yang [Zhu] and Mo [Di] blocked the path of a group of Confucianists. Their carts could not advance, and people could not make progress. It was not until Mencius opened up [the path] that the people came to know what to follow.82 [Music] master Kuang played his Chinese zither, waiting for someone who could understand his tune to appear in later ages.83 Sages formulated the model decorum, hoping that gentlemen would see it in the future.

“Seeing that a jade and a stone were put in the same chest, Yi Dun turned pale.84 Seeing that purple overpowered vermilion when the two colors mixed, Confucius sighed in lamentation.85 [The light of] the sun and moon is not unclear, yet numerous clouds obscure it. Buddhism is not incorrect, but numerous private teachings obscure its justice. Thereupon, I distinguish and differentiate [Buddhism from other teachings]. The intelligence of Zang Wen [Zhong] and the uprightness of Weisheng [Gao] were what Confucius was very stern about.86 All of his words were [spoken in order] to correct [the vices of] the world. Why is it wasteful and futile [to distinguish teachings from each other]?”

A person asked, “It is all right if you slander the immortals, repress unusual things, and do not believe that there is a way to immortality. Why do you believe that it is only Buddhism by which one should attain liberation? The Buddha lived in a foreign land. You have not set foot on that soil, and have not yet seen the place. You have only read the writings and trust in what

[the Buddha] did. He who sees [only] a bright aspect is unable to know the 6c reality. He who sees a shadow is unable to discern the form. [What you believe] is almost untrue.”

Mouzi replied, “Confucius said, ‘See what a man does, observe what he has done, and examine with what he is content. How could he conceal his character?’87 Formerly, [Taigong] Wang Lü [Shang] and the Duke of

Zhou asked each other about their administrations, and each knew how [the states of Qi and Lu] would end up.88 Yan Yuan, on the day when he rode on a carriage drawn by a team of four horses, observed Dongye Bi’s way of handling the horses and he knew [that the horses] would break down.89 Zigong witnessed the meeting of [Prince Yin of] Zhu state and [Prince Ding of] Lu state, and intuited the reasons for their death [based on their behavior].90 Confucius heard the notes of strings played by [music] master Kuang and recognized that it was King Wen’s musical composition.91 Jizha [of Wu] lis- tened to music and saw the customs of various countries.92 Why is it necessary to set foot on [that soil] and see [that place]?”

A person asked, “I once traveled in Khotan country where I often met śramaṇas and Buddhist followers, whom I reproved, referring to my [Con- fucian] doctrines. None could respond to me and they all backed down. Many of them corrected their resolution and changed their intention. Why do you alone have difﬁculty reforming yourself?”

Mouzi replied, “When light feathers meet with wind high above, they are blown away. When ﬁne stones get into the ﬂow of water from a mountain stream, they are carried down[stream]. Mount Tai alone remains unmoved in a whirlwind. Massive rocks are not swept away even by a rapid current. When plum trees are nipped by the frost, they become leaﬂess, but pines and cypresses are hardly withered. The Buddhist followers you met were certainly not of broad experience and knowledge and did not have extensive insight. Consequently, they humbly backed down. You, [however,] are not going to vanquish even a stupid person such as myself, not to speak of those who are well versed in the [Buddhist] Way. You do not reform yourself and yet want to change others. I have never heard that Confucius followed the robber Zhi, or that King Tang [of the Yin dynasty] and King Wu [of the Zhou dynasty, who are known as sages,] modeled themselves after [the tyrants] King Jie [of the Xia dynasty] and King Zhou [of the Yin dynasty].”

A person said, “In the Way of the Divine Transcendents, one does not eat in autumn and winter, nor does he shut himself up in a room for dozens of days. This can be said to be the [condition of] the most content, free from avarice. I think that this should be considered respectful and valuable, and I am afraid that Buddhism is not as good as [the Way of Divine Transcendents].”

Mouzi said, “Pointing to the south when it is in fact the north, one says to himself that he is not confused. Considering west to be east, he says to himself that he is not stupid. Being a [humble] owl, he laughs at [a noble] phoenix. Holding [insigniﬁcant creatures such as] mole crickets and earth- worms, one ridicules turtles and dragons. Cicadas do not eat, but gentlemen do not value them. Frogs and pythons hibernate, but sages do not attach importance to them. Confucius said, ‘Of all [beings who have] life between Heaven and Earth, human beings are the noblest.’93 I have never heard that he respected cicadas and pythons. Nevertheless, among the people of the world there are inherently those who eat sweet ﬂag [grass] and discard cin- namon and ginger, and who decline to drink sweet dew but sip unreﬁned vinegar. The ﬁne hair on the skin, although it is small, can be examined if you look at it [closely enough]. Mount Tai’s loftiness cannot be seen if you turn your back on it. It is a matter of whether or not you pay attention to it, or whether or not you are careful. In Lu state the Ji family was respected and Confucius was viliﬁed.94 In Wu state, Great Steward Pi was considered to be capable and [Wu]zi Xu was not considered to be good.95 So, [given these situations,] your questions [may be seen to be] reasonable.”

A person asked, “The school of Daoism says, ‘Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, the Duke of Zhou, Confucius, and seventy-two of his disciples did not

die and became immortals.’ The school of Buddhism says, ‘All people die 7a

and no one can avoid death.’ Why?”

Mouzi replied, “These are absurd statements, not what the sages said. Laozi said, ‘Even Heaven and Earth cannot last long. How much less can human beings?’96 Confucius said, ‘Furthermore, [the virtuous] withdraw from the world.97 Those who are benevolent and ﬁlial permanently exist.’ For as long as I have read books of the six arts and looked at biographies and records, Emperor Yao passed away; Emperor Shun was [buried] on the mountain of Cangwu; there is Emperor Yu’s mausoleum at Guiji; Boyi and Shuqi have their tombs on Mount Shouyang; King Wen died before he could put King Zhou (the last emperor of the Yin dynasty) to death; King Wu could not wait for King Cheng to grow to adulthood but he passed away; there is a chapter [in the record] regarding the reburial of the Duke of Zhou; Confucius had a dream [in which he sat between] two pillars [receiving an offering];

there is a record for the age of Bo Yu, when he died before his father (i.e., Confucius); there is a record that Zilu’s [body] was salted; there is the expres- sion of [Confucius], ‘It is fate!’ for [Ran] Boniu;98 there is Zeng Shen’s expres- sion [before his death], ‘Uncover my feet!’;99 and there are the records for Yan Yuan that [Confucius] said, ‘Unfortunately, he was short-lived’100 and then composed the parable of a young plant that does not go on to ﬂower.101 All these [examples] are written in the Classics, and are the utmost signiﬁcant words by sages. I consider the Classics and their commentaries to testify [to my words]. The people of the world take [the Daoist assertion] as testimony and say [that these sages] did not die. Are they not deluded?”

A person asked, “Your interpretation is indeed perfect! Certainly it is not what we can understand. I wonder, however, why your responses are arranged in thirty-seven sections. Is there any model for this?”

Mouzi replied, “[Taking a hint from] rolling mugwort, wheels were invented, and [observing ﬂoating] driftwood, boats and oars were devised.102 [Picking up an idea from] spider’s webs, nets [for catching birds] were invented. [Seeing] bird tracks, [the Chinese] written language was created. Therefore, it is easy to accomplish something if there is a model, while it is difﬁcult to accomplish anything without a model. I read the essentials of the Buddhist scriptures, which list thirty-seven elements [for enlightenment].103 The Laozi Dao[de]jing consists of thirty-seven chapters as well.104 Thereupon, I modeled [my responses] after these [examples].”

Then the deluded people who heard [Mouzi’s explanation] became rev- erent and nervous; they turned pale. They stood up, folding their hands in salute. They haltingly prostrated themselves and said, “We are ignorant, and we were born in a benighted place. We dared to make stupid statements with- out worrying about fortune and misfortune. Now we have heard your instruc- tions and [our doubts have been dispelled] very rapidly, just as hot water melts snow. We tell you now that we will be able to repent, clear our minds, and admonish ourselves. We wish to receive the ﬁve precepts and become Buddhist laypeople.”

The Discourse to Correct Faulty Accusations

[against Buddhism] (Zhengwulun) by an Anonymous Writer

There was an idiosyncratic person who brought a false charge against the Buddha. He said, “Yin Wenzi is a man who possessed supernatural power. He sympathized with the northern barbarians [since they are like] a deer whose father shares a doe with his son, they are avaricious and cruel, they are proﬁteers, they are shameless, they encroach upon [neighboring lands], they do not tire of massacring people, they cannot be persuaded by means of the virtue of modesty, and they cannot be admonished by means of talk. Therefore, [Yin] managed all things for them, and so forth. Moreover, he had a disciple (i.e., the Buddha) who had attained the Way to transform, and so on. Moreover, he made [the disciple] prohibit [the northern barbarians] from destroying life, forbade their style of marriage, and proscribed them from having offspring. As a measure to smite the barbarians, what is better than this? And so forth.”

I corrected this, “The accuser already said that the Buddha does not 7b

exist. Furthermore, he said that Wenzi had supernatural power. He also said that there was a disciple who attained the Way, who could transform, who was broadminded, and who completed the marvelous principles. These are superﬁcial and heartless words. Now, Yin Wenzi is precisely a disciple of Laozi. Laozi is namely a disciple of the Buddha. Therefore, it is stated in the sutra, ‘I have heard it said that in Zhugan there was an old teacher who thor- oughly entered nirvana and who eternally and everlastingly remains there without beginning or end.’105 [The Chinese word] Zhugan means India. [The term] nirvana is a barbarian word; the Chinese [equivalent] is wuwei. If the Buddha was not [born] before Laozi, how could [Laozi] call [the Buddha] the one who was born before himself (xiansheng)? If Laozi was not [born] before Yin Wen, how could [Yin Wen] ask [Laozi] for the Daodejing? Inferring from this, [we see that] the Buddha was formerly Wenzi’s ancestor, and the original of all sages. How could it happen that a disciple can supernaturally transform and his teacher cannot?

“Moreover, when a sage governs the world, he certainly rules over it with morality. If the people in remote regions do not submit [to his rule], he

paciﬁes them with [the inﬂuence of] civil culture and virtue. He uses weapons only if compelled to out of necessity. He is one who will remove violence, stop ﬁghting, save the people, and carry out a minor killing in order to stop mass murder. Consequently, in the Spring and Autumn period, when feudal lords subjugated [other states], they took actions relying on [the principles of] justice and order. If their hostile state had a fault, they assuredly beat a drum in order to make [the fault] known, and assembled troops of justice in order to deal with those who caused the fault. They did not punish others for ambiguous reasons. Therefore, when their enemies were subjugated, they soothed [them] in a soft and gentle manner, and neither inﬂicted punishment indiscriminately nor used armed force excessively beyond all reason. When they won, they performed the rite of mourning [for those who had lost their lives in battle]. When they killed, they wept with grief for those who had been killed. Accordingly, to arrest by means of temptation was severely cen- sured, and causes of extermination were strongly restricted.

“To appease evil in order to quell injustice, and to use the road [of the other state] in order to carry out an atrocity [against its own enemy],106 are variants of [stories found in] the Classics and their annotations. Innumerable derisive comments and condemnation about them can be found. Therefore, when [Zhao Meng of Jin state] met the feudal lords at [the west gate of] Song state for a treaty of alliance, the reason [Zhao Meng] gave priority to Jin state and restrained Chu state is because he hated [the people of Chu,] who were deceptive and wore armor under their clothes [in order to wage a surprise attack on the people of Jin], and he respected the virtue of honesty.107 “Resentment and benevolence toward an enemy should not affect the descendants [of the enemy]. Vice is put to an end within one generation. Heavy punishment should not be recklessly dispensed. This is a clever system for all rulers to follow and an excellent law for governing a country. Generals and jingoistic fellows of later ages, when they were troubled by the degen- eration of morals, began to compete with each other depending on their cun- ning powers, and indulged their ravenous minds with deceptive plots. When they did battle in a ﬁeld, they were unrestrained in attacking and killed every- thing in sight. When they annihilated a city, they completely buried [the inhabitants] alive, to the last person. Therefore, Bai Qi (?–258 B.C.E.), [who had buried alive many people of Zhao state who had surrendered,] cut off

his own head at Duyou.108 Dong Zhuo (?–192), [a tyrannical vassal of the Later Han dynasty,] was slaughtered at a palace gate.109

“Gentlemen know that such [immoral people] inevitably come to ruin. The whole world grieves when [innocent people] are slaughtered. The harm of armed might reaches this point. This is what we should be distressed by, and why we should sigh deeply [in sorrow]. How could there be a sage who wants to indulge in cunning and exterminate common people? Moreover, [even in a small village of only] ten households a wise person can be found, not to speak of a vast area, mile after mile. Zhonghua (i.e., Emperor Shun) was born in [the region of] the eastern barbarians. Wenming (i.e., King Yu) was from [the region of] the western barbarians. How could there be a ﬁxed place from which sages and wise people emerge? Either articulating [the

teaching] here or teaching in silence there, styles of teaching are myriad, and 7c

yet the thread of the principles does not differ. Examining the reason why the Buddha manifested his trace in Central India and illuminated miracles in Central Asia, there are probably very profound meanings that cannot be explained in detail.

“How could there be a sage who hates the enemies’ power and wants to exterminate them without even a single survivor? [If there were,] how different is this from the case where once a pestilential vapor runs rampant, it cannot be purged by any clear and good thing, or that once a ﬁre is set in the center of a ﬁeld, [fragrant] orchid and caryopteris divaricata (a water plant with a foul smell that lasts very long) are both burned? Wasn’t the tyranny of King Jie and King Zhou just like this? Even if the northern barbarian states really do commit many treacherous acts, if you displace violence with violence,110 this goes against the purpose of leading [the world] by an expedient means. To engage in argument referring to these [examples] is sufﬁcient to abuse others with slander and to confuse ignorant and inexperienced people. How could it be a rebuke [by someone who] is kindhearted, logical, and thoughtful?”

Again, the accuser said, “Yin Wenzi deceived [the people]; he told them that there are thirty-two levels of Heaven, and so on. Moreover, he recklessly quoted [a phrase of] the Loutanjing, ‘[Each of all] heavenly palaces is two hundred and forty thousand li in circumference. One side [of the heavenly palace] has a hundred gates, and the gate is ten thousand li wide,’ and so on.”111

I replied, “The Buddhist scriptures state that in realms of the heavens and the earth there are stages from high to low. The [scriptures] all present [an analysis of] the sections [of the heavens and the earth], which are sys- tematically described in good order and with logic. Nevertheless, the accuser has exaggerated [the descriptions] and either fabricated a false statement or was confused and misled and could not investigate the reality. How could there be a land two hundred and forty thousand li in circumference, containing gates four million li wide in total? This case serves as an example for the rest [of the accuser’s statement], and it is enough to clarify that he made many mistakes. Even slaves and herders may know that this is not so, not to speak of intellectuals. [The accuser] wants to show his erudition and yet only reveals his stupidity.”

Again, the accuser said, “The Buddha also went all around the ﬁve realms of existence [before he became a buddha]. He committed many transgressions and atrocious acts, yet he still attained buddhahood. This is not a law to frighten those who do evil. Moreover, in counting people, there are few good people but many bad people. When bad people die, they would ﬁll up the realm of the six domestic animals. It has been a long time since the creation of the world up to the present day. [If this were the case], then animals would occupy nine-tenths [of the world] and the human race would already be rare.” I corrected this, “It is indeed as you said that the Buddha was once evil,

too. The reason he attained buddhahood is because he corrected his mistakes and followed what is good. If he had grown [even more] evil, if he had never reformed himself, and if he had been deluded and consequently had kept going [the wrong way], he would have received [the retribution of] suffering for a long, dark period; he would have transmigrated in the ﬁve realms of existence without the means for liberation. [The Buddha, however,] was able to dig up the saplings of various evils, extinguish the ember of the three poi- sons, cultivate the wholesomeness of the ﬁve precepts, and accomplish the excellence of the ten wholesome acts.112 He practiced like this kalpa after kalpa. Even when he was tired, he never stopped. He completely understood the ultimate state of things and clariﬁed that the three periods (i.e., past, present, and future) are empty. Thereupon, he was able to liberate himself from the illusory world of birth and death, and go beyond to the place of wuwei.

“In counting the number of insects in the world, we cannot reach a cal- culation. [The number of] people who reside in China are like [the number 8a of] extremely small ﬁne hairs that grow on a horse’s body. How could it be

said that [animals occupy] nine-tenths [of the world]? ‘Of all [beings who have] life between Heaven and Earth, human beings are the noblest.’113 The reason Rong [Qi]qi was content with the three kinds of happiness is because he thoroughly understood the clear distinction between the noble and the hum- ble.114 Furthermore, if one does not depend on [the fact that] he is of the human race and is not repulsed by animals, if he considers hay and water to be delicious food and does not think [wearing] a bridle is a punishment, and if he is content with [his circumstance], then there is nothing too difﬁcult for him.”

Again, the accuser said, “There is the Sequel Scripture of No Spirit (Wu- ling xiajing).”115

[I corrected this,] “The Sequel Scripture of No Spirit is merely a bizarre book. It is not a book like those [written by] the Three Augusts and the Five Thearchs, or words of instruction and admonition. It is something that people of great talent and learning do not [consider worthy of] study and reading. The words of the ancestors older by three or ﬁve generations [recorded in the Sequel Scripture of No Spirit] are similar to those of the petition to the Celestial Thearch. This itself nearly reveals a fabrication, without question. I will now deal with it for the time being.

“Generally people of the world frequently say, ‘If a person dies, he will perish without the numen (ling) and the spirit (gui).’ In that case, if there is no numen, there is no Celestial Ofﬁcer; and if there is no spirit, then there is no place where [the spirits] gather. If one’s descendant who believes in the Buddha traces back to what his ancestor did and ﬁnds fault to reproach, even if one’s ancestor was a wise person or gentleman, if he did not necessarily do the same thing as his descendant (i.e., believe in the Buddha) while he was alive, then the Celestial Ofﬁcer will take him into custody. [The Celestial Ofﬁcer] orders the corpses of [virtuous people like] Yan [Hui] and Ran [Boniu] to suffer the pain of slaying, and benevolent ancestors to have pow- erful poisons added to their esteemed bodies. How could this be done by an intelligent, upright, and honest spiritual being (shen)? Then, if [such a thing] could not be done [by an intelligent, upright, and honest spiritual being], it

must be done by a fox, a badger, an evil spirit of mountains and rivers, or a lewd and ﬁerce ghost. How could such a being overpower the spirits of both kindhearted and wise people, and trouble those who observe the Buddhist precepts? In this way, [the Sequel Scripture of No Spirit] brings a false charge against [Buddhism]. It is a shallow and disgraceful text!”

Again, the accuser said, “Buddhist monks exploit the common people immorally, and build beautifully decorated Buddhist temples on a great scale. This is extravagant and futile, and so on.”

I corrected this, “In teaching [people] there are both depth and shallow- ness. [The teaching should] be given in a timely manner and respond to people. All of this was already stated completely in the beginning section. Let me repeat it. No one surpasses Yao and Shun in being respectful to others and humble about themselves. They had ﬁne hemp robes embroidered [with a design of] a mountain, a dragon, a pheasant, and axes [to distinguish ofﬁcial rank]. Therefore, the Spring and Autumn with Commentary (Chunqiu zuo- shizhuan) by Zuo Qiuming states, ‘The bells of a carriage horse make [excel- lent virtue by the sound] known publicly. The banners and ﬂags patterned with sun, moon, and stars make their brilliance known publicly. The images comparable to each other by the ﬁve colors make the differences of things known publicly.’116 Therefore, the residences of monarchs require the Gate of Gold (jinmen, i.e., the gate for the emperor), the steps of white jade leading to the throne (yubi), an astronomical observatory for the emperor (lingtai), and a gate of the imperial palace (fengque) in order to distinguish them from [the dwellings] of the common people and make clear [the difference] between the noble and the humble.

“Regarding human feelings, affections of the mind arise following what people see. Consequently, ‘when [the ruler] hears the sound of his drums and tambours’ and sees the shape of a feather banner, ‘he thinks of his leaders and commanders.’ ‘When [the ruler] hears the sound of the Chinese zithers (qin se)’ and sees stately manners, ‘he thinks of his ofﬁcers of the court.’117 When we change standpoint and viewpoint, both our internal feeling and external appearance become different. Now, of the fellows who spend days in leisure, those who see forms and yet do not reach the Way all respect noble

8b status and disregard humble status. Therefore, all Buddhists admire and respect [the Buddha’s] relics and try to keep the image of him in their hearts.

“Consequently, they inscribe and display illustrations and images [of the Buddha], extend respect to him, and donate curios of great value in order to enhance the temple of worship. So when a person of the highest class goes there, he disregards the adornments [such as the building, the illustrations, and the Buddhist images] and experiences various unfathomable tastes. When a person of the lowest class goes to the temple, he praises the beautiful dec- orations and amuses himself with the splendor. First his ears and eyes are pleased, and gradually he may be led to the principles of justice. [Sentient beings] are pulled out from the three lowest realms of existence, and no one is left behind. It is just as when a container is ﬁlled with water; it adapts to the volume [of water]. If a hole is bored into the bottom [of a container], or if it has no bottom, it simply cannot hold [the water].

“Moreover, [the accuser] persistently makes a false charge that [the teaching of] weal and woe was made by the Buddha. It should be said that he does not understand the foundation [of the teaching]. I will again brieﬂy explain it.

“[The relation between] good or ill fortune and virtue or vice is similar to [that between] shadow or sound and form or voice. It is a natural conse- quence, from which no one can escape. To [choose your own] actions is up to you; but from reason a profound response will arise. The Buddha, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius, however, all clariﬁed [the principles of] loyalty, ﬁlial piety, truthfulness, and obedience. Those who follow these principles have good fortune and those who go against them experience bad luck. When the way to cross over water has been shown, [it is possible] by using a boat and oars, but it is impossible to cross over [the water] by foot. The way to instruct people and the skill to save people from distress and death are also similar to [the facts that] Shen Nong ate grain to satisfy his hunger and the Yellow Emperor hung down his garments in order to control coldness and heat. If someone wishes to be sated while his mouth is closed, or if he asks for warmth while he remains naked, we cannot grant [such favors] upon him by force. The reason Bian Que was called a good physician is because he prescribed medicine according to the disease, and simply did not lose the proper way. No one blames him for causing people not to die. Furthermore, Bian Que said, ‘I am able to cause people who ought to live not to die, but I am unable to cause people who ought to die to live longer.’118

“If the master (i.e., the accuser) were in the position of a son, he would be impious to his parents, and if he were in the position of a vassal, he would be disloyal. He has a serious disease but he is not aware of it. He is offered good medicine but he does not take it. Accordingly, he experiences woes, and on the day he dies he will further blame the sages and deeply resent the good physician. [What he is doing] is just like ‘[an insane person] who runs toward the east’ and through his own force throws himself into a trap.”119 Again, the accuser said, “Among śramaṇas, those who reside in the cap-

ital city and Luoyang are numerous, but I have not heard that they could lengthen the emperors’ life spans. To a great degree, [Buddhists] cannot har- monize yin and yang in order to cause a year of abundance, enrich the people, prevent calamities, cure epidemics, overcome and suppress disturbances, and so on. To a lesser degree, [they] cannot avoid [eating] grain in order to breathe pure [vapor], protect life, surmount difﬁculty, prolong life, stay young forever, and so on.”

I corrected this, “That is not so. Zhuangzhou (i.e., Zhuangzi) says, ‘Those who thoroughly understand the conditions of life do not strive after what they cannot do in life.’120 This is a case of having ascertained that the life span cannot be changed. If one’s lot in disposition and life could be sought by means of wisdom and virtue, then that of the two sons Fa (King Wu) and Dan (the Duke of Zhou) would have been sufﬁcient to cause their father [King] Wen to live until a thousand years old. When Yanzi (i.e., Yan Yuan) died, [Confucius] said, ‘Heaven is destroying me!’121 [Confucius] lamented greatly over [Yanzi’s death]. He simply had nothing with which to prolong [Yanzi’s life].

8c “Furthermore, the degree of yin and yang is governed by a turn of fate. The misfortune that happens once every one hundred and six years will occur whenever the time arrives. Therefore, [Emperor] Yao had a big ﬂood, as if water had ﬁlled the sky.122 [King] Tang [of the Yin dynasty] had a drought. In [the battleﬁeld of] Zhuolu there was bloodshed enough to ﬂoat a large shield.123 In [the battle of] Banquan [the soldiers’] corpses covered the wilds.124 Why did [these monarchs] not dispel [the disasters] while sitting on their thrones, and rescue [the people] before [such calamitous events] happened? Moreover, people may climb up a tree like a bear, stretch their legs like a bird, guide [the breath], expel [old vapor], ingest [fresh vapor], stop taking

a variety of millet, use petals, and inhale wind and dew instead of food. To anticipate a long life doing these things is a sort of ‘there was still something for which he had to wait’ (i.e., necessitating resorting to a long life).125 Yet even if [they practice] like this, it is still possible to die young when the time comes. No one can live forever. From a śramaṇa’s viewpoint, [immortals such as Chi]song[zi] and [Wangzi]qiao are just like infants who have not yet become young boys.

“[Śramaṇas] are just extending their ambitions to the outer realm of the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth), and prolonging their life in the place of eternal life. Why, for the sake of longevity, would they rack their brains, perform [practices] at the common level, and compete with Juan[zi] and Peng[zu, who enjoyed a long life]? The one who criticizes [Buddhism] improperly wants to develop the debate by covering his fault. He stands on an aggressive position and refuses to listen to counsel, [but] his words have no constancy, and his memorial to the throne makes no distinction between sovereign and subject. Alas! The Beili, [the amorous court music composed by King Zhou of the Yin dynasty,] disrupted graceful [music]. I hate that [the compound color] green takes over [the fundamental color] yellow.126 That excessive noisy sound has never been arranged. I will exclusively follow the example set by my late teacher (i.e., Confucius), who did not answer [questions about life and death].”

Again, the accuser said, “At the end of the Han dynasty, there was Ze Rong (?–195), who gathered an army and became a dependent of Tao Qian (132–194), the governor of Xuzhou. Qian had him supervise the transportation. Nevertheless, although Rong earlier believed in Buddhism, he dared to seize government freight for his own proﬁt, he built Buddhist temples, and so on. He gave away wine and food to all passersby, and so on. He was later attacked by Liu You and killed, and so on.”

I corrected this, “This criticism does not need a rope to bind [the accuser]; he is bound by himself. The Buddha’s teaching leads [people] with benev- olence and humanity, not killing; faithfulness and honesty, not boasting; incorruptibility and virtue, not stealing, as the most important principles. Laozi said, ‘Arms are ominous instruments.’127 Those who are close to them are evil. [Ze] Rong relied on arms, committed brutal acts calmly, conspired with others, and rose in revolt. He committed murders, [which is a violation

of] the ﬁrst [precept]. He accepted a mission [from others], took advantage of it, and did not repay [the kindness of] his master, [Tao Qian]. [These are acts of] deceiving others, [which is a violation of] the second [precept]. He seized government property in order to proﬁt himself. [This is] stealing, [which is a violation of] the third [precept]. The Buddhist scriptures state not to give wine as charity, but [Ze] Rong did so freely. [This is] drinking intoxicants, [which is a violation of] the fourth [precept]. If one violates all the precepts, he is working toward death. This can be compared to the case where a [former] ofﬁcial, who perverts and tyrannizes without restraint after resigning from ofﬁce, can be easily put down by a ﬁve-foot-tall boy. Ze’s tragic death is just an appropriate and sufﬁcient example to help [our clear understanding] that evil [people] incur misfortune.”

Again, the accuser said, “Shi Chong (249–300), [who was extremely wealthy,] also strongly believed in the Buddha, but he could not prevent the execution of his entire family and relatives [for his personal offense], and so on.”

I answered, “I know all about Shi Chong’s nature. He was arrogant and indulged in a luxurious life above his status. He was addicted to drink and arbitrarily exceeded his authority without restraint. He amassed tremendous wealth and collected much [property], but he did not offer relief to those who were helpless, without kith or kin. Speaking of his natural abilities, he had an average advantage. Regarding his virtue, he did not have any at all. Although he acquired inﬂuence by making use of [the Buddha’s] name and

9a following [the Buddha], he observed no precept in the least. He is just like a worldly person who appears virtuous and yet whose mind is wicked, whose appearance is stern and yet whose innermost heart is weak, whose mouth praises [the virtuous kings] Yu and Tang and yet whose acts match those of [villains such as] King Jie and [the robber] Zhi. He brought disaster on himself. Again, whose fault would it be?”

Again, the accuser said, “Zhou Zhongzhi believed in the Buddha and was diligent, too. Nevertheless, he did not receive any fortune [in return] after all, and so on.”

I corrected this, saying, “Now that I think of his words, [the accuser] seems to rejoice in others’ calamities; [his words] are not logical. Even though Zhongzhi had an inclination toward the [Buddhist] Way, he did not make the

decision to receive the precepts and become a disciple [of the Buddha]. As for his natural disposition, he was brilliant and fair. He had a superiorlevel of talent but he also had a streak of obstinacy. He had not yet been united with the Daoist principle of [returning to the state of] an infant.128 On this account, it is reasonable that he was defeated and suffered a downfall when he met a powerful man who was jealous of those better than himself. Even if [the situation] were just as the accuser says, there are those who, even though they are diligent, are still killed. How does this differ from the case of Yan [Yuan] and Xiang [Tuo, a genius who at only seven years old was a teacher of Confucius,] both of whom died young; or the case of [Bo]yi and Shu[qi], who starved to death; or the case of Bi Gan, who was faithful to [King Zhou of the Yin dynasty], yet sank to the misfortune of having his heart cut out;129 or the case of Shen Sheng, who was very ﬁlial and yet ended in the sorrow of [committing suicide by] hanging? Comparisons like these are too many to mention. Confucius said, ‘The virtuous are long-lived130 and people of justice are prosperous.’ Nevertheless, even they cannot escape [from death]. Be sure to be aware of the testimony of your former lives. It is the most revered! It is truthful!”

Again, the accuser said, “Families who serve Buddhism are pleased with death and hate life. On the day when they place cotton [near the nose and mouth of a dying person to determine when the breath ceases,] waiting for his death, they all think that happiness and wealth will come [to the dying person], no one looks sad and sorrowful [about his death], and so on.”

I corrected this, saying, “Can the accuser save up things without shutting his mind? If he cannot, why does he speak conversely? A Buddhist scripture states, ‘He who considers himself to have attained the [Buddhist] Way is capable of abstrusely seeing that others are the same as himself, and of equal- izing merits and demerits.’ When such a person experiences the change from life to death, [everything] is indistinct and there is no emotional sign [for him]. When he walks in the land of weal and woe, he remains calm and is not distressed. He is delighted with the laws of nature, and he knows his life. He is simply content with the time and comfortable with the place.131 “Those who have not realized this [state of mind] grieve over [death]

and have the thought to exercise caution in their last moments. This is why [they try] to enhance their sincere [faith in the Buddha]. Therefore, [the

Buddha] has the justice of the universal vow of great compassion. We feel sympathy and sorrow even for an enemy’s death, recompense his enmity with virtue, and forgive his past misdeeds. Could it be possible that there is no sorrowful and mournful feeling, since the heartbreak of our own ﬂesh and blood spontaneously ﬂourishes? Those who love their parents and relatives do not dare hate others [because] they are deeply afraid to put others in the same situation as themselves. Here we see that [the accuser’s words] go against [our natural] feeling and are contrary to reason.”

End of Fascicle One of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Two

The Discourse to Clarify Buddhism

(Mingfolun) by Zong Bing of the Jin Dynasty

The most subtle Way must be assuredly revered in respect to leading people

[to virtue]. Many people of the world, however, see Buddhism as absurd. 9b

Everyone thinks that he cannot examine himself [even in the present world], and has no time to be concerned about himself in regard to a later existence. [People think that] anything that is as far as ten thousand li from here or that happens more than one hundred years from now is all uncertain; much less certain are that Mount Sumeru is great, that the Buddha’s realm is extra- ordinary, that our spirits do not extinguish [after death], that people can attain buddhahood, that the mind creates all phenomena, that all things of the world are transient, and that the conditions created in former existences last for one hundred million kalpas and cause retribution. [Nevertheless,] these are all outstanding, wonderful, transcendent, clearly seen, true in reason, and real phenomena. How could those who have become accustomed to hearing [a folk song such as] “Yellow Flowers” enjoy the melody of “Cloud Gate,” [which was composed by the Yellow Emperor]?

Moreover, people of the world value classical books written by the Duke of Zhou and Confucius. From the time of Emperor Yao to the Han period, [however,] the nine provinces (i.e., China) never inﬂuenced foreign regions. What was it that moved Emperor Ming (r. 57–75) of the [Later] Han dynasty? What virtue did he possess that he alone was illuminated by supernatural light? All people’s feelings like these are entirely involved with long-established custom, and people cannot be free of worries and petty notions and cannot see by means of the profound eyes. Consequently, truth is not far away, but people give rise to suspicions and sink in [delusions]. How sad it is!

Gentlemen of the Middle States (i.e., China) are versed in [the subjects of] ceremony and righteousness, but they are inexperienced in knowing the human mind.132 How then could they know the mind of the Buddha? Now

in worldly affairs and familiar matters—not to speak of in your spirit, the self—if your plan is not good, you will still be visited by vicissitude. If you are successful [in dealing with] the spirit, you will be ennobled without limit. If you are unsuccessful, you will eternally fall [into the world of delusions] without end. Shouldn’t you then seek [as cautiously as if] you were standing on the edge of an abyss, or think [as carefully as if] you were stepping onto thin [ice]? To plan one’s chances in the game of go ( yi) is easy, but has the mind of the great go player Qiu ever been understood?

Moreover, [people of the world] want to follow the [narrow] view, [just like] a frog in a well, and they recklessly repress the Great Way. They end up only entrapping their spirits at the bottom of the heavenly snare. Don’t you think this is too frightening? Now, with unenlightened knowledge, they try to illuminate what is profound. Therefore, they cannot ﬁnd even their own failure by themselves. How then could they clarify what they have to attain? They should clarify the direction in which their dark spirits [are going] and seek the wholesome way. They should ﬁrmly cultivate themselves, taking Buddhist scriptures as their guide.

Those Buddhist scriptures contain the virtue taught in the Five Classics; they are deeply enhanced with very promising reality; they include the void (xu) [advocated] by Laozi and Zhuangzi; and they completely emphasize the teaching that all phenomena are empty (kong). With lofty words and real principles, [the Buddhist scriptures] reverently move one’s spirit. They shine as brightly as the sun and they are as clean as wind. Except for a sage, who can expound them? I will sincerely look into the views of people of the world, juxtapose those views with the Buddhist doctrines, and clarify [Buddhism]. The Discourse states: Now if [the operation of] the mind leaves one’s whole body from the heels to the crown of the head and goes up through the

9c air, it will go on without stopping. Then the four directions and the upper and lower directions are all boundless. Life is not created all by itself. It cer- tainly transmits what has been saved up. If we trace what is transmitted, there is non-beginning. What is produced repeatedly without ceasing for successive generations is non-ending. Regarding the body, every day we all make use of the essence [of the body] that is limitless and came intimately from non- beginning, and that will, furthermore, be ceaselessly transmitted into the future. Then, into the immeasurable and boundless vastness for eternal time

from non-beginning to non-ending, people originally throw themselves one after another and spread out. Thereupon, [the Chinese people] situate China (chixian) in [the middle of] the whole wide world and they have no doubt about it.

[Buddhists] declare that there are three thousand suns and moons, and twelve thousand worlds arranged in the universe. They count as many coun- tries as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River and put in order as many kalpas as there are ﬂying particles of dust. They disperse widely what the profound ediﬁcation contains, and [see] very small things to be the same as inexhaustible things. Why do [non-Buddhists] doubt the other side (i.e., Buddhists), while being content with themselves? If a very tiny thing is placed upon a blue sea, the two differ from each other [in size by a great degree], but there is still limitation there. When the principles of human rela- tionships [of Confucianism] are joined with the Grand Void (taixu) [of Buddhism], how can we express the difference [between them]? Therefore, what people of the world think great is what the [Buddhist] Way considers to be minor. What people think is distant is what Heaven considers to be near. What has been said, “The time before Xuanyuan (i.e., the Yellow Emperor) is remote antiquity,”133 possibly seems like yesterday in the lofty view of those who have mastered the Way of Heaven.

It is said [in the Liji] that [the teaching of] the Book of History is to know distance, but it is not beyond the time of [Emperor] Tang [Yao] and Emperor Yu [Shun]. Phrases composed in the Spring and Autumn Annals are limited to kingcraft. There is piety in the Book of Rites, goodness in the Book of Music, warmth in the Book of Odes, and cleanliness in the Book of Changes (Yijing). Now, in inﬁnitude, if we display three thousand shining suns and moons and correctly see the twelve thousand arranged worlds, then we will know that what the Duke of Zhou and Confucius wrote are possibly just like responses to the vulgar demand to rule over [the masses] in a region [as small as a snail’s tentacles, where] Chu state and Man state [fought for hegemony].134 Moreover, [the responses] would be rather insufﬁcient and only about the matters of one’s present life. What exists beyond [the present] life has been left as it is, and never discussed. If this is not the case, why do they emphasize having a physical body as the beginning and leave out being a spirit after death? “[Confucius] climbed up Mount [Eastern] Meng when Lu state looked

10a

small [to him]. [He] went up Mount Tai when the world appeared small [to him].”135 These [comparisons] mark the boundaries between [Confucianism and Buddhism].

In addition, the [San] fen (i.e., the books written by Fuxi, Shen Nong, and the Yellow Emperor) and the [Wu]dian (i.e., the books by the Five Thearchs) have already been lost. Compilations by scholars of shallow learning are exclusively comprised of tracts on governing [the nation]. If there were transcendent remarks [in Confucianism], some were scattered and lost in historical records, and some were destroyed at [the time of the incident of] burning [the books on the Chinese classics] and burying [Con- fucian scholars alive]. The ways of Laozi and Zhuangzi and the arts of all the perfected, such as [Chi]song[zi] and [Wangzi]qiao, can truly cleanse our minds and nourish our bodies, but none of these are collected in the Six Clas- sics, either. Accordingly, scholars merely stick to the incompleteness of [Con- fucian] literature, which relieves only triﬂes. They consider the Book of History and the Book of Rites as the line to draw, and abstain from hearing the lofty teaching to probe into the very root of the spirit over kalpas. They are blinded by immediate matters and forever disregard [the lofty teaching]. This, too, is sad! Alas! They are just like those who, when walking under a stratus cloud, do not believe that the sun and moon exist.

The expressions “[The successive movement] in alternating yin and yang is called the Way” and “The unforeseen movement in alternating yin and yang is called a spirit”136 possibly mean that the ultimate of nonexistence is the Way, where both yin and yang are integrated. Therefore, it is said “[The successive movement] in alternating yin and yang.” That which descends from the Way enters into [the realm of] vigorous spirits, which exists beyond yin and yang, and which is not examined by these two factors. Hence, it is simply said that “The unforeseen movement in alternating yin and yang.” [Yan] Junping’s theory that “‘one produces two’ refers to the spiritual intel- ligence” indicates this.137 If these two phrases do nothing to clarify [the spirit], then with what is the vigorous spirit clearly deﬁned?

Moreover, although the spirits of all sentient beings are ultimately equal, [each] transmigrates following the conditions they met, and forms a [corre- spondingly] dull or ingenious consciousness. In addition, [this consciousness] and its root (i.e., spirit) are free from decay. Now, even though [the sage]

Shun was born as the son of [an ignorant man,] Gu, the spirit of Shun is cer- tainly not something that Gu passed on to him. Nor is the spirit of [Shun’s unworthy son,] Shangjun, what Shun gave to him, either. Before birth, there is generally [the difference] of dullness or ingenuity [of the spirit]. Since the root is established before birth, we know that [the spirit] is immortal after death. Furthermore, if [the spirits] are immortal, they are different from each other. Accordingly, the stupid and the sacred are distinct from each other. We know that the distinctions between the stupid and the sacred and between birth and death do not change the immortal status of the spirits. Therefore, it is said that “The vigorous spirit receives a physical body and transmigrates all over the ﬁve realms of existence while Heaven and Earth are formed and destroyed innumerable times.”138

The physical body [of Shun] had the [auspicious] double-pupil eyes when he was born [the son of] the ignorant man Gu. Unintelligent [Shang]jun received his physical body from the gentleman (i.e., Shun) who had virtue within. The stupid and the sacred naturally should separate from each other. By what perceptible law, then, did [these two] incorporate? Wouldn’t it be that the spirit of Zhonghua (i.e., Emperor Shun) was dull a long time ago, but he established a [good] cause kalpas ago and consequently conditions met [the cause] after a myriad of transformations? Now his [lofty] spirit soli- tarily separates from others, but in remote antiquity there was a chain of transmigrations of the dull spirit. Accordingly, [Shun’s lofty spirit] is the completion of the reﬁnement [of his formerly dull spirit]. These three issues: the immortality of the spirit, the law that conditions meet [the primary cause], and the sagehood attained through deep-rooted practice, are examined here.

If the formation of a physical body [corresponds to] the formation of the spirit, and if the cessation of a physical body [corresponds to] the cessation of the spirit, then when the body is injured, the spirit should be damaged as well, or when the body falls ill, the spirit should also be fatigued. It is reported that there are people whose bodies are perishing, or who are about to die, and yet whose spirits and consciousnesses are calm and perfect. When [Con- fucius] took hold of [Ran Boniu’s] hand through the window,139 [Ran Boniu] was extremely ill. Nevertheless, there was no change [in Boniu] as a person of virtue. This is simply a testimony to the immortality [of the spirit]. If it is certain that the spirit is produced with the body and it is originally not [what

10b

is produced by] conditions meeting [a direct cause], I am now engaged in “taking examples from various things for distant matters, and then examples from various human beings for familiar matters.”140

It is said that there is no spirit in the Five Sacred Mountains and the Four Holy Rivers, but such a conclusion is premature. Even if we accept that there is spirit there, the mountains are simply large piles of soil and the rivers are merely accumulated water. How could “the spirit that attained the One” (i.e., the origin of all phenomena) be produced from such coarse materials as water and soil?141 [The spirit] works upon rocks and streams and entrusts itself there, and is solemnly united with them. If the mountains fall to pieces or the rivers dry up, [the spirit] certainly does not go to ruin together with the water [of the rivers] and the soil [of the mountains]. The spirit is not what the form makes. It incorporates with [the form] and yet it is immortal. So it is in the case of human beings. “The spirit is the word to express [something] more ingenious than all things under the sun.”142 If [the spirit] is created availing of the form and perishes following the form, the form is considered to be the origin [of the spirit]. How could it then be called “ingenious”? “The vigorous spirit goes forth in all directions, ﬂowing on boundlessly, reaching to Heaven above, and wreathing round the Earth beneath.”143

Sages “search out exhaustively what is deep” and wise people “investigate what is the minutest.”144 As for [virtuous] people such as Zai [Wo], Zi[gong], Zhuang[zi], Ji [Kang], [Ji]zha of Wu, and [Zhang Liang] Zifang, wherever the operation of their vigorous [spirits] directs their course, [their spirits go fast even though] they do not hurry, and [they arrive at their destination] without going;145 they penetrate the universe from their own place. [All these sages, wise people, and virtuous people] are the same as common foolish people in that their bodies rot and stink [after death] or that they delight in tasty food. Could there be a reason why [their spirits] receive the bodies [of common people] to be born, and perish following [the decay of their bodies]? We must think of this, too.

The Duke of Zhou offered a sacriﬁce to Heaven and Earth for [Minister of Agriculture] Houji, and performed a sacriﬁce to the ancestors for [his father,] King Wen. Some people of the world say that this was a waste of ﬁlial piety. If I were to ask those who say so why they understand that this

act was indeed a waste [of ﬁlial piety], there would certainly be no reason for their understanding. If there is no reason for it, the spirits of King Wen and Houji cannot be said to have perished. “If [gentlemen] perform puriﬁcation for three days, they must see those for whom the puriﬁcation has been per- formed.”146 Can we conclude that the Duke of Zhou did not see [King Wen and Houji], since ordinary people do not see them? When [Jizha of Wu] buried [his son] between Ying and Bo, he said, “[My son’s] bones and ﬂesh have returned to earth, but his spiritual vapor goes wherever it likes.”147 He meant [by this] the immortality [of the spirit].

The most virtuous administration follows Heaven. Great turmoil ﬁlls Heaven. This is essentially what the mind and the spirit do. Emperor Yao discerned all principles, and he was completely free from avarice, since his spirit was exquisite. King Jie indulged in all vices, since his spirit was contrary to virtue. It does not mean that Jie did not know Yao’s virtue. He was aware of his vice, which would ruin him. The desires of his physical body went against his spirit. The consciousness capable of knowing [the virtue of] Yao and his ruin from vice was always contained in his spirit. If [Jie] had not taken the throne and lived a thousand years, when he did evil, he might be visited by pain successively, or when he did a minor good act, he might become somewhat magnanimous. Couldn’t he have overthrown his evil and cultivated his virtue little by little? What his spirit contains, as [mentioned] before, includes the consciousness to know [the virtue of] Yao, which must have had at least a chance to be used. Moreover, if [Jie’s] life span had increased to a thousand years and he had not ceased [cultivating his virtue], it would be possible that his desires would have all been paciﬁed and his spirit would have become as exquisite as that of Yao.

When an unusual movement of the sun, moon, or stars occurs, a sound becomes off-tune. As the new moon and the full moon take turns, oysters and clams respond to each of [these cycles] [by becoming lean or fat]. Accord- ing to the seasonal days—the spring and autumn equinoxes, the winter and summer solstices, and the ﬁrst days of spring, summer, fall, and winter—the swallows, wild geese, dragons, and snakes nimbly appear and disappear. For all these, mysterious changes come ﬁrst and later reveal themselves in phe- nomena. Generally all beings are equally created by mysterious changes.

10c

How could it be [possible] that only several matters are so, and myriad changes are exactly not so?

Therefore, those who are put to death on the charge of murder, who are punished on the charge of inﬂicting injury upon others, who are put in jail, who do not commit a crime now, or who are guilty and yet are [as free from punishment as those who are innocent], have all ﬁrst established conditions in the unseen world and now the reason of the human world reveals [the results of these conditions]. Hiding and revealing are one and the same. If a sin is formed in hiding, an abomination reveals itself clearly. There is nothing at all strange in this. He who has done evil evidently gets the worst of it in hiding. Why is this strange?

With the immortal spirit that contains the consciousness to know [the virtue of Emperor] Yao, [human beings] appear and disappear in countless generations. Suffering initiates evil, and pleasure leads to good. In addition, there is the foundation of the sun and moon that bestows light to shine brightly. What reason would there be for a person not “to reach the Way by one change,”148 effacing himself and studying intensively with respect? Rather than being afraid of being [like] Jie and Zhou in remote antiquity, all people should [strive to] gradually become [like virtuous kings such as] Tang and Wu in the future, not to mention the young people of reﬁned taste who let their minds ﬂoat on a limpid stream. When you see from this standpoint, it is clear, too, that people are able to become buddhas.

Life arises entirely from the germination of feeling (qing).149 [The expres- sion] “when a male and a female unite their essences (i.e., sexual union), all creatures are incarnated” completely refers to [the fact] that their essences are united through feeling.150 When feelings meet selves, various spirits receive physical bodies. It greatly appears as if feeling is the foundation of life. Even though [sages such as] the Five Thearchs and the Three Augusts transcended feeling and probed into the spirit, they still have to follow all principles. Even [sages] met the conditions a long time ago, and now they have to condescend to enter [the realm of] incarnation through the essence, be born mutually following [the principles], and produce numerous offspring, to say nothing of [ordinary people whose] feelings are linked to their spirits, and whose bodies become extinct. How would it be possible that they will

not receive bodies again and will not go through the transmigration of birth and death innumerable times?

If the consciousness is able to clear the foundation of immortality, receives the training of diminishing one’s actions from day to day, “diminishes it, and again diminishes it, and certainly arrives at wuwei,”151 there will be no feeling to lead to desire. Only the spirit will shine and then there will be nothing equivalent to life. When there is no life, there is no body. There is no body and yet there is the spirit. This is the meaning of dharmakāya.

The Yellow Emperor, Yu Shun, Duke Ji (i.e., the Duke of Zhou), and Confucius are admired and trusted by the people of the world. When we see that [the Yellow Emperor] ascended to Heaven [on the back of dragon that] was given the reins, that [Emperor Yu Shun] was like a hidden dragon and [later ascended to the throne] like a soaring bird, that [the sincerity of the Duke of Zhou] raised a headwind that lifted up the fallen rice plants, and that [Confucius] sang a song with stringed accompaniment while he had nothing to eat, [we can see] that all [four sages] took their ultimate spirit as their essence, and consequently became what the function of their spirits manifested as responses of a free and easy manner. Even though the law of manifestation is external, it just appears and disappears following the movement [of numinous powers]. There must be also something beyond the human tether.

The chart emerged from [the Yellow] River, and writing came out from the Luo [River].152 The bush of luck-tea grew vigorously without being planted [in the garden of Emperor Yao when he ascended the throne]. The mystic jade tablet was completed without being polished [in the time of Yu].153 [During the reign of Emperor Wu Ding of the Yin dynasty], two kinds of mulberry trees suddenly grew together in the garden. [Within one night the trees grew so large around that] one could encircle them with both arms, and then [they] suddenly vanished.154 [When Emperor Wu of the Zhou dynasty was subjugating King Zhou of the Yin dynasty,] a ﬁreball ﬂew over the palace and became a raven.155 A large three-legged caldron became light, while a small one became heavy, [in accordance with the virtue of the rulers].156 All these events suddenly happened and the changes occurred, being affected by numinous powers. This is truly a group of evident [phe- nomena] of mystery.

11a

At the culmination of dharmakāya, numinous powers ingeniously touch sentient beings and transform in order to manifest. [The dharmakāya] shines upon the spirit and its achievement brightens all things. What wonder could it not exhibit? What change could be limited? Why would it merely ascend to the nine heavens, walk like a dragon in the underworld, inhale wind, or abstain from grain? Generally, the greatness of [the dharmakāya’s] glorious deportment and auspicious omen [can be found in instances of] the trans- formed bodies separated from a buddha and a bodhisattva, springing out from the earth,157 moving the [great] world,158 and pouring the water of a huge ocean into a [single] pore.159

Compared with [the instances of] the Yellow Emperor, Yu [Shun], the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius, its mysterious changes have no set rules. Regarding the obscure appearance and disappearance of various auspicious omens, which were mentioned above, they have already left [the realm of] form and entered into [the realm of] the spirit, and they are the same as the profound metaphysical agency. Why do the people only believe in this (i.e., Confucianism) and restrain themselves from that (i.e., Buddhism)? The Dharma King (i.e., the Buddha) who was deeply awakened is pure, just, lofty, and bright. Truly there is testimony for this. He is just in front of you, without the least distance, yet ignorant people are not aware of it. How sad it is!

The “various signs” stated in the Hongfan chapter [of the Book of History], that is to say, the corresponding auspicious and inauspicious [manifestations], are all derived from the mind. The sorts [of unusual phenomena], such as a white rainbow piercing the sun, Venus entering into the Pleiades, a variety of millet plants growing in a cold ravine, city walls [suddenly] collapsing, or frost falling [in summer], are entirely caused by human feelings and remotely presented as natural phenomena. Originally [human mind and natural phe- nomena] are mutually related, just as is a form and its shadow. And just as there is no shape without shadow or no voice without sound, there is no human feeling without reward or retribution. How could [the law of reward or retri- bution] apply only to the sorts [of unusual phenomena like a white rainbow] piercing the sun or frost falling [in summer]? All minutely respond to various human feelings; no one can escape from phenomena [that manifests due to the law of reward and retribution].

Sometimes, however, [retribution] is formed over and above one’s phys- ical body, and sometimes it is cast on incidents. [It manifests] directly or indirectly in a confused manner, apparently or obscurely, and is endlessly long or vast. Who can see the edge of [the manifestation of retribution]? Var- ious extraordinary things ﬁll the world and numerous phenomena reach our eyes. All these result from the movement of the numinous powers that have gathered after countless generations. Therefore, the Buddhist scriptures state that the forms of all existences are produced from thought. Moreover, [the scriptures] say that the mind is the origin of existences; the mind makes Heaven and the mind makes Hell. The meanings derive from those [mentioned above]. Hence, those who have a virtuous mind and pure feelings will certainly be reborn in the outstanding and magniﬁcent state. Those who have corrupt feelings and who commit impure acts will be eternally deluded in the region of the three lowest realms of existence. How far-reaching and subtle this advocacy is! Isn’t this what has the law of truth yet is straightforward, cleanses our spirits, uplifts our thoughts, and causes us to sincerely make up our minds with awe [to pursue the teaching]?

Even though a myriad of feelings all mutually constitute conditions and form consciousnesses that move and make phenomena, in fact the nature [of feelings] is nonexistence. Since the time [the Buddha] opened the ferry for enlightenment, his solitary voice enables us to extinguish worries in a ﬂash, but no one has reached this point. I will further explain and clarify it. Sacred spirits shine abstrusely and yet they have no consciousness for thinking. This is because there is severance between the mind and things and only the spirit exists there. Accordingly, the foundation that is void and intel- ligent remains permanently, and is never exhausted. Now, if the mind and things interact and it is not the state of spirit only, even if you are as subtle as was Yanzi (i.e., Yan Yuan), [a person usually free of avarice,] you will certainly be intent on looking up to [Confucius], be fond of benevolence, be delighted with mountains, “nearly attain to [perfect virtue], and be often empty of avarice,”160 [but you will not be in the state of spirit only]. This is all because the mind is exerted and gives rise to consciousness. For sure, the functions [of the mind] subtly make contact with each other, and the con- sciousnesses cleverly follow one after another, just as ﬂames come together,

resulting in a big blaze.

11b

If by means of the realization of emptiness the mind is set at rest, the func- tion of the mind ceases and feeling and consciousness become exhausted, and the spiritual intelligence is perfect. Since feeling meets consciousness and new [feelings and consciousnesses] cleverly follow the old, all this is not the state of [the spirit] only. How could [the state of the spirit only] constantly exist? [It is similar to the case of] the good cook Ding, who was shown an ox, yet he certainly was not looking at the whole body of the ox [when he butchered it].161 It is what the Buddhist scriptures state: the law of changes and dispersions, and the nature of phenomena and consciousness, are empty; [they are just like] a dream, an illusion, a shadow, an echo, a bubble, or the [image of the] moon reﬂected on water. Isn’t this so? Yanzi was aware of [laws] like this. Therefore, he dealt with existence just as he did with nonexistence, he touched a real thing just as he did an unreal thing, and he did not perceive existence to offend him and consequently did not respond to it.162

Now, when we observe Yanzi’s “being often empty of avarice,” we see that in fact existence is nonexistence. Moreover, those below the level [of Yanzi] lose the truth further away. Although they go toward the Great Way in haste, they are called insane, just the same as those who pursue a demented person who is running toward the east.163 They all defy the principles, trespass against the beneﬁcial activity [of unseen divine beings], go against Heaven, and act recklessly. [Moreover, this] is not true existence, not to speak of touch, taste, sound, and color and shape (se); they are also mere shadowy apparitions falsely made by feeling. In addition, even if a boat is hidden in a narrow ravine, [both the boat and the ravine] can be moved [by a person of great strength].164 Changes happen more quickly than lightning. The future has not yet come, the past has already vanished, and the present does not stay. Even in the instant of the blink of an eye or an intake of breath, nothing can be grasped. What are you going to abide by and consider as existence? It is astounding that false existence covers up the spirit!

[Suppose] there is a mirror. When it is covered with dust, if there is only a little [dust] [the mirror] shines fuzzily, but when [more dust] accumulates it shines dimly; when [the dust] piles up more thickly [the mirror] still shines but it is rather dark. Since [the mirror’s] original nature is bright, even if [the mirror] is covered by dust it still shines. Although from dimness to darkness the essential point (i.e., the function of shining) follows [the outer state of]

the mirror, it is not extinguished. When we discern things with [such a dusty mirror], it is certain [that we will] lose [their original nature] more and more, according to the amount of dust [on the surface of the mirror], and make mistakes. The principle of the spirit of a human being is similar to this. When the false existence implicates the spirit, exquisite or coarse consciousness arises. The consciousness clings to the spirit. Consequently, although [a person] dies, [the consciousness attached to the spirit] does not perish. If it (i.e., the consciousness attached to the spirit) is permeated with emptiness, the repeated permeation certainly leads to the exhaustion [of the conscious- ness], and then the original spirit is probed. This is the meaning of nirvana. Therefore, wise sayings are as abundant as clouds. We follow [them],

and open [our minds] and clear them with emptiness. If rocks and forests are beyond perception and wind and water are unreal, when we go [to such places] full of thoughts, we will become free from worry and petty notions, not to speak of the sages who are peaceful, respectful, and empty (kong) and who teach the void (xu) to people. How could those people with pure minds not be delighted by the exhaustion [of the consciousness]? Therefore, in ancient times [there were many people who] took advantage of the void and entered the Way. Even if those who have attained buddhahood are as numerous as grains of sand in the Ganges River, [their number] has not yet reached the point where they are too numerous.

A person asked, “The spirit is originally the acme of the void. Why is it imbued with all things in the phenomenal world and why does it make a relationship with them? Furthermore, [the spirit] is equal in being primarily void. Why is it divided into the ignorant and the sacred? Again, it has already been said that the mind makes all things in the phenomenal world. Before all things in the phenomenal world were created, what implicated the mind and made it move to produce them?”

I answered, “The spirit is subtle while the physical body is coarse, but both make interactions. Since the subtle [spirit] forms a relationship with the coarse [body], we know that the void establishes a relationship with existence. Now, although an ignorant person is mean, he is essentially able to know about the past in the present and to think of other places while being here. All this is due to the fact that the spirit [related to the body] has functions, so if we can completely train [our minds], we will know that [the spirit] is basically equal

11c

and void. I have explained that the mind makes all things in the phenomenal world. When we observe reality based on this view, [we can understand] that these three issues are assuredly true. The reason they are so is, however, derived from non-beginning. How could there be the beginning of non-begin- ning? This is also ‘the deepest profundity.’165 Zhuangzi says that when Ran Qiu asked [Confucius] if it could be known how it was before Heaven and Earth came to exist, Confucius replied, ‘It was just like the present.’166 He probably meant that although there was [an origin] before non-beginning, if one makes inquiry into the very origin, from the ﬁrst it is just as indistinct and indistinguishable as ‘Ran Qiu today.’167 The original creation of spiritual intelligence and the ﬁrst ancestor of sentient beings are all indistinct, and they are beyond our grasp. How could it be an issue whether or not those who learn [Buddhism] understand?

“A sage is indeed a coagulum [of the spirit], who simply gives up [the physical body], and who ‘is simply moved and later responds.’168 [The issue] is beyond our comprehension, namely outside of the universe, where there is nothing by which we are moved. Therefore, [sages] left it intact and did not discuss it. How could ordinary people comprehend an issue about which even sages do not speak?

“Now we live together, treading upon Earth under the canopy of Heaven. Outside of [the Earth] upon which we tread and [Heaven] under which we reside, could there be ﬁnality? The reason Yu assisted the ﬁve regions (i.e., Dian, Hou, Sui, Yao, and Huang) and governed no more than the nine provinces probably means that [they are] simply the areas that are reached by worldly inﬂuences. The region outside the farthest land, the land from where the sun rises, and the land where the sun goes down, are not participated in by the human principle, and were not clariﬁed by holy people and sages, to say nothing of the place further away where it is chaotic and obscure. How could such borderlands be discussed? Now, we inferred from [the Earth] upon which we tread and [the Heaven] under which we reside, and have ﬁnally reached what we cannot discuss. [Your question] is, therefore, the same as this. In the case where we infer the function of the spirit of the present, seek the beginning point in the past, and ﬁnally reach what the sage left intact and did not discuss, an element of truth simply threads together, too. How could we discuss it alone?

“All [phenomena] are derived from conditions made in the unseen world and following [the law of] the universe they are eternal, but [we cannot com- prehend all of them] because what people’s senses feel is limited. People’s minds receive the sacredness by which they form the consciousnesses. It is just as when people’s eyes meet with sunlight, by which they come to see. The reason Li Zhu could examine a [very tiny] autumn hair on an animal’s body a hundred xun away from him is because he just looked with his keen eyes, availing of the sunlight. Now, if very tiny hairs are spread a thousand steps away from us, weak-sighted people [among us] cannot see them even availing of [the sunlight], yet they have no shortcomings in perceiving the tiny hairs and avoiding danger. Why is the tiny hair a hundred xun away questioned on the basis of the vagueness of a thousand steps away? Those who do not master the foundation of conditions that give rise to phenomena and who lack feeling have no chance to meet sacredness, but they have no shortage in knowing and reaching the ferry that leads to the [Buddhist] Way. Why is the teaching that was already clariﬁed questioned due to the vagueness of the beginning of conditions that give rise to phenomena?”

A person asked, “People of today say that since they do not understand the beginning of conditions that give rise to phenomena, they cannot believe in the Buddha. Is this not affections of the mind? Why doesn’t the sage clarify it?” I answered, “What is called affections of the mind is a state of harboring [something in the mind] or of exciting [the mind], and there is still an incom- prehensible point in reason. We ought to avail ourselves of the sacredness in order to understand it thoroughly. This is real affections of the mind based on reason. Therefore, if people enjoy themselves being impeded by existence, then [the Buddha] clariﬁes [people’s minds] with the signiﬁcance of suffering and emptiness. If [the teaching of] love without distinction is not propagated, then he shows [the teaching of] benevolence [to save sentient beings] through the act of diving into [the jaws of hungry tigers]. Those [who practice the teaching] do not necessarily reach [the goal] all together. Accordingly the three vehicles are established. Since acts [that cause reward and retribution] vary, cultivations differ from each other. So the six pāramitās are elucidated. There is not even a single lack in the [Buddha’s] responsive activity for the ferry and the bridge to [enlightenment]. It can be said ‘[the Buddha] is simply

moved and later responds.’169

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“Consequently, the heavenly beings who listened to the teaching on Vul- ture Peak were entirely relieved. [Among them,] those who arrived at the ultimate state were numerous. Would they have further questioned the begin- ning of conditions that give rise to phenomena and later (i.e., after they under- stood) arrived at the principle? The clear instruction is adequate. If you cul- tivate as [the Buddha] said, what would be deﬁcient? Otherwise, how different are those who still certainly do not believe in [the Buddha] and in the end have excessive doubts about what is beyond our comprehension from those who get a fatal disease and yet do not take medicine that is offered, or from those who are struck by a stray arrow and yet do not take the shaft out, bearing the pain, and who demand to know the basics of the construction of the arrow and the medicine, and so on, and end up in death?

“This is entirely because those who have cultivated [the Buddhist Way] from ancient times and yet have not attained great good fortune (i.e., enlight- enment) cause the people who believe in [the Buddha] today to absurdly doubt [the teaching]. How could this be considered to be real affections of the mind based on reason? The unreasonable movement of the mind [full of] absurd doubt assuredly has nothing to move the sacredness and to be able to elucidate. [The Book of Changes states:] ‘I do not [go and] seek [the youth- ful] and inexperienced, but he comes and seeks me.’170 We certainly ought to efface ourselves, and our acts ought to comply with the profound teaching. If we sincerely go with faith, awakening will come later in accordance with the response. Once we attain awakening, what is aroused can ﬁnally reach the acme of the unseen world. Those who stick to absurd doubt, who do not return to purity, and who do not straighten themselves out will precisely fall into the disaster of delusion for a long time. Can there be a tomorrow [for them]? To turn one’s back on [the Buddhist teaching] differs slightly from facing it, but to go up [to Heaven] is greatly separated from falling into [Hell]. Shouldn’t you be careful?”

A person asked, “Confucius teaches: ‘[People with lofty ideas] will not seek to live at the risk of injuring their virtue. They will fulﬁll justice at the cost of their own life.’171 [This is] the culmination of virtue. In the Buddhist scriptures, too, the practices for bodhisattvas are prescribed. Laozi elucidates the utmost of wuwei, that is to say, the culmination of nirvana. However, [Confucius and Laozi] have never spoken about supernatural power and the

attainment of buddhahood. Could there be something Confucius and Laozi have left out? By clarifying the [Buddhist] Way, do you want to stir up [trou- ble] among people and cover up the real [practices] for attaining the Way? How can I stop giving rise to the question that there is no reality [in Buddhism]?”

I answered, “In the origination of ediﬁcation, each teaching depends on to what it responds. As people hoped for peace to reign in the world, [the teachings of Confucius] promulgated in the region of the Zhu and Si Rivers was the response [to the people’s entreaty] in order to govern the Way. When the pure wind [of ediﬁcation] became becalmed, the two chapters [of the Daodejing] were compiled in order to stop the movement. If Yan [Hui], Ran [Boniu], Zai [Wo], Zigong, Yin Xi, and Zhuangzi were externally commended in the conduct of Confucianism and the profound learning in order to lead [the world] to the height of what people of the world feel, and they internally received the learning of nonarising (i.e., Buddhism) in order to specialize in seeking the principle of the spirit, who in the world would know it? As for the class of people such as Ran Qiu, Ji Lu, Zixia, Zisi, Mencius, [Guo] Lin- zong, [Zheng] Kangcheng, Ge Gong, Yan [Jun]ping, Ban Si, and Yang Wang[sun], some played their part within ethical education, some ended up by themselves, living an easy life free from worldly matters, and they were not delighted with the Buddhist teaching. All [of these people] stopped within their scarce conditions and ﬁnally did not go any further. Therefore, Confucius and Laozi spoke out and instructed. The objective sphere of affections of the mind reached by these [people] was consequently neither beyond what they asked for nor more than what they responded to.

“Confucianism promulgates benevolence and Daoism restrains activity. [Confucianism and Daoism] have already affectionately taught and come to the verge—[these teachings] have all arrived at their culmination. Even though the benevolence and good [of Confucianism], the inactivity [of Daoism], and what the Buddha spoke of are common, regarding the dharmakāya and nirvana [both Confucianism and Daoism] express nothing. Therefore, [these terms] are simply obscure. Moreover, generally it is said that ‘[The Way] does nothing [always for the sake of doing it], but there is nothing that it does not do’172 and ‘The dharmakāya has no form and universally enters into all things.’173 Aren’t [these two] the same in tenor? Thereupon, even though the three teachings

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of Confucius, Laozi, and the Tathāgata are different courses from each other, they are all of a piece in learning wholesomeness.”

A person asked, “From the time of the Three Augusts and the Five Thearchs up to the time of Confucius and Laozi, there must have been people who cleansed their minds by the Buddhist teaching. We, however, have heard no trace of the exchanges [of their discussions]. Why is this?”

I answered, “I have already made clear my intention about this in my previous discussion. Scholars of shallow learning exclusively compiled the vestiges of political affairs. If there were otherworldly statements, some were dispersed into historical records, and some vanished at the time of burning [the books on the Chinese classics] and burying [Confucian scholars alive]. Now I will repeat and express what I have in my mind.

“[It is stated in Kong Anguo’s preface to the Book of History (Shangshu xu) that] the writings by the Three Augusts are called the Three Ancient Books, which speak about the Great Way. At that time ﬁlial piety and benev- olence were fully practiced. Why would they have had to teach humanity and justice [to the people]? The people did not leave behind simplicity and honesty. How could [philosophers] such as Laozi and Zhuangzi incite them to do so? If it is not clariﬁed that the foundation of the spirit is nonarising and the nature of all things is empty in order to illuminate the culmination, what is considered to be the Great Way? This writing [of the Great Way] has disappeared. Who in the world could know about it?

“The historian [Sima] Qian talks about the Five Thearchs. In all [his remarks], he says, ‘[The Yellow Emperor] was a born genius,’ ‘He was able to speak as an infant,’174 ‘[Emperor Gaoxin, a born genius,] spoke his own name (i.e., he named himself),’175 ‘[Emperor Gaoyang] was serene and pro- found and well versed in all things,’176 and ‘His (i.e., Emperor Yao’s) intel- ligence was just like that of spirits.’177 [These remarks] are already similar to those about the birth of the Mahayana bodhisattvas who manifest in various kinds of transformations. [The Yellow Emperor] resided on the hill of Xuan- yuan, climbed up Mount Kongtong, and ascended Mount Wan and Mount Dai.178 [Emperor Gaoyang] went to Youling and Panwu,179 and his outstanding vestige is beyond waves (i.e., the secular world). How could we know that [their activities] were not derived from the Way of the Tathāgata?

“During the long-lasting period of the Five Thearchs, Yao reigned for one hundred years and Shun for only seventy years. In the style of Guang Cheng, Dawei, Hong Yai, Chao[fu], Xu [You], Zhifu, the northerner [Wuzhai], and the four immortals of Mount Gushi, the profound manners were accu- mulated and brimmed over at that time. Of the books by the Five Thearchs, however, there are only two compositions extant: the Tang[dian] and the Yu[dian] (i.e., the Canon of Yao and the Canon of Shu in the Book of History), which are not complete. Furthermore, in Zichang’s records (i.e., the Shiji, compiled by Sima Qian) it is said that ‘Thinkers of the various schools wrote about the Yellow Emperor, but their writings were neither elegant nor instruc- tive. Even government ofﬁcials do not easily express in words about [the writings].’180 The historical records only adopted the vestige of bloody matters of rule, and did not record even a single [word about the truth] in a million [words]. How can we accept that it is entirely false [that there were Buddhist practitioners in ancient times] just because the ﬂourishing of the highest path (i.e., Buddhism) is not found in these incomplete compositions?

“Now, here we see the ruler of spiritual intelligence who roamed in the great and vast world, the seven sages who all together went to Mount Juci,181 and a holy man seen on Mount Gu Ye.182 They were beings in transformation. Why do we have to explain much about them? How could we know that what [these] sublime words elucidate is not [the manifestation of] the spirit that went to extremes beyond numerous kalpas? Guang Cheng said, ‘The essence of the ultimate Way is deeply obscure.’183 He means [by this] the ‘heroic valor concentration’ (shoulengyan sanmei; Skt. śūraṃgama-samādhi). [His statement] ‘He who attains my Way will be the August at the highest, or a king at the lowest’ means that one can ascend or descend according to the ediﬁcation; he is similar to the Flying Emperor, [that is to say,] the wheel- turning noble king (Skt. cakravartin). [His statement] ‘He who fails in attain- ing my Way will see the light for the highest, or he will become the earth for the lowest’184 refers to those who transmigrate in Heaven and in the human realm.

“[When the Yellow Emperor met a herder,] he sensed the great lofty air [of the boy], called him the Heavenly Master, and withdrew from that place.185 [The Heavenly Master] is also [one of] the ten epithets [for the Buddha].

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This is probably the teaching of nonarising (i.e., Buddhism). The [Buddhist] Way was deeply practiced at that time. The practice spread among [people of] profound and distinguished [knowledge], but this fact went into oblivion in ancient times, and the [Buddhist] doctrines were concealed behind writings. Thereupon, what the various schools of thinkers collected seems understandable but it is obscure. Furthermore, the learned among government ofﬁcials do not say that [their writings] are elegant and instructive. Consequently, the result is that those who follow the worldly way and who do not deeply master the Way depend on history books that restrain them from reaching the [Buddhist] doctrines, disregard the profound ediﬁcation complying with immediate feel- ings, and put their vigorous spirits in eternal trouble. Isn’t this sad?

“Boyi said in the Book of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), ‘In the country of Tiandu the people are very dear to others and love each other.’186 In Guo Pu’s commentary on the book it is said, ‘The country we formerly called Tiandu is Tianzhu (i.e., India) where Futu (Buddhism) originated, and the expression “to be very dear to” means “to love.”’ [This is] also a model of the Tathāgata’s great benevolence. Originally [Buddhism] was known in the times of the Three Augusts and the Five Thearchs. Although the national statute records do not impart [this information about Buddhism], this is insuf- ﬁcient to cause doubt.

“Generally, how can we surmise things that happened from the three dynasties (i.e., Xia, Yin, and Zhou) to the time of Confucius and Laozi, which were not recorded in books of history? Confucius asked about rites and Laozi responded to [his questions]. [Complying with] the request of the Prefect of the Pass Yin [Xi], [Laozi] elucidated the Way for him [by compiling the Daodejing].187 If the two chapters [of the Daodejing] had disappeared and his words remained only in the Book of Rites, people of later ages would have said that the old man of the imperial censor (i.e., Laozi) knew only about rites. Wouldn’t this old scholar have mastered what is profound? Now, when the existence of various writings for a hundred generations is uncertain, [with some being extant and others having been lost,] there is nothing fully complete in reason. How could we judge solely by our observation that Con- fucius and Laozi had no exchange [with Buddhists]?

“Replying to a question of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, Dongfang Shuo advised him [to ask a man from Central Asia about the black ashes he

had obtained, which, Zhu Falan later said, were the remains] burned in ﬁre at the time of the exhaustion of a kalpa.188 Liu Xiang’s Biographies of Arrayed Transcendents (Liexianzhuan) states that seventy-four men [of the Transcen- dents] are found in the Buddhist scriptures. These are [views of limited scope] of scholars. Again, it was not [during the reign of] Emperor Ming of the [Later] Han dynasty that [Buddhism] began [in China]. Nevertheless, those who exercise their spirits and stick to mundane matters are many and evident, while those who form sincerity in the tranquil and subtle state are rare and inconspicuous. Therefore, the fact to secretly be grateful [for the Buddha] is simply not exposed in sentient beings.

“The eminent Buddhist monk Fotudeng was a kindhearted sage at the time of Shi Le and [Shi] Hu. [Fotudeng] told Shi Hu that ‘In the city of Linzi county (in present-day Shandong province) there is the old site of the King Aśoka Temple where there is still a [buddha] image, and the dew basin is buried in the earth, twenty zhang under a big tree in a deep forest.’189 An envoy of [Shi] Hu looked for them, relying on the illustration, and found everything [Fotudeng] had mentioned. Recently, when Yao Lüe’s uncle was a king of Jin, he saw a bright light at the site of the King Aśoka Temple, so called by the elders, in Puban of Hedong. Seeking [the origin of the light], he had [his men] dig there and obtained relics of the Buddha in a silver case inside a stone container. The brightness was extraordinary. Following [Yao] Lüe, [the king of Jin] came out onto the bank of the Ba River to see [the relics arrive]. Today bhikṣus live in a new temple [where the relics are worshiped].

“From the observation of these facts, [we can see that] a long time has passed since Buddhist practices were transmitted to the land of Qi and Jin. The reason [the transmission of Buddhism] was not mentioned in the three commentaries [on the Spring and Autumn Annals] (i.e., the Chunqiu Zuoshi- zhuan, the Gongyang, and the Guliang) is similar to the reason why in the history books written by Gan Bao and Sun Sheng (i.e., the Jinji and the Jinyangqiu) there are no remarks about the Buddha. The subtle [Buddhist] ediﬁcation is, however, really obvious. During the Jin period, [Buddhism] ﬂourished in the Jiangzuo area (present-day Jiangsu province).”

A person asked, “If all buddhas actually exist, understand thoroughly all phenomena, and are able to do all things freely with their awesome super- natural powers, why do they not brightly manifest themselves today? Why

13a

do they not cause those of exquisite [faculties] and those of weak [faculties] equally to have faith and awaken them to the truth? Why do they not disperse their spiritual functions over [people] in distress in order to remove them from the fate of being accused with a false charge? Why do they not make the class of gentlemen see Buddhism?

“Accordingly, people do not equally believe in [Buddhism], and they fall down together into the suffering of an icchantika. Among the people of the states of Qin and Zhao, six hundred thousand were buried by Bai Qi and Xiang Ji in a day.190 Actually, all people of good ethics of all ages, and all those who were buried neither necessarily have the conditions from previous lives for great wholesomeness, nor do they accumulate great evils without any [good] conditions. Nevertheless, [the buried people] had no chance to see the Buddha’s mercy and were buried together on the same day. Sadly, this misery is completely equal [for all of them]. [All buddhas] watched this extremely cruel [incident] from their seats, and never responded. What can be considered to be their mercy?

“The condition [advocated in Buddhism] does not overturn one’s fate, and [Buddhist] virtue does not cause people to leave the [miserable] world; that is to say, [Buddhism] cannot save people. On what basis can it be con- sidered that [the Buddha’s] supernatural power is free and wonderful? Marquis Yang of Lu state put off the sunset [by guiding the sun with a spear when he fought Han state].191 Geng Gong [of the Later Han dynasty] welled out water [by adjusting himself and vowing twice in the land of the Xiongnu].192 Song [Jun of the Later Han dynasty, the governor] of Jiujiang, [governed well]. [Therefore], tigers [who had harmed the people there] kept out of Jiujiang and locusts were held back at the state boundary.193 Since they all thoroughly employed the power of their minds freely, they could mysteriously move non-human beings [and phenomena, such as the sun, water, tigers, and locusts]. It goes without saying that the Buddha’s supernatural power to pacify [Bai] Qi’s mind and tame [Xiang] Ji’s mind is in order to save the lives of a million people. [To save their lives] is much easier than to put Mount Sumeru into a poppy seed and much more benevolent than to sacriﬁce one’s physical body for [a hungry] tiger and a dove.194

“Nevertheless, if we think this now and yet it is unrealizable, if we relate this and yet it is not complied with, or if we entreat and yet there is

no salvation, then it is desolate, no different from a bare, empty sky. Moreover, among Buddhists, there are those who become śramaṇas and burn their bodies, those who renounce moral laws and cut the six feelings, and those who suffer from labor, or squander their fortunes in order to serve a temple and [buddha] images. It is pitiful that their present [existence] is promptly carried away and they do not see what they have attained. Alas! It is a pity! “If it is said that the response (i.e., retribution and reward) will come in

the future, [this does not make sense because] the six hundred thousand people mentioned previously were different [in terms of] the goodness and evil of their actions, and yet they were equally killed through injustice. Even if good and evil acts differ from each other, why is there difference only in what they undertook after death? Differences between good and evil acts made in the present life become one and are not graded. The future is vast and restless. What are we supposed to expect there? Are we supposed to be afraid that there is really no future?

“A sutra says: ‘As [the Buddha’s] toes touch the earth, all triple-thousand buddha lands appear, and all people, even to the extent of the blind, the deaf, the dumb, prisoners, and those who are suffering, attain peace.’195 Regardless of distance, life or death, and observance of the precepts (i.e., Buddhist or non-Buddhist), the Buddha is equally benevolent to everyone. If [the Buddha] has the benevolent mind, he should see people’s suffering, and he should give peace to them in the same manner as [is related] in this [passage of the sutra]. Moreover, Buddhist scriptures have many words like this, to make us happy. In fact, somewhat unexpectedly there is no immediate response. How can we know that this is not the case of an outstanding person in a foreign land whose ability was superior to his contemporaries, who made this ﬁctitious teaching, who used threat and conciliation, whose words had subtle and profound tastes, and who [expounded] matters that have the gracefulness of clarity and solem- nity, and consequently [those of a simple heart] easily believed in him, sub- mitted themselves to [his teaching], and then undertook unfathomable matters one after another, and the situation does not stop?”

I answered, “You do not see the path [of the Buddha]. That is why you take a smooth path to be rocky. If you actually look at the path from above, you will not see anything difﬁcult. Nothing, in its regular course, is the Way.196 The Buddha simply established the [Buddhist] Way by means of the spirit.

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Hence, virtue and the Way are one. The spirit and the Way are two [different issues]. Since they are two [different issues], they illuminate [sentient beings] in order to lead to [myriad] transformations. Since [virtue and the Way are] one, they always have causality and yet nothing to create.

“Each of myriad transformations certainly follows causality, and is created in the Great Way. The reason we call him the Buddha is because he is free from all existing things and is beyond comprehension; it is not because he can save people absurdly, apart from [the causes and] conditions they created in their previous existences. Sentient beings are innumerable. Guidance of the spiritual function entirely pervades, just like complying with [the uneven- ness of the surface of] a precipice. What part is illuminated is simply unthink- able. For instance, [the great] ﬂood and the four villains [during the reign of Yao], the ignorance of [Shun’s father] Gu, and the haughtiness of [Shun’s brother] Xiang are entirely the true aspects of nature, which even [the sage kings] Yao and Shun could not change. Nevertheless, it is certain that in each case [the problem was solved] complying with its precipice (i.e., case): [Yao and Shun] controlled the ﬂood and exiled the [four] villains. This is as sufﬁcient as being able to meet their virtue. Wouldn’t it be great?

“The [Way of the] Buddha is probably none other than the Way of sages. [The Buddha] does not only accomplish salvation for sentient beings but also expounds the teaching for those of the realms beyond this mundane world. It is just as with Yao’s distinguished corresponding manifestation that when causality is ripe, even without doing anything, his achievement spon- taneously manifested [in phenomena]. The reason the tones of a bell move non-humans, [just as the tunes of Zou Yan’s music caused a variety of millet to grow in a cold ravine,] is because the [human] mind profoundly corresponds [to the non-human’s],197 not to mention [how every being is moved by] ingen- ious sages who consider the principle of the spirit as virtue.

“Generally, all those who have encountered each other in a far buddha land have a strong will and a pure spirit that have increased in brightness through many kalpas. Thereupon, they are able to take in [the Buddha] and understand him thoroughly. The result is that Śākyamuni emits light that shines throughout the ten directions, Prabhūtaratna [Buddha] caused a [seven- treasure tower] to spring up [whenever the Lotus Sutra was expounded],198 and the world of Merupradīparāja Tathāgata was moved into Vimalakīrti’s

[ten-foot-square] room [in an instant].199 How could the Buddha manifest himself alone [without causality]? [Those who are capable] can see [the Buddha].

“As for people like the gentlemen here today, they were not born in the fortunate [world] of the Arhat (i.e., the Buddha) but live within the land gov- erned by Yu (i.e., China). Since in sincerity they all went against [the Buddha] in their former [existences], they meet perversity in their present [existences]. Even if a person is as upright as [Bo]yi and [Shu]qi, or as dutiful as [Hui of] Liu[xia] and Ji[zha], as long as what he sets his mind on is against [Buddhism], how can he feel and see the Buddha? It is even [more difﬁcult] for those who are presently called gentlemen or those below them [in status]. Although these people perfume their bodies with decorum and emit the fragrance of fame in the world, they have strong sensual desires and their ambitions do not adhere to the [Buddhist] Way. ‘The gentleman among men is, in fact, the small man of Heaven.’200 On what basis could one who contains the highest spirit respond to the affections of their minds? How could there be a case where the Buddha unfairly hides from them? They themselves do not see [the Buddha].

“If some people were born following [a cause and] a condition and have the sincerity to practice the six pāramitās due to acts made in their previous life, they feel and see [the Buddha] brightly by themselves. There must be such people time after time. If so, and if there are Buddhist clergy and laypeople side by side, how do we know the difference between them? In this case, coarseness and excellence lie in oneself. Hence, whether or not one sees [the Buddha] is due to the difference in the response [they would receive]. How could you doubt the existence of the Buddha because you are not clear about the glorious appearance [of the Buddha]?

“There are numinous beings between Heaven and Earth. It is clear that the vigorous spirit is not perishable. Now, the spirits of the [buried] people of the states of Qin and Zhao arose together with the universe. Even if Heaven and Earth are settled and corrupted, [the spirits] are imperishable. How could the two generals [Bai] Qi and [Xiang] Ji destroy six hundred thousand spirits at once? Spirits are unable to be exterminated; what are exterminated are physical bodies. Just as the Buddha says, what is usually perishable are the physical bodies of sentient beings. Since the bodies [of six hundred thousand

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people] perished, wouldn’t they all have used up their natural life spans [when Bai] Qi and [Xiang] Ji [buried them]? How can we make this clear? “[The Book of Changes states:] ‘The method of Qian (i.e., Heaven) is

to change and transform, so that everything obtains its correct nature as appointed [by the mind of Heaven].’201 All lives, extending to those of birds, pigs, dogs, and sheep, are treated equally in the hexagrams (six-line diagrams) and the six diagrams for divination [in the Book of Changes]. People eat other living creatures in order to support themselves. They are as cruel as spi- ders that spin their webs [in order to catch and eat other insects]. Hawks and tigers cannot survive unless they catch and eat [other animals], but people can [subsist] on cooked grain and vegetables. Even so, [people still kill and eat other living creatures]; they are very ferocious. The Way of Heaven is extremely fair; what it disseminates is life. How could it allow people to oppress the lives [of others] and suppress a response from the unseen world? Even though the [buried] six hundred thousand people must have been dis- similar to one another in character—some were good and some were bad— I am afraid that they did not differ in mercilessly eating other sentient beings. The good is different from the bad. Therefore, [the reward and retribution] they received in their lifetimes should have certainly been dissimilar. [How- ever,] they were all equal in harming sentient beings. Consequently, they should assuredly have received detriment on the same day.

“Daoist sayings and what people of the world say are nothing new. Regard- ing Lord Yu [of the Han dynasty, a virtuous man who administrated fair justice,] and Bing Ji, [who rescued and raised Emperor Xuan of the Han dynasty,] their virtuous conduct of rescuing and making others happy was later rewarded.202 On the other hand, Yan Yannian [of the Han dynasty], Tian Fen [of the Wei dynasty], and Emperor Xuan of the Jin dynasty murdered [innocent people] and received retribution in turn. These [examples] are all found in books of history of the Han and Wei dynasties as what was believed in the world. “[One’s acts] to save the lives of others will pass on blessings to his descendants, not to speak of the case where one’s vigorous spirit becomes the subject to save or destroy others’ lives; he will have reward or retribution in his later existence. If we destroy or save others’ lives, we ourselves will certainly receive retribution or reward. Needless to say, if one satisﬁes or frustrates the spirit of others, he will ascend or fall in his own spirit. Those

killed by [Yan] Yannian were all ordinary small people, while Dou Ying, [who was killed by Tian Fen,] and Wang Ling, [who was driven to commit suicide by Sima Zhongda, who later became Emperor Xuan,] were talented people; [the former was] a prime minister and [the latter] a loyal ofﬁcial [of the Wei dynasty]. [These victims] were dissimilar in their intelligence and social status, but [their killers] were equal in receiving retribution.

“In respect of receiving retribution, it is [meted out] regardless of excel- lence or humbleness; there is no difference between a general, a minister, and an emperor of the Jin dynasty. Isn’t it the case where the Way of Heaven is extremely fair, [all people are equally] the children [of Heaven] regardless of the distinction of their mental faculty, or where the principle lies in a per- son’s life, not in their nobility or humbleness? Even though a hog and a ﬁsh are humble, each of their lives is correctly based on the Way of Heaven. When we observe a large bird circling in the air, a small bird chirping, the ox whose lowing Gelu [of Jie state] recognized,203 and the deer who moved Xi Ba [of Qin],204 [we know that each of these animals] is deeply affectionate toward the fellow animals of its kind.

“[Suppose] there are a pregnant woman and a young child. If a person cuts open [the woman’s belly] and scoops out [the fetus], or roasts [the young child], this is called an unjust and grievous offense, one at which Heaven shudders. To hunt pregnant animals in spring or to roast or salt down a lamb and a young bird are the same [as the case mentioned above] in the Way of Heaven. How could there be no retribution? Nevertheless, following the proper [ancient way of living] in which people drank blood, we now cannot suddenly stop hunting and ﬁshing.

“Therefore, a sage king educated [people] by ‘keeping away from the slaughterhouse and kitchen.’205 This is probably because he tried to lessen the harm, submitting to the fact that people slaughter [animals for food]. If one walks into a slaughterhouse and hears [the animal’s dying] cries, he cannot bear [to eat the meat]. To set up hunting [and ﬁshing] seasons in accor- dance with the wolf, [who sacriﬁced its prey in the ninth month,] and the otter, [who sacriﬁced its ﬁsh in the ﬁrst month,] is done because it is hateful to injure pregnant animals [by hunting] at the inappropriate time. To hunt [in spring] without a net shows clearly that the lives of living creatures are important. Mencius showed great appreciation [for King Xuan of Qi state,

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who could not bear to see an ox, a large animal, killed] in order to anoint bells with its blood [for worship, and who ordered the use of the blood of a sheep, a small animal, instead].206 It is because Mencius knew that the king was so virtuous to abandon destroying life.

“Since the former kings relieved the masses and helped meet an urgent need, they had very deep benevolence, but they could not exercise strict control over [the destruction of life] immediately. The Tathāgata traced to the very source of spirit and elucidated its apex. Therefore, he values equally the lives in the ﬁve realms of existence, and set forth the abandonment of the destruction of life as the ﬁrst of many precepts. King Bimbisāra received retribution [for killing] a white hare. [King Liuli of] the Śākya clan was ruined because [he had killed] yellow ﬁsh.207 [These] indicate the natural features of retribution. [The law of causality] is entirely deep, profound, and inconceivable, yet evident.

“If [the people who were buried] had been able to listen to the [Buddhist] Way and had cultivated the teaching and the precepts with respect, they would certainly not have fallen into a pit at Changping and been buried alive [as were the soldiers of] Lord Mafu (i.e., Zhao Kuo) [of Zhao state].208 Even after falling into the pit, if they had believed in the teaching [and had been able to practice] thoroughly, they would have surely transcended their impending difﬁculties. If the sin caused by the condition [one created] in a previous existence is heavy, it is hard to receive the reward for his former [good con- duct], but the virtue he earns by observing the precepts arrives later, and he will surely not be buried alive again in his next existence. What you said about dispersing the spiritual function over the distressed in order to remove them from suffering injustice is just such a case as this. It is the highest benev- olence. If one who is good in secular values and yet who does not have faith in the [Buddhist] Way destroys the lives of many living creatures, retribution exposes him to danger. This is just as it should be.

“The Buddha avails himself of the principle [of causality], lives up to the very nature of things, and saves people through the Dharma. He cannot unreasonably save those who do not follow the Dharma and the principle. How could the Buddha be unreal? This can be compared to the case of Bian Que, [a great doctor of ancient China]. Even though he tried to cure a sick person with medicine, if [the sick person] did not trust him and did not take

the medicine, the disease would not be cured. Wouldn’t Bian Que still be considered an excellent [doctor in such a case]?

“The reason [Marquis] Yang of Lu state put off the sunset [by guiding the sun with a spear when he fought Han state], Geng Gong [of the Later Han dynasty] welled out water [by adjusting himself and vowing twice in the land of Xiongnu], and the distant ancestor [Song Jun of] Jiujiang had virtue by which locusts and tigers were kept out of the area, is entirely because their strong sincerity moved [the Way of the Spirit]. That the Way of the Spirit is moved is precisely the same as that the Buddha is moved. If [those who could have moved the Way of the Spirit] had been in the states of Qin and Zhao, they would surely not have fallen into trouble. That is to say, all those who fell into trouble had no sincerity. By what [force] could they have moved the Buddha and harmonized and softened [the minds of Bai] Qi and [Xiang] Ji?

“Since those who possessed supernatural power congregated at the hall of a thoroughly educated one (i.e., Vimalakīrti), it was possible to see Mount Sumeru in a mustard seed. Moreover, although they were now a tiger and a dove, they might have been human beings in their previous existences. They had once had the formation of a [good] condition. Therefore, they met the Buddha and received the good fortune of [the Buddha] sacriﬁcing his physical body to save the [starving] tiger and cutting off a piece of his thigh to give [to a hawk] instead of [letting] the dove [be eaten by the hawk]. If it were not that [the Buddha] was moved and able to take action to sacriﬁce himself for them, how could the miracle to harmonize and soften [atrocious beings] recklessly happen? ‘The cessation of blowing sounds from the myriad aper- tures completely attributes to each of their own causes.’209 Why do you doubt the Buddha?

“If your determination [to take refuge in the Buddha] is ﬁrm, when you think of him, you will see him, and when you speak to him, he will listen to you. Confucius met the Duke of Zhou in a dream.210 [Emperor Gaozong of the Yin dynasty] saw the ﬁgure of Fu Yue [in a dream,] and [after a search] Fu Yue in fact came to him.211 [In the former case] there is a long interval between the time of the Duke of Zhou and that of Confucius, and [in the latter case] Fuyan, [where Fu Yue was found,] is a long distance away [from the capital]. [The separation in time and distance,] however, did not obstruct these profound

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meetings. When we presume from this point, we should believe that if we purify our thoughts and perceive [the west], we will see Amitābha Buddha beyond myriad worlds without any effort. Why do you say that there is no difference [between the Buddhist teaching] and the bare, empty sky?

“The Way lies in training the spirit, not in having the physical body exist. Hence, śramaṇas shave their heads, burn their bodies, encourage their spirits, and cut off association [with the secular world]. The spirit is imperishable, and it is capable of traveling quickly to wherever it is going. Is there any contradiction?

“[People of the secular world] strive for principles of human relationships and are distressed with their six feelings. What can they ﬁnd within themselves seeking agitation in their spirits? If they sincerely take the tonsure by them- selves and cut off [association with the secular world], they will diminish [their actions] from day to day, and through the puriﬁcation they will actually draw close to the Way. Even if they made strenuous effort to make a good reputation for themselves or expended all their fortune to build a fabulous residence, if they die soon after that, what they receive in name and reality does not go beyond ‘robbers and boasters,’ [ just as is stated in the Laozi Daodejing].212 If they construct a mansion where images of deities are placed and where it is profound, tranquil, and solemn, their physical bodies will comply with its subtlety and their spirits will follow the profundity. If [the physical body] is subtle, the response [they receive] will be pure. If [the spirit] is profound, the bliss [they receive] will be wonderful. Which is better: to be ‘robbers and boasters’ or to be close to the Way? ‘Their present existence is promptly carried away,’ [as you said previously,] because they rise to [Heaven upon death]. If they go secretly and are united with the spiritual intelligence, happiness and prosperity will manifest in their later existences. How can we see what they will obtain [in the present existence]?

“Activities in human affairs are certainly linked to the Way of the Spirit. In the phenomenal world nothing exists irrationally; everything must have a reason to exist. If profound and unseen reward or retribution is not like what I have said above, for what reason were the six hundred thousand people buried alive? Since they were buried alive due to retribution, there must have been people who escaped from being buried alive due to reward. Now, among

people of the Warring States period, there were those as ingenious as An Qi[sheng], those as profound as the four white and bright men [of Mount Shang], and the man who became an emperor by having a noble face and who became a monarch by giving a part of his ﬁefdom to feudal lords (i.e., Emperor Gaozong of the Han dynasty). People of fame and talent were innu- merable. They were as equally [in danger as] if they were within the target range of the skillful archer Yi,213 but why would they alone be so [famous]? Wouldn’t this be a corresponding manifestation of reward from each person’s previous existence?

“Inasmuch as happiness in this existence is the result of actions made in a previous existence, it is clear that the actions one makes in this existence will result in reward and retribution in his next existence. Now, the difference of personality (i.e., good or evil) in this existence is made clear by the previous existence, so why is only what one accepts in his next existence allowed to be exceptional? According to what a sutra expresses, ‘To take the chance to see the Buddha’s ediﬁcation is entirely due to the fact that there was originally an excellent condition [in the previous existence]. Therefore, when one meets [the Buddha], he feels as if he has met [the Buddha] before.’214 [Nevertheless, you said that] there has been no sudden corresponding manifestation of response and all faults have nothing to do with [retribution]. On the contrary, you falsely accuse that the highest teaching [of the Buddha] is a ﬁctitious idea. Alas! Divine examination is very evident. You should fear the offense of disgracing the Sage. I venture to ask you: Is the one who made up the ﬁc- titious idea a sage, a wise person, or a small person?

“The Sage does not have an invariable mind of his own. It is probably because he educates the masses, following their natures, and has them fulﬁll [what they have been taught]. If the spirit perishes when the body dies, [people] should just devote themselves to do their best with the Confucian teaching to the ends of their lives. Again, what is the matter? [Buddhists] try to delude people by saying that the spirit is immortal, and deceive them by telling about the attainment of buddhahood. [Buddhism] induces people to take the tonsure and burn the skin, and causes married couples to divorce. There are innumerable people who have refrained from having offspring. Moreover, distinguished sages have no ﬁxed place to educate [people]; some are hiding and some are

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isolated [from the world]. What are these ﬁctitious ideas good for? The harm they cause is much more painful. We know that this is not what sages and wise people did.

“If the person [who founded Buddhism] belongs to a group of [small] people like Fan Xu, [about whom Confucius lamented,]215 he restrains himself out of fear that the Duke of Zhou and Confucius may consider him a heretic and does not venture to act recklessly. If he is below the level of that group, he is merely one of the good-for-nothings. How can such a person found a school, in addition to the nine schools, be more honorable than Laozi and Zhuangzi, and illuminate [the world of] a thousand years later?

“Five hundred years [after Śākyamuni passed away], people like Nāgār- juna, Āryadeva, Aśvaghoṣa, Kātyāyanī, Dharmaṣresthin, Vasubhadra, and Dharmatrāta respectfully explained the teaching of the [Buddhist] Way in the Dazhidulun, the Zhonglun (Skt. Mādhyamaka-śāstra), the Bailun, and a group of the Abhidharma discussions. These people had a genius for super- natural powers. The eight wise men, such as Jīvaka and Jiantuole,216 about whom Sun Chuo (d. ca. 370) recently composed a hymn, and those whose portraits Zhi Daolin (314–366) drew together with a eulogy, such as Dharma- rakṣa, Yu Falan, [Yu] Daosui, and Que Gon[ze], have the spirit that shines over the Chinese nation. Zhu Faxing of China (i.e., the Western Jin dynasty) was compared to the Director of the Imperial Secretariat Yue [Guang] (d. 304) by his contemporary [Sun Chuo]. Śrīmitra of the Jiangsu area [during the Eastern Jin dynasty] was highly evaluated for the outstanding and lofty state of his mind by all the princes. Guo Wenju was broadminded, profound, and sincere, and he had faith only in Buddhism.

“Generally [speaking,] since the time of Nāgārjuna, could there be people who entirely incur danger caused by the deceit of those good-for-nothings mentioned above? In that case, wouldn’t the matter of Master Yellow Face (i.e., the Buddha) be undoubted?

“The image, relics, teeth, hair, other articles, and remaining footprints of the Buddha are still luminous in his homeland. This fact is also evidence of the [Buddhist] Way. There are many people in the foreign land (i.e., India) who have keen natures for examining things and who are intelligent. In addi- tion, their sensual desires are generally deep. Since the time their ancestors stood in front of the Buddha, all of them have accumulated [faithful] acts,

intimately transmitted [Buddhism] in the world, and relied on the [undeniable] facts. The image, the relics, and the legacy [of the Buddha] brightly educate the people, and their harmonious relationship [with the Buddha] is clear. Hence, the descendant kings bade the whole nation to observe the precepts. The four kinds of Buddhist disciples devote themselves wholeheartedly to ascetic [prac- tices]. They will have no regret even if they were to die [from these practices]. If the [Buddhist] doctrines are peculiar and vague, and if there is nothing real and wonderful in these events, would [the people of India] be willing to exert themselves to control their carnal desires in order to respect the Invisible One? If the image and the articles [left behind by the Buddha] are not real, and if [groundless] rumors are circulating, why do people, both of the past and of present times, torment themselves to leave behind carnal desires in order to make progress toward the goal? [Some people] must be discouraged in the process of cultivation, but almost everyone becomes more serious. We can brieﬂy infer [from this point that the Buddhist Way is indubitable].

“I would like to argue [the following]. The reason why from former times [the fruition] is not evident for those who study the [Buddhist] Way is because [their intention] lies in holding onto life, but suffering arises from [holding onto] life. Ignorant people are not aware of this. Therefore, all buddhas enlighten them by means of [teaching the causes of] suffering, and lead them by means of [teaching] non-birth. [The idea of] non-birth cannot be quickly realized. Then the people are led by means of reward and retribution in their existences. If one collects merit and sublimates himself more and more, he can be led to the clear, serene culmination. For this reason, the [Buddhist] Way is as vast as a blue sea. No matter how small, there is nothing that is not ferried across, and no matter how large, there is nothing that is not led. “Even though [the Buddhist Way] is very much opposed to [the teaching

of] striving after making a living and holding onto life, it also teaches the ﬁve cardinal duties and induces people to practice and assist ethical education. The reason why people of the world say that weal and woe are not well timed in the Way of Heaven is similar to the reason why the historian [Sima] Qian had deep emotion about [the unhappy death of] Boyi.217 First of all, why would the sage Confucius have made a reckless statement? Confucius said, ‘If one accumulates enough good deeds, his family will have more than enough blessings to spare, but if he accumulates enough evil deeds, his family

will have more than enough misfortune to spare.’218 Nevertheless, Yan [Hui] died young and Ran [Boniu] had a disease. We have never heard about their descendants. [On the other hand,] Shangchen (i.e., King Mu of Chu state) died a natural death in old age, [even though he had murdered his father, King Cheng,] and his son King Zhuang was sagacious and assumed the hege- mony. Generally these matters cannot be entirely understood in reason, but could there be anything that is not understood in reason?

“We cannot help believing the teaching that [if one accumulates enough good deeds,] he will have blessings in his later existence, and [if he accu- mulates enough evil deeds,] he will have misfortune in the three lowest realms of existence. Even though the physical body has life and death, the vigorous spirit will certainly receive responses (i.e., reward and retribution) to [what one has done in his lifetime]. How is this different from the case where the responses to one’s conduct manifest in their present existence? Causes and conditions, however, have a sequence. Therefore, the manifestation of reward and retribution has timing: early and late. It is just as there are early or later manifestations of fortune or misfortune in one’s lifetime. In this case, the Confucian teaching supports the Buddhist [teaching] and both meet on com- mon ground. [The Buddhist teaching] can really be said to be the extremely profound and unalterable Way.

“Human beings are just like dust ﬂoating in the air; life and death are illusory. If [life and death] are encompassed within the framework of one hundred years, there is no one, wether young or old, who is not included. Even [elderly people] whose hair has faded and turned to yellow and whose back is hunched over [with age] and covered with spots, like the blowﬁsh, still feel that the time they have lived is ﬂeeting, not to mention those who have lived for a shorter time. Moreover, time never stops and the movement [of heavenly bodies] is everlasting. The time that has already passed is incal- culable and limitless. Each moment is as brief as the blink of an eye or a glance, and it has simply come down to the present time. Why is it difﬁcult to come up to one hundred years by accumulating moments that are as brief as the blink of an eye? There are, however, few people who are able to reach even half [of one hundred years].

“People’s attachment to their physical bodies, which are [as short-lived as] morning dew, has mostly nothing in the reality of the clean and remote

[world]. Why do they content themselves [within the brief period of time of] a water clock with [the physical body, which will eventually] become rotten and stink, abuse the eternally existing (i.e., immortal) spirit, and not themselves cast obstructions to the remote wind? Although the Nominalists and the Legalists are statesmen, why would they alone have nothing to do with [this fact] in the Great Way? Since they merely wander in the realm of human beings, and are noisy on the worldly path, they simply feel that the human way is prosperous and belittle the idea of spirits. If we turn ourselves around in the center of the world and ascend a high mountain, we have wonderful views far away: the clear spaciousness of the universe and the wonder of the sun and moon shining through. Could it be possible that there is no dignity of awesome numinous beings of various sages there, and there is only a mul- titude of people who busy themselves with worldly matters? Certainly, we will think of the eternal [world] in order to open the thought of the Way of the Spirit, and feel tranquility in order to elucidate the corresponding man- ifestation of numinous beings.

“In the past in Lu state Confucius wrote the Five Classics, by which he educated the people of the world. When he looked down from the top of Mount Tai and Mount Meng, both the world and Lu state appeared small [to him].219 Doesn’t this indicate that his spirit united with the universe and con- sequently he transcended this world? If this is so, the Five Classics were probably written merely to respond to trivial requests [of the world] for a momentary lifetime. How is it possible that the people of the world block the Buddhist Dharma and do not believe in it?

“I would like to ask you: Is the reason you do not believe in [the Buddhist Dharma] because [you think] there is no spiritual intelligence but the multitude, or because [you think] that there is spiritual intelligence but there is no buddha? If there is no spiritual intelligence at all but the multitude, then who ordered the swallow to cause [Xie, the founder of] the Shang dynasty to be born into the world?220 Who left the footprints of a giant that caused [a lady] to have a feeling and give birth to Qi (i.e., Houji)?221 The Han, Wei, Jin, and Song dynasties all had an auspicious decree from Heaven [for the establish- ment of the dynasty]. Therefore, we know that beyond the world of visual and auditory senses the Way of the Spirit brightly exists. If there are the prin- ciples of spirits, there must be the subtle zenith. If ‘he who is marvelous since

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he has gotten the One’ is not the Buddha,222 who else could he be? The spiritual being profoundly responds according to each case. It does not respond in predetermined ways. Following a fact, it offers teaching. Why are you worried that it is not complete? Why is it necessary to deceive the people and later teach them? In that case, it is not open to question that the Dharma is real and the teaching is truthful.

“I would like to discuss and say that all sentient beings take the vigorous spirit to be primary. Therefore, by [natural] law all beings respond to the spirits who have reached the profound culmination. In the case of Yao, various kinds of animals that lived far away danced, being impressed with his virtue.223 Isn’t this the manifestation of moving [and responding between Yao and the animals]? The Buddha is the foundation of various manifestations of moving and responding. For the sun, moon, the seas, and the high mountains, there are the morning and evening rites and the signiﬁcance of the worship of viewing the mountains and rivers from a distance, not to mention the Buddhist Way that many people cultivate; those of high rank trace to the very source of spirits beyond the realm of arising, those of middle rank receive a physical body in the subtle realm of arising (i.e., the realms of heavenly beings and human beings), and those of low rank can be exempted from the three lowest realms of existence.

“What the worldly teaching propagates is to attain peace and order in the whole course of one’s life. Those who deeply master [the Way] are rare, while those who [chase after] the world are numerous. How could they have ever participated in [the Buddhist Way]? They just follow worldly trends and say that if one dies his spirit perishes. Consequently they do not strive for a lofty aspiration in the pure and distant [world], and utilizing every spare moment, many people comply with worldly trends. Therefore, the way of gentlemen is seldom practiced. If we examine with the Buddhist Dharma, our physical bodies are not ourselves; probably they are only like an inn in which to rest for awhile. The spirit is the part of ourselves [that remains permanently]. It exists boundlessly and eternally, and has no end (i.e., is immortal).

“The virtue of those who have the best virtue pervades over them lim- itlessly. Those who are good in the middle rank are slowly led to purity, are promoted, and attain the exhaustion [of deﬁlement]. Those who are least vir- tuous in the low rank just have a chance to reform their evil acts, and they

may make up for mistakes they have made to move to an upper rank. There- fore, from ancient times, regardless of sharp and dull faculties, there are innu- merable people who keep themselves pure, hold a lofty aspiration, behave prudently in the present existence in order to shape karma in the next existence, and go on to supreme virtue. This is the efﬁcacy of the Buddhist Dharma. These are all what worldly customs and traditions block and what the Buddha opens up. As for the category, isn’t it the vast bright way to the wondrous existence? Why do you disregard it and not uphold it?

“Wind, after passing through a ﬂame, is warm, and it is assuredly fresh when it blows through a forest. Water becomes muddy in a rapid stream, and when it becomes puriﬁed the rocks can certainly be clearly seen. Gains and losses in the function of the spirit also lie in to what the spirit entrusts itself. Not having faith in the Buddhist Dharma is not necessarily due to one’s temperament but is probably because of one’s frame of mind. If you try to keep your mind away from worldly affairs and move what is projected [in your mind] to the pure and subtle [state], the Buddhist doctrine will be clear and all matters can be believed. It is really wonderful to frame one’s mind [in this way]!

“If you avail yourself of this clear token of [what the Buddha taught] in the past, you will eventually be able to become a ruler in the Way of the Spirit. Since you can eternally save all the karma of your ancestors, both evi- dent and hidden, up to a hundred past generations, it is the great ﬁlial piety. Since all sentient beings beneﬁt from benevolence, it is the highest mercy. Since the spirit concentrates and becomes subtle, it is the culmination of the Way. Since it penetrates brightly without hindrance, it is the completion of brightness. If what began even in the mind of an ordinary person is placed on the right track at the beginning, even if many kalpas pass, for sure it will directly gather at the profound culmination [of the Way] in the end. [Buddhism] is wonderful like this. Equally, if the same [ordinary] person fails to get onto the track [of Buddhism] and goes astray, he will aimlessly go a long way and eternally sink into the nine realms [of the transmigration of birth and death]. How sad it is! If what I said above is not true, why in the world do virtuous sages suddenly appear, why are stupid and humble people born and brought up, and why are there all buddhas in the upper stratum and ﬂying and wriggling insects at the bottom? All of these are the natural features of the gains and losses of the spirit.

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“People have a physical body of seven chi and grow old and die in several tens of years, of which half is entirely occupied by nighttime. Since there are many days to go into mourning or to get sick, [people] suffer for half [of their remaining time, not counting nights]. Even if someone has prosperity in his life, or if he attains his aim in enjoying prosperity, how [valuable] is this? In addition, the prime of life passes [quickly], and when one has honor and fame he is certainly afraid of being disgraced. Pleasure really comes together with distress, and there is no perfect peace. [People,] however, strive with each other in entering the steep path of popular custom, and hate to advance on the spacious path of the Buddhist Dharma. What do you think of their intelligence? There are really many people in the world who are trou- bled about the Buddhist doctrine since they cannot understand the beginning of the conditions that give rise to phenomena. [The realm of] conditions that give rise to phenomena is vast and limitless, and it is not reached by our rec- ollections. What gains and losses are concerned with cannot be perceived through [understanding] the doctrines; namely, it is beyond the universe. Therefore, the Buddha left it intact and did not discuss it, as I have already presented in my previous discussion. I would like to repeat and explain this. “‘The sage created the Book of Changes.’224 [Consequently we] can prac-

tice divination by interpreting the sun, moon, and heavenly bodies that hang down from the sky, and know good or bad luck, peace or upheaval. Never- theless, when we investigate why it results in such a situation, [we ﬁnd that] we are unable to know anything, since the sage did not clarify it. Now, if we give up what we can know because we do not know [why it results in such a situation], and take actions contrary to divination or against the signs of the sky, would anything be lost? To go against the Buddhist Dharma because the beginning of conditions that give rise to phenomena is not clear is similar to this. Moreover, people say that the spirit originally does not exist since they do not remember what they thought in their former existences.

“If a person [does not remember anything] from the time he was a fetus to the time his milk teeth were replaced with permanent teeth, it cannot be said that he had no spirit. This happens only within his [present] life. When he thinks of this he has a vague feeling and remembers nothing, not to men- tion one who has experienced the transmigration of birth and death and who has gone through different bodies. Why wouldn’t the memory of his former

existence have faded away? Even if his memories fade, it does no harm to the eternal existence (i.e., immortality) of the spirit. If he does not understand about the beginning of conditions that give rise to phenomena, why is it an obstruction to its doctrine that is continually clear?

“When Zilu asked about death, the Master (i.e., Confucius) said, ‘While you do not know life, how can you know about death?’225 When he asked about serving spiritual beings, [Confucius] said, ‘While you do not know about serving men, how can you know about serving spirits?’226

“Wouldn’t it be that although [Zhong] You (i.e., Zilu) was completely fond of bravery and sincerely served his master, he should have originally asked questions about matters within his lifetime? Even though [Zilu] had questions about birth and death and the origin of spiritual beings, they are not from real affections of the mind based on reason. Therefore, [Zigong said,] ‘[The Master’s discourses about] man’s nature and the Way of Heaven cannot be heard.’227 In Buddhist statements there is the phrase ‘The fourteen questions regarding the issue of [permanency] of sentient beings or the issue on whether or not [the world] has boundaries are entirely left intact and not answered by all the intelligentsia.’228 If answering [such questions] indeed has no beneﬁt, [it causes people] to fall into viciousness. Then the Way to respect sages and to believe in the Buddha should decline what it renounces and should take what it is granted, just as when a thirsty man goes to drink water from a river and scoops up water from the stream [with his hands] to satisfy himself. Would it be necessary for him to trace the very source [of the water] on Mount Kunlun? Generally, in the Buddhist Dharma, unreasonable things like dis- obeying Heaven and hindering the principles can be doubted. Now, [in Buddhism,] there is no unreasonable hindrance and there is truth to follow the mandate of Heaven and purify the spirit. Wouldn’t this really be so? “When a person is born, he is born with anxieties. Trouble and misfortune happen in events every now and then. Natural disasters rise in force imper- ceptibly. Even reﬁned and noble people or those who have a million followers spontaneously have a physical body and a spirit at the beginning, and wait for impermanence (i.e., death), just sitting there. Even though ‘the members of the household are with stern severity’ or ‘the wife and children are to be smirking and chattering,’229 they suddenly become downcast and absent- minded. How much less can we rely adequately on people’s minds? Therefore,

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in as brief a time as [a man glimpses a white colt as it] passes by a crevice,230 people just compete with each other. They wastefully slander the profound teaching and indulge themselves in wanting to harm it uselessly, but the spirit is immortal. Even if they desire its morality, they cannot have it, and they must receive a body because of a sin they have committed. Sentient beings who have no redeeming features and various kinds of insects of the present time are all examples of this. Those who try to seek [a better rebirth] should consign themselves only to sincerity, believe in the Buddha, rely on the mind, and observe the precepts in order to reinforce their vigorous spirits.

“If you receive the aid of numinous beings in your lifetime, you will be pure and peaceful after death. If you are pure and peaceful endlessly, then you will directly attain buddhahood. The Buddha is originally said to be this state, but people disparage it. On what basis do you judge that people are better than the Buddha? They are not better [than the Buddha]. They cannot stop falling into the evil realms where they eternally receive intense suffering. Alas! It is beyond our control in the secular world that there are people who are born into the six extreme evils. Those who are diligent in what they hear and see, when they are about to die they mostly have a stable mind on their deathbeds. Even if those in urgent and desperate situations chant the name of Avalokiteśvara with wholehearted devotion, there is almost no one who will not be favored with salvation. I mentioned previously that these are all an auspicious omen: ‘If you receive the aid of numinous beings in your life- time, you will be pure and peaceful after death.’

“The emperor and feudal lords [are busy with administration and] have no time to eat leisurely even in the early afternoon, [but] the masses depend on [these people’s hard work] only within their lifetimes. How can they increase [the strength of] their spirits and manage myriad cycles [of existence]? If you rely on the Duke of Zhou and Confucius to educate the masses, and taste the Buddhist Dharma to nourish the spirit, you will be an intelligent ruler in your lifetime and a bright spirit after death, and you will always man- age [myriad cycles of existence]. How could the Tathāgata deceive me? [What he says] does not lead to wasting money and harming people by wor- shiping a pagoda, making luxurious images, and supporting incapable monks with tolerance.

“Those who do not see the profound reality of things and yet look at immediate disadvantages will unrestrainedly insult the Dharma. If, however, you revere the Way, believe in the teaching, become aware of impermanence, empty the realm of form, have benevolence, set in order the ediﬁcation, do not take people’s lives easily by abusing a position of nobility and power, and do not let a good-for-nothing person secretly avail himself of treatment beyond his lot, wouldn’t it be possible that leading the masses by means of virtue and setting them in order by means of decorum would result in a world whose prosperity is attributed to benevolence? Why do both people of a rank with which they feel self-satisﬁed and those of low status who work in the ﬁelds and marshes value it highly enough, by which they can not relieve their vigorous spirits by themselves?

“Formerly Master Huiyuan puriﬁed his karma on Mount Lu. I went there and stayed for ﬁfty days. [Master Huiyuan] was lofty and virtuous. His study of the [Buddhist] doctrine was exquisite. It was certainly a noble style. His teacher, Master Daoan, had spiritual virtue that was spontaneously wonderful. He was a bhikṣu such as is rarely encountered. They both kept purity themselves. Both were originally of wide knowledge in the [Buddhist] Way, and later lived in isolation on a mountain. Hence, [Huiyuan’s] spiritual teaching is more pro- found than a solemn forest. [Master Huiyuan] often talked with me under the trees on a cliff or in a valley. [His words] were philosophical, but there was spontaneously something to admonish people in their expression.

“Generally, my discussion up to now is only what Master [Huiyuan] spoke in accordance with the tenor of the Buddhist scriptures. What is well conﬁrmed refers to that [Cang Jie] created a written language on the basis of bird’s footprints, that he who traced the very source of the spirit could hear people’s songs, [which led him to truth,]231 or that [Emperor Wen of the Han dynasty] who recovered the power took Tiying’s word (i.e., petition) and consequently corporal punishment was permanently abolished.232 Certainly phenomena suddenly come out of the affections of the delicate mind and ﬁnally shoot up into the sky. With my confused, ignorant, and humble words I have warned of affections of the mind. If I suddenly die, how could I not know that I am transcending to [Heaven]?”

End of Fascicle Two of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Three

The Discourse to Explain the [Buddhist] Way (Yudaolun) by Sun Chuo

There was a person who was doubtful of the highest Way (i.e., Buddhism). I explained to him thus. The universe is immense and abundantly full of var- ious kinds of things, in which a multitude of things abundantly exist and kaleidoscopic changes endlessly form a harmonious whole. Hence, those of limited knowledge expect what emerges within what they each view. [For instance, aquatic animals such as] ﬁsh and mollusks do not understand any- thing on the land near marshes, and those animals that have fur and feathers are not aware of the force of a stream and waves. Those who feel satisﬁed even while [caught] in a snare are suspicious about the capability of those who swim around in an ocean. Those who can ﬂy only to a height of several ren doubt the ability of those who can soar high into the sky.

People bound by the worldly teaching and who indulge in looking at the traces of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius say that the highest virtue reached its culmination with Yao and Shun, and that sublime words were completed in the Laozi [Daodejing] and the Book of Changes. How could they see the excellent tenor of that transcended world and what profoundly illuminates the darkness? It is sad! The [Confucian cap called] zhangfu is abandoned by people who customarily wear almost nothing, and [Emperor Shun’s musical composition] Dashao and [Emperor Yu’s] Daxia are ignored in rural areas. The highest truth is declined in unsystematic practices, and the Great Way is discontinued by scholars of limited views. If these people are extremely deluded and cannot be improved, they will not be moved by words and expla- nations. [Nevertheless,] I will try to clarify the tenor [of Buddhism, hoping that] there may be someone who will come to be awakened in due course. The Buddha is the one who has realized the Way. The Way is what leads sentient beings. It responds to the affections of their minds and leads them by means of following them. “It does nothing, but there is nothing it does not

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accomplish.”233 Since it does nothing, it is free from preoccupation, peaceful, and spontaneous. Since there is nothing it does not accomplish, it spiritually educates all beings. In what all beings seek, there is the variety of low and high. Therefore, of the methods to transmit the teaching, some are precise and some are less exact. The foundation of the teaching is given to those of superior faculty. Misfortune is visited upon those who do not follow [the teaching]. Those who indulge in wine are imposed with a penalty. Those who commit adultery are punished heavily. Those who steal are meted out appro- priate punishment [for the crime they committed]. There are the criminal laws established by the three dynasties, [the Xia, Yin, and Zhou,] and the ﬁve penal- ties.234 People who violate the law are not pardoned. This is the rulers’ common institution, of which prime ministers and governors take charge. If a sage king rules over the world and ofﬁcials are intelligent and broad-minded, the criminals mentioned previously will certainly be thoroughly inspected, and there will be no hope of avoiding punishment. If vicious people are not allowed [to indulge] their self-interest, there will be no violators in the state, and wise and virtuous people will certainly be cited and evaluated for reward.

Moreover, when the ruler is bright, his vassals are honest, the world is pure, and the law prevails; we can especially distinguish good and bad from each other and not be confused about right and wrong. Needless to say, in the place where deities are present, regardless of distance and obscurity, they are intelligent, upright, and honest in punishing the evil and helping the good. Hence, reward and retribution will visit even an extremely small merit and a very small demerit [respectively,] without the slightest aberration.

When we go over the testimonies of weal and woe of all ages, they all have derivations and are recorded in evidence. How could they be concealed? The reason [they cannot be concealed] is because in a family that has plotted a crime, its descendants will not ﬂourish.235 Daoists clearly proscribe that a family can inherit the position of general beyond three generations.236 Isn’t this because weapons are evil, and warfare is a perversion that leads to killing many people? Wei Ke followed [his father’s] initial will and attained [the reward of] the grass trap.237 [Bao] Zidu was faithful and received the con- ferment [with the help of] a very fast horse.238 After Prince Xiang of Qi state pinned the blame on [Pengsheng], the disaster of falling from a vehicle befell him.239 Prince Hui of Jin state ignored courtesy. Consequently, he was at a

disadvantage and had difﬁculties [at the battle of] Hanyuan.240 This is all cor- roborative evidence that the dead retaliate against or reward the living. With regard to [the stories] that Xuan Meng had pity for a starving man, [Ling Zhe,] at Yisang241 and an old lady who beat cotton in water sympathized with the weariness of [Han Xin, the Marquis of] Huaiyin,242 these all show that with a meal one who had suffered from starving was saved. Moreover, Zhao [Dun] (i.e., Xuan Meng) received help from [Ling Zhe,] who betrayed his master [to save Xuan Meng’s life], and the old lady [who beat cotton] received the reward of a thousand pieces of gold. These are [examples] of obtaining a large return by doing a minor favor. The reward did not go beyond their lifetimes. Therefore, when you achieve virtue secretly, blessing is revealed in all things. If you make an action implicitly, [the response to the action] shines explicitly. This is the natural course of events. It is compared to sowing grain seeds in the soil, and then reaping a harvest one hundred times greater [than the original quantity of seeds]. The earth and the grain have no feeling toward human beings, yet a natural advantage comes to them

[from the earth and grain].

A person criticized this, saying, “If the issue of reward and retribution indeed entirely has signs, why does the teaching of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius not proscribe killing? Why was Shaozheng Mao executed [by Confucius]?243 Why did [the Duke of Zhou] put his two younger brothers [Guan and Cai] to death?”244

I answered, “I can say that you understand the words of the teaching but you have not mastered the heart of the teaching. Do you think that the sages had the intention of killing [from the beginning]?”

The person answered, “No.”

I continued, “You are really aware that they had no intention to kill. However, they killed [the three men] because it was simply the intention of the masses.”

“As the times go and the world changes, insincerity and simplicity arise in human beings. Prior to the time when records were made by tying knots, the world was happy and very peaceful. In the time of Tang and Yu, decorum occurred for the ﬁrst time. Accordingly, in the three dynasties, the net of criminal law became more evident. Even though executions were strictly carried out, this still did not prevent [crimes] as heinous as a ruler and his

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vassals exterminating each other, or fathers and sons killing each other. The law of the jungle was more violent than in the case of jackals and tigers. Sages were aware that the people’s feelings were indifferent to killing and it was impossible to swiftly put an end to it. Therefore, they gradually restrained the people [from killing] and had them seek the appropriate manner.

“This is compared to the case where a viper bites a man’s leg and he must have the leg cut off in order to save himself from death, or a man who has a malignant tumor in the body must gouge it out in order to save his life. To lose one in order to keep ten is to weigh the signiﬁcant over the less signiﬁcant. Hence, the reason criminals are executed in fall and winter is because they take life according to the seasons [when all things wither and decay]. The reason hunting is performed in spring and summer is to select and leave out pregnant animals and nursing baby animals. In the politeness of providing a way of escape,245 if a bird or beast [unwittingly] comes toward [a hunter], he sheathes his bow [and does not shoot]. If you have heard the cries [of animals] or seen them alive, when their meat is served to you, you will not eat it. ‘If you go ﬁshing, you will not use a net. If you hunt birds with bow and arrow, you will not shoot those at roost.’246 You have compassion for each and every insect. “As for discussions of lawsuits, you will reprieve the death sentence,

and in a time of natural disasters you will grant amnesty. If [the application of punishment] is open to question, you will apply the less harsh one; you would sooner acquit someone of a charge [than mete out unjust punishment]. If you must pass a sentence of death, you will do so with tears in your eyes, feeling sympathy and never joyful. This shows that one’s gratitude for having been given birth and raised is deep. It is the utmost in the way of humanity. This is what is called ‘It does all and yet does not rely on them; it excels and yet it does not preside over all.’247 This virtue covers [all things] and yet one does not think its merit lies in oneself. It is exercised daily and yet [all beings] are unaware of it.248 When we take these points into consideration in order to seek [veriﬁcation], it is sufﬁcient for us to comprehend what [the teaching of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius] returns.”

A critic said, “The Duke of Zhou and Confucius taught people to take life at the proper time, but the Buddha would like to stop [all killing] at a stroke. How can we punish brutal men, restrain wicked people, and exercise control over the masses?”

I answered, “This is not so. The Duke of Zhou and Confucius are nothing other than the Buddha; the Buddha is nothing other than the Duke of Zhou and Confucius. Probably, they are simply different names for non-Buddhism (wai) and Buddhism (nei). Thus, one who holds the reigns of the August is the August, and one who is on the throne of a king is a king.

“‘Buddha’ is a Sanskrit term; the Chinese translation is Jue. The meaning of the term jue is to enlighten people. It is compared to Mencius, who con- sidered sages those who are ﬁrst awakened [and then later enlighten others].249 The purport is the same [in the Buddha and sages]. In responding to [the demands of] the world and serving as a [good] model for people, they probably comply with the time. [The teaching of] the Duke of Zhou and Confucius relieves the extremely corrupted world, while the Buddha’s teaching simply clariﬁes the fundamental law [to save the corrupted world]. Both [teachings] are consistent; they do not differ as to the goal. Namely, it is just as the sages of non-Buddhism differ in the depth of their deeds. At the time of Yao and Shun, the world was peaceful. Hence, the two rulers nobly abdicated from the throne. Since the time of King Tang and King Wu was difﬁcult, both rulers led troops into battle [for the throne]. There is a big difference between these people’s actions, keeping silent [about handing over their reigns] and using force in their wrath.

“Nevertheless, as for the essential qualities of these actions, how much difference would there usually be? Therefore, those who consider retrogres- sively see one as two always, while those who understand properly have nothing to go to other than one.”

A critic said, “In the teaching of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, ﬁlial piety is considered to be the root. Filial piety is the culmination of virtue and the foundation of all actions. ‘When this foundation is established, the way [of human relations] arises’250 and ‘[utmost piety] reaches to spiritual intel- ligence.’251 Consequently, in cases where children serve their parents, they attend to their parents with devotion while [the parents] are alive, and they offer worship to their parents after [they have] passed away. Among three thousand offenses, there is nothing heavier than having no offspring.252 Our bodies are [received] from our parents, and we must not presume to injure or wound them.253 Thus, Yuezheng [Zi Chun] was injured in the leg and was overwhelmed with shame for the rest of his life.254

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“However, the way of the śramaṇa is to leave his native place recklessly, to abandon his parents, to stay with strangers, to shave his beard and hair, to damage his natural appearance, to have no sign of supporting [his parents] while they are alive, to discontinue the rite of ancestor worship after [his par- ents’] death, and to consider his parents by blood to be the same as mere passersby. In going against good conscience and hurting human feelings, noth- ing is worse than this. Nevertheless, [Buddhists] say we should propagate the [Buddhist] Way, spread benevolence, and extensively save all sentient beings. How is this different from mowing down the roots [of a tree], trimming the branches and trunks, and then saying that [the tree] will be distinguished and grow tall and thick? I have neither heard nor seen such a thing. If skin did not exist, how could hair attach to it? This greatly contradicts the worldly teaching. How are you going to reassure us about this matter?”

I answered, “This is really a serious delusion of the extremely vulgar and a great error caused by your wrong view. Alas! I cannot remain silent. “Parents and child are one body, and they cast their lots together. There- fore, if a mother hurts her ﬁnger, her child feels a ﬂutter in his heart [even if he is away from her]. It is because their common vapor causes him to feel and respond to it. Their unity leaves no space between them. Therefore, to curry favor with one’s parents is the utmost of ﬁlial piety. If a father is pros- perous, his son will rise to a high position. If a son attains high rank, his father will be respected. Therefore, ﬁlial piety is valuable. It is valuable because we can rise in the world, practice the way [of humanity], and glorify our parents for a long time.255 Even if we were to prostrate ourselves before our parents, cherish them, and offer them a feast of the three different kinds of meat (i.e., beef, mutton, and pork) every day, we would still not be able to cause all people to respect us. [On the other hand, if we have an achievement of] being relied upon by the whole world, this is close to the glory of nour-

ishing our parents.

“‘To be in accordance with the central element [of our nature] is the reg- ular path.’256 ‘To maintain gentleness is considered to be unchanging [teach- ing].’257 Both the physical body and fame should be renounced. We should dismiss from our minds both our parents and ourselves. These are the ways to nourish our parents. I have already elucidated the foundation [of ﬁlial piety]. I will talk to you further about the next issue.

“The two types of fame, being loyal [to one’s country or master] and ﬁlial to one’s parents, are incompatible with each other. [Kao] Shu of Yin opposed the ruler, [Lord Zhuang of Zheng state, and organized a meeting for Lord Zhuang and Lord Zhuang’s mother, who had had a conﬂict with her son,] yet [Kao Shu] was praised as faithful and ﬁlial in a history book.258 Shi Que killed his son [because he had kept company with Zhouxu, who had ascended the throne by killing the heir of Wei state], and displayed integrity as a loyal military man.259 The [Chunqiu] Zuoshizhuan states that when a son [reaches the age when he] can enter government service, his father teaches loyalty to him; once [the son’s] name is recorded on the orders of appointment and he is commissioned, it is considered an offense to serve two masters.260 In this case, those who tie the chin straps for holding the cap at court have to give up the way of ﬁliality. Why? Because if he sees [that his master] is in danger, he will sacriﬁce his life [to save his master] but will pay no attention to his parents.

“All these people’s names are recorded in history books and their services are gloriﬁed as the highest of the teaching [of human ethics]. How could the recorders of history consider their impiety to be a sin? Therefore, as the proverb says, ‘When you look for a loyal subject, you must go to the clan that produces ﬁlial sons.’261 This indicates that even though there is a minor fault on one hand, there is a great favorable aspect on the other hand. “Moreover, Gun was exiled to a border region, but [his son] Yu did not

ask for permission to leave ofﬁce.262 If [Yu] had abandoned Yao’s decree in order to look for his father, he would have placed the highest government affairs [below] his personal sorrow. This is mere minor wholesomeness, neither great nor lofty.

“Taibo of the Zhou dynasty left his relatives in the distance, sought escape in a strange land, cut his hair, and tattooed his body, [complying with the customs there,] and never returned to his homeland in his lifetime or even after his death.263 Nevertheless, he is praised for having the highest virtue in Confucius’s Analects,264 and recorded as a man of great morality in the history books. This is actually because he was indifferent to the honorable throne and maintained the nobility of effacing himself; the merit he made by trying to give the throne [to his brother] three times is lofty, and the fault he com- mitted by damaging his body [through cutting his hair and tattooing his skin]

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is minor. Consequently, he was able to make great changes to the barbarian customs and leave his teaching to history.

“[Bo]yi and [Shu]qi, who starved together on Mount Shouyang, did not consider the fact that [their father,] the lord of Guzhu, would lose his heir, yet Confucius considered them to be benevolent and wise.265 Could there be critics who would say that these two people were immoral? Gao Xing of Liang state damaged her [good] looks and kept her chastity. Princess Bo of Song state followed righteousness and neglected her life. Both their names are ranked among those women who died to defend their chastity, and their virtue is con- sidered a model for all women. If you keep in mind the morality of these two ladies, you will simply escape the charge of being stupid and immoral. When we speak in accordance with these points, we can see that [our judgment] is in order of the importance of the [standard] by which we abide.

“Formerly, the Buddha was a crown prince, but he abandoned his country and studied the way [to enlightenment]. He wanted to keep the original feature completely and enter the Way. [Nevertheless,] he was afraid that he would not be able to escape from being detained [in the palace]. So he cut his beard and hair and changed his court dress of a crown prince [to a common robe]. He showed [his will] to not return [to the secular world] outwardly and tried to govern himself in simplicity internally. Thus, he gave up the palace and stayed in a vast forest. He took off the clothes of imperial emblem in order to put on a [hermit’s] robe of deerskin. Then, he took as his dwelling a place where tree branches hung down and a mat of grass as his cushion. He saved himself the trouble of combing his hair. He avoided the nuisance of taking a bath. He tightened the reins of running after [empty fame, power, and wealth], and closed the gate of carnal desires. His eyes were restrained from [the ﬁve colors such as] black and yellow. His ears were closed to lewd sounds. His mouth forgot [the ﬁve tastes such as] sweet and bitter. His thought was released from joy and sorrow. His mind left behind nuisances.

“He stuck to the One (i.e., truth) and controlled his wandering spirit. He entered the breath-counting meditation (Skt. ānāpāna): (1) counting [from one to ten], (2) following [the breath on inhalation and exhalation], (3) abiding in tranquility (i.e., stopping mental activities), (4) contemplating [the breath],

(5) transferring [the fruition to the wholesome faculty], and (6) becoming pure [and entering the way of insight]. He let his mind play in the three groups

of the four stages of meditation, and he went in and out of the twelve gates of meditation. While he meditated, he folded his hands over the navel, was silent, remained still like a mountain, and was as serene as deep water. His spirit was just like cold ashes and his body was like a withered tree. He sat upright for six years. Then, enlightenment was achieved and he was called the Buddha.

“He is equipped with the three transcendental knowledges and the six supernatural powers. He attained right, perfect enlightenment. His graceful body, which is [one] zhang and six [chi] tall, has a golden glow. Its light sup- presses that of the sun and moon. His voice is in harmony with the winds that blow from the eight directions. His body has the thirty-two [major] and eighty minor marks of physical excellence. He surpasses all beings. His spirit is completely free. Thus, he saunters beyond the three realms of existence, transforms freely in boundless realms, and makes the sky revolve, the earth dance, the mountains ﬂy, and streams meander. He appears and disappears suddenly. His supernatural transformation is unceasing. Wherever his mind is directed, nothing can hinder him. By the great doctrine, he reformed a great number of evil beings to correct their courses. None among the numerous demons and those who had followed minor teachings did not adhere to [the teaching of the Buddha].

“At this point in time, Heaven became pure and Earth was made prosperous. ‘The various things obtain their full development.’266 Living creatures, even wriggling [insects], were immersed and nurtured in mysterious liquid. Withered and dry [trees] were refreshed and bloomed. [The Buddha] returned to his native country in glorious radiance, where he extensively expounded the teach- ing. His father, the king, was moved, became awakened, and ascended to the place of Buddhist practice, too. In this way, [the Buddha] brought honor to his father. What [ordinary] ﬁlial piety can be compared to this?

“Thereupon later generations receive and propagate the teaching. They resolve to revere the lofty path. They all follow their parents; they hold nothing other than what [their parents] esteem. They simply please their par- ents and then take the action [to become a monk]. If they have brothers, their parents’ support is not abolished. Since they are able to cultivate the great work immensely, their gratitude to their parents is not neglected. Moreover, [Buddhist monks] enable the dead to attain happiness in order to be reborn

in Heaven. They do not have to be concerned about offering ancestor worship. Isn’t this the way to the Great Pervader (datong) that concurrently holds wholesomeness?267

“[The Book of Changes says] that the neighbor of the east side butchers an ox [in order to make an offering to a god], while the neighbor of the west side offers [simple] sacriﬁces to a god.268 In [the religious rites of] the Yin dynasty, a variety of millet was considered to be good [for offering], but in [the rites of] the Zhou dynasty, the highest virtue was more esteemed [than offerings]. On this point the period of the rise and fall [of these two dynasties] is apparent.

“There are twelve kinds of scriptures in Buddhism. Four among them exclusively hold that exhorting people to be ﬁlial is important. The attentive intention [of these scriptures] can be said to be perfect. Nevertheless, ordinary people do not know the details of their origin. They have not gotten involved in the place concerned with [the Buddhist teaching], but then make wild talk and reckless speech; they wholeheartedly attack and criticize [Buddhism]. With a view as small as the light of a ﬁreﬂy or candle, they doubt [the teaching] that is as abundant as the light of the sun, moon, and stars. With [knowledge as shallow as] a drop of dew on the tip of a blade of grass, they doubt the quantity of water in a deep ocean. They consider false accusations to be elo- quence and having [unreasonable] determination to be an honor. They can be said to be those who are disrespectful to great men and disgrace the ordi- nances of Heaven.”269

Response to He Chengtian’s Letter by Layman Zong Bing:

The Criticism on the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy (Baiheilun)

He’s Letter to Zong

Recently I received a letter from you, virtuous Gentleman for Palace Attendant, which says that you are diligent in Buddhist rituals for [rebirth in] the Western Paradise. The determination of a person of virtue and talent [like you] is great. How could I regard [a lifetime as long as] ten thousand kalpas to be extravagant? However, I regret that our life span is short and

we have nothing to measure [the life span of the tree called] Mingling.270 Huilin, a monk of Zhicheng Temple, wrote the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy, and he was expelled from the sangha. Fortunately, he had the chance to gain the benevolent help of the brilliant sovereign (i.e., Emperor Wen of the Song dynasty), and he was able to escape from [permanent expul- sion due to one of] the four gravest offenses (Skt. pārājika). Since those who become monks ought not to clarify this issue, why do we, lay Buddhists, keep silent? Could you please try to determine which is better, the clergy or lay Buddhists? I am very ignorant, but I hope you will have good ideas to enlighten me.

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Sincerely yours, He Chengtian

Zong’s Response to He’s Letter

Monk [Hui]lin’s Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy, which you sent to me, is clear in writing and excellent in its points of argument. I am, however, in the dark about the explicit principles and I have not yet understood thoroughly the intention of [his discourse].

[The Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy] already states: “The principles of the unseen world are not based on human affairs alone. The Duke of Zhou and Confucius were doubtful of them, but they did not provide an explanation. Śākyamuni gives an explanation, but it is not true.”

In this case, [which standpoint does Huilin take regarding his advocacy of] the principles of the unseen world beyond human affairs—are they vast and simply empty, or is there still the spiritual intelligence? If they are vast and simply empty, why do all sages, including Zhuangzi and Laozi, say that there are spirits? If there is the spiritual intelligence, on what basis did [Huilin] judge [that the principles of the unseen world are vast and simply empty] is really not like what the Buddha says?

Now we are altogether within the conﬁnes of ordinary people. Even when we infer familiar matters, we still make many errors and mistakes, through which we fall into disaster. Even in crude games like go and encir- clement chess, we pay attention and examine them. Sometimes we think that it is alive but it turns out to be dead; or that it is dead but in fact it is alive. In all of our familiar matters, we have never seen those who always gain and

never lose. On what basis does [Monk Huilin] determine [matters] outside of Heaven and Earth, beyond hundreds of million of kalpas, and of the imper- ceptible [world], and say with certainty that what [the Buddhists] debate is not true? If we infer according to facts and are not allowed to obtain the reality, then we may have doubt.

The physical body of a human being is very coarse while the spirit is quite subtle. If the physical body follows the spirit, how could both equally die? [What happens when the nature] responds to the affections of the mind is [seen in these historical facts]: the city wall collapsed [when the wife of Qi Liang cried], frost fell [when Zou Yan cried out toward Heaven], a white rainbow pierced the sun [when Jing Ke attempted to assassinate the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty], and Venus went into the Pleiades [when Bai Qi sent provisions to King Zhao]. [Furthermore,] when a doctor [practicing the medical science] of admonishing the vapor makes water or ﬁre in the mind, [the patient’s body] always responds to it by becoming cold or warm. Needless to say, if we are exclusively sincere and ingeniously cultivate with the most brilliant wisdom and the highest energetic will, [the Buddha] is moved and responds, and we will receive a body; moreover, we will be reborn in the land of the seven treasures. How could this be not true?

Furthermore, [the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy] states: “Even if we try to reduce the existence of a tree by analyzing it into smaller pieces, nothing harms the luxuriant [growth of the tree that] hangs down its leaves to make shade. Even if we try to separate materials from a room and empty it, nothing damages the majestic beauty of the room. Precious brocade produces splendor by various colors. Good thick soup attains deliciousness by seasonings such as salt and plum (i.e., vinegar).”

By means of this, [Huilin] tries to block the tenet of fundamental non- existence (benwu), but this is not so, either. What is called fundamental non- existence stated in the Buddhist scriptures does not mean that everything, [including phenomena in which] various conditions come together in unity, is empty. Existing things such as [the luxuriant growth of a tree whose] leaves hang down and make shade and [the majestic beauty of a room] can simply exist as they are. Therefore, this is called the truth of existence (youdi)271 [in Buddhism]. Since nature is fundamentally nonexistence, it is called the truth of nonexistence (wudi).272 Although I do not know the Buddhist doctrines

completely, I think that this advocacy is explicit and very stable. Ever-changing existence from ancient times suddenly ends up in emptiness. Just at the time of its peak of efﬂorescence, wouldn’t it be in permanent existence? Since its nature is inevitably empty, it suddenly becomes empty, doesn’t it? This can be also compared to Huizi’s (i.e., Hui Shi’s) expression, “All creatures may be born and may die at the same time. The sun in the meridian may decline at the same time.”273

The fact of death and decline is constantly clear prior to the time before its birth and the meridian. Ignorant people do not see the reason; they merely see its existence. Hence, the Marquis of Qi state who usurped the place of [the legitimate ruler of] the Shuangjiu family wept falsely and longed for their happiness.274 Wise people have the mind that is one with truth. Thus, Yanzi often was nearly empty[-minded]; he appeared to have no [ability] although he had it, and seemed lacking although he had real [capacity]. Every- one under the level of Yanzi appreciates emptiness according to the depth [of their competency]. Additionally, if we look at those in the level further below, even if they are not capable of purifying themselves with the most virtuous words [of the Buddha] in order to exhaust the delusion of attachment and competition, how could there be nothing similar to a little bit [of this appreciation of emptiness]? Why should it be to the contrary, like ﬁre that increases coldness, and further cause [people] to have the desire to feel per- sistent attachment to their preferences?

Moreover, [the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy] says: “To clarify [the tenet of] impermanence increases the feeling to crave for the shelter [of the Buddha]. To speak of suffering and falsehood deepens the people’s anxiety to compete with time.” This statement is a mistake.

Furthermore, [the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy] states: “Arguments such as that of a boat hidden in a ravine [that is taken away by a man of great physical strength]275 or an empty marketplace [where one searches for a horse to buy]276 are already fully heard in the Middle Kingdom, [but] they are not the main theme of the truth. Consequently they were not adopted for the foundation of the teaching. I think that we can analyze the reason for this as easily as pointing to the palm of our hand.”

“The boat that was hidden in a ravine and was secretly carried away” means that the present time does not stay, as it is stated in the Buddhist

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scriptures. If this [truth] can actually be clariﬁed, [we will know that both] things and self are permanently unreal. How could it not be the main theme of the truth? Probably there were not many who understood it. Therefore, it was simply not considered to be the fundamental teaching. The eminent Zhi [Dun] was not yet the same as the Buddha, as it is said. Why does [Huilin] slight these most virtuous words just because they have frequently been spoken in the Middle Kingdom?

In addition, it is said [in the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy]: “If mysterious light is examined, there is no light as small as one cun in diam- eter. If mysterious transformation is analyzed, there is not even a very small amount of reality. If you repeat the word ‘the immeasurable life’ in vain, who has seen a hundred-year-old man? All these kinds of things are entirely said to be inconsistent with actual facts.”

Supernatural light, mysterious transformation, and immeasurable life all derive from sincere faith, which is profound and wonderful. Hence, people [of sincere faith] are simply going to be reborn in the buddha land, and to be closely illuminated by [the Buddha’s] light, and their life will be immeasurable. Those who sink in evil views and who are absurdly disrespectful to mysterious transformation are indeed widely separated in the principles from [those who have sincere faith]. How could they see auspicious omens in the actual phe- nomena [such as supernatural light and mysterious transformation]?

The mind without greed is the foundation of the ten wholesome acts. Thus, we can cut off Hell facing down and be reborn in Heaven looking up. This is also what [the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy] means by saying, “If you obey righteousness and follow the Way, the principles correct your mind.” Since we hold sincere reverence in mind, we worship and repent our sins. Since we are aware of impermanence, we have no stinginess in the mind, abandon wives and children, and make donations. How could there be [the case stated in the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy that] “to ask for one hundred times [more than one gives]”? Moreover, how could it be said without going through the intention to be respectful “to not take advantage of the feeling to not be stingy”? Nirvana is considered as having no happiness to be happy. The dharmakāya is considered as having no body to be the body. If you neither long for [happiness and the dharmakāya] nor determine [to pursue] them, it can be “to increase the thought to indulge in

idleness and give rise to the mind of curiosity.” If you sincerely praise and revere [Buddhism], indulgence in idleness will gradually be removed, and you will obtain the beneﬁt in no [secular] beneﬁt. Would this be concerned with “the custom of competing for a beneﬁt” [as is stated in the Discourse]?

Again, [the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy] says: “The Way lies in freedom from avarice, but [Buddhists,] being avaricious, demand [things]. Even in a very short time if [something] is not beneﬁcial [to them- selves], they do not move.”

How serious a false charge against Buddhists does this bring? In the great purpose of Buddhists, the eight kinds of sufferings derive entirely from craving. They clearly express the twelve causations, and simply have lofty people clarify the spirit in nonarising. Those who hope for this path can be said to have desire for non-desire. With regard to instructing and leading ordinary people, Heaven and Hell have the reality [of reward and retribution, just as] shadow [follows a form] and sound [responds to a voice]. Similarly, because of Yu Gong’s benevolent work, [his descendants] were invited to ofﬁcialdom and given a ﬁef.277 Yan [Yannian] was fond of killing people and consequently he was executed.278 Those who are afraid of being executed and who want to be given a ﬁef will certainly reject killing and cultivate benevolence. Even though those who practice with wonderful determination in order to hope for [rebirth in] Heaven and who attentively [observe] the ﬁve precepts in order to keep away from Hell have desire for necessary desire, they practice the pure path to reduce themselves day by day [until they attain wuwei]. This is also like heading west in order to seek Ying (i.e., the capital of Chu state), [which is in the south]. Why would you worry that they will not arrive there?

Furthermore, [the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy] shows dislike [and says that] “The red and blue colors dazzle the eyes that appreciate colors. Buildings [like a Buddhist temple] cause the mind that likes splendor to boast of them. [Buddhists] build up private power and organize sectarian inﬂuence. They demand the fame of pursuing cultivation with determination and dedication and indulge in the desire of excelling and competing.”

This is assuredly the ugliness of a black locust; or it can be merely said that even if the [tax] law was set at a low [rate], by the misapplication [of the law] a higher tax [than the proper rate] is demanded. How could the

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Buddha then be treated rudely and said to have created the law for greed? Wang Mang (45 B.C.E.–23 C.E.) stole the Six Classics in order to seize the emperor’s throne. The First Emperor of the Qin dynasty built Afang Palace under the pretext of having an audience. Would we put the blame [for these actions instead] on the ethical education given by their predecessor kings? Again, [the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy] states: “We should reject the tracks of the exoteric and esoteric [teachings], but keep their important purposes. It cannot be helped that what indicates one’s next existence was concealed and treated unfairly in Daoism and Buddhism.”

Please tell me what importance [Huilin] wants for the purposes. Certainly he wishes for people to pursue their advantages and reform their minds in order to reach their natures. The sage has no invariable mind of his own; he simply accommodates himself to others’ minds, which he takes to be his own mind. If it is the true nature of living creatures that the body dies and the spirit perishes, in conformity with the nature of mortality [the sage] would have surely just transmitted the teaching in cooperation with the Duke of Zhou and Confucius. Then, if people have received nothing [like the teaching of the immortality of the spirit], the reality of reforming their minds would have been pure.

Why is it necessary [for Buddhists] to deceive [people] by [speaking of] the immortality [of the spirit] and imposing the Buddhist doctrine upon them, [to indulge in] shaving their hair and burning their skin, and to cut off the marriage relationship? The number of [potential] descendants extinguished by them is incalculable. If they harm themselves like this and injure the virtue of fulﬁlling their natures, why wouldn’t Śākyamuni prevent them from doing such things? Fellows who lack faith are not willing to cultivate their advan- tages and reform their minds. Those who have faith are indeed the peers of Jīvaka, Jiantuole, Gītamitra, Zhu Fasheng, Bo Fazu, Dharmarakṣa, Yu Falan, Zhu Faxing, Yu Daosui, Que Gongze, Fotudeng, Śrīmitra, Guo Wenju, Shi Daoan, Zhi Daolin, and Master [Hui]yuan. In spiritual operation, character, and behavior, these people do not seem really to fall behind Bhikṣu [Hui]lin. Why should they have recklessly damaged human principles and taken the tonsure [merely] for the ediﬁcation of the insincere man (i.e., the Buddha)? These are all simply because the reality of spiritual wonder attracts [people’s]

minds from a distance and achieves the enterprise of supernatural power and pure truth.

You sent this discourse [to me] from afar on the pretext of your lack of faith [in Buddhism]. Moreover, people of the world who doubt [Buddhism] all think [the Discourse] to be wonderful, too. Therefore, I have tried to answer by myself in order to offer some help for people [to understand Buddhism]. The issue that people of the world judge whether or not Buddhism is good is entirely a great [question affecting] the destinies of human beings. Why can we take a noncommittal position on it? Therefore, I have exhausted my ignorant thoughts and composed the Discourse to Clarify Buddhism in order to present what I have in my mind. It has just now been completed. I am having copies made, [but] a copy is not yet ready to send with this letter. When I write to you again later, it will be included.

Sincerely, Zong Bing

The Elucidation of the Criticism on [the Discourse on] the Equality of Good (Junshanlun) (i.e., the Discourse

on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy) by He Chengtian

I formerly sent you the Discourse on the Equality of Good together with an inquiry about your opinion. I received your thoughtful response. You think that the purpose of this is [a great question affecting] the destinies of human beings and we should clarify it, but we cannot take a noncommittal position on it. Although I cannot submit to all [of your opinions], I do not hold fast very much to biased views, either. I am, however, seeking a jade that glows in the night in a vast sea and I have simply not yet obtained it.

I think that the Buddhist scriptures are from a school that is a good branch of the nine schools, including Daoism and Mohism. In benevolence and giving alms, [Buddhism] is no different from [the teaching of] the Middle Kingdom. Great people and gentlemen consider benevolence to be their duty. They have nothing to bear in mind. They just harmonize ordinary people’s ears and eyes by images and adornments. If it is still a slight that [Buddhism]

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wastes and harms [our country], the beneﬁt it propagates will probably be apparent. Thus, [Buddhism] exists together with [the nine schools]. People of fantastic taste having appeared, [Buddhism] is then considered to be better than Confucianism, to surpass [the teaching of] Laozi, and to alone be noble. This [indicates] that people have not been able to seek the foundation of the worthy words left [by the Buddha] and yet they are misled by a nonessential theory. To know [the true meaning of] the words, you must wait for one who understands beyond words. If you have faith only because of the reward and retribution of Heaven and Hell and the testimony that causes and conditions are not destroyed, control your feelings, take coarse food, are completely diligent in worship, and hope that you will probably be sheltered under the jeweled canopy [offered by Ratnaśikhi] or that you will ascend to the [lion] seat of Merupradīparāja [Tathāgata], this is just nothing but Chunyu Sheng’s big joke.279

Your discussion says, “[If they are vast and only empty, why do] all the sages, including Zhuangzi and Laozi, say that there are spirits? [If there is the spiritual intelligence,] on what basis did [Huilin] judge [that the principles of the unseen world are vast and simply empty] is really not like what the Buddha says?”

I would like to respond to this. There are rites and music in the world in which we live, while there are spiritual beings in the netherworld. What sage kings consider to be the teaching is not obscure about its existence from the beginning. If there are reward and retribution in the next life, could it be the case that the Duke of Zhou and Confucius just keep silent and do not have even a few words about it? If an infant is approaching a hole in the ground, ordinary people are frightened by this. Wouldn’t sages still be merciful? Moreover, you said, “The physical body of a [human being] is very coarse while his spirit is really subtle. If the physical body follows the spirit,

how could both equally die?”

I answer: The body and the spirit mutually support each other. People of ancient times compared them to a torch. When ﬁrewood burns down, the ﬂame becomes weak. When the ﬁrewood completely burns, the ﬂame dies out. Even though [the spirit] is subtle, how could it alone be transmitted? Again, you said, “[What happens when the nature] responds to the affec- tions of the mind is [seen in these historical facts:] the city wall collapsed

[when the wife of Qi Liang cried], frost fell [when Zou Yan cried out toward Heaven], a white rainbow pierced the sun [when Jing Ke attempted to assas- sinate the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty], and Venus went into the Pleiades [when Bai Qi sent provisions to King Zhao]. [Furthermore,] when a doctor [practicing the medical science] of admonishing the vapor [makes water or ﬁre in the mind, the patient’s body] always responds to this by becoming cold or warm. If we are exclusively sincere and ingeniously cultivate, [the Buddha] is moved and responds, and we will receive the body; moreover, we will be reborn in the land of the seven treasures. How could this be not true?”280 I will respond to this. [The events of] the city wall collapsing, frost falling, [a white rainbow] piercing the sun, and [Venus] going into the Pleiades are not examples that elucidate the next life. They should not be referred to in the present discussion. Furthermore, to see [the medicine of] admonishing [the vapor] with water or ﬁre and to wish to be able to be reborn in the country of the seven treasures can be compared to the case of having observed a blacksmith decorate with gold, [the gold] then wishes to be able to mold and cast itself [into a sword like the Moye].281 You will know at last that this is

impossible.

Again, you say regarding the truth of existence and the truth of non- existence, “[Although I do not know the Buddhist doctrines completely,] I think that this advocacy is explicit and very stable. Ever-changing existence from ancient times suddenly ends up in emptiness. Just at the time of its peak of efﬂorescence, wouldn’t it be in permanent existence? Since its nature is inevitably empty, [it suddenly becomes empty, doesn’t it?]” and “Ignorant people do not know the reason; they merely see its existence.”

I will answer this. If, as you say in the discussion, just at the time of its peak of efﬂorescence it already inevitably has the reality of emptiness, in that case, things are permanently empty, and emptiness and things are the same. If emptiness and existing objects are no different from each other, why are the wise and the ignorant so called in different ways? The Way, so called, in former times has no form in shape and no [worldly] affairs in function. It is peaceful, undisturbed, empty, and perfect. It nourishes wisdom and inspires peace and harmony in one’s mind. Would it alone be afraid of conditions from former lives, [just as Buddhists are,] before removing clinging and attachment? You say, “[Ignorant people] merely see its existence,” but are they superior to

[Buddhists] in this point? To laugh and sneer at the Marquis of Qi state [who was satirized by Chunyu Sheng] is just like the case where those who retreated ﬁfty steps [in a battleﬁeld] laugh at those who retreated a hundred steps.282 Furthermore, you say, “‘The boat that was hidden in a ravine is secretly carried away’ means that the present time does not stay, as is stated in the Buddhist scriptures. If this [truth] can actually be clariﬁed, [we will know

that both] things and self are permanently unreal.”

I will respond to this. Regarding the issue that leaving secretly means not staying [in Buddhism], wouldn’t it mean to enter death from life, or to enter nonexistence from existence? There is a passage [in the Zhuangzi]: “[Mengsun] will be frightened in his body [by death], but there will be nothing to harm his mind. He takes [his body] as a temporary dwelling, so he has no resentment of death.”283 Jia Sheng (i.e., Jia Yi) also said, “We simply transform to the dead. What further worry do we have?”284 This is one who has achieved awakening of the change from life to death. Nevertheless, [Buddhists] act frivolously. While they are alive, they are anxious about the afterlife. They attach their minds to immeasurable life and have ambition to be reborn in Heaven. Our permanent void (changxu) is different [from their emptiness] on this point.

Moreover, you say, “Supernatural light, mysterious transformation, and immeasurable life all derive from sincere faith, which is profound and won- derful. Hence, people [of sincere faith] are simply [going to be reborn in the buddha land, and to be closely] illuminated by [the Buddha’s] light Those

who sink in evil views and who are absurdly disrespectful to mysterious transformation indeed are widely separated in the principles from [those who have sincere faith].”

I will now respond to this. I do not follow [your opinion on this], either, because those who are disrespectful to the wonderful ediﬁcation are seeking the light of [the Buddha], but you simply seek it in sincere faith. When we ponder the teaching of Śākyamuni, [we see that] it delivers people by means of expedients. If there is the corresponding manifestation [of the Buddha] like this, why does he not show its mysterious transformation in order to cause people of evil views to understand? Why doesn’t he value several tens of mil- lions of talks [of the teaching] and yet is sparing of momentary supernatural light? He speaks eloquently with the voice of the phenomenal world in vain,

and he has come to an end without clarifying the true wisdom. [Sentient beings] are exhausted throughout life and do not know in what to take refuge. Isn’t this sad?

Again, you say, “Since we hold sincere reverence in mind, we worship and repent our sins. Since we are aware of impermanence, we have no stingi- ness [in the mind], abandon wives and children, and make donations. How could there be [the case stated in the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy,] ‘to ask for one hundred times [more than one gives]’?”

I will answer this. To be complicated and skillful in order to begin a matter is not as good as to remove greed and cease competitiveness. To observe the precepts in order to cleanse [the mind of] penitence is not as good as annihilating a glorious hope in order to accomplish simplicity, to say nothing of inviting what one prefers and praying for a beneﬁt or forgeting one’s blood relations and desiring fame. If you say there is no [case] of asking for [a hundred times more than one gives], I do not believe it.

Furthermore, you say, “Nirvana is considered as having no happiness to be happy. The dharmakāya is considered as having no body to be the body If you sincerely praise and revere [Buddhism], indulgence in

idleness will gradually be removed, and you will obtain the beneﬁt in no [secular] beneﬁt.”

I am responding to this. Nirvana is considered as leaving behind suf- fering to be happy. The dharmakāya is considered as taking the suffering [of sentient beings] to be the body. That is just the reason people who praise and revere [Buddhism] are unable to cut off [hope]. If it results in no [sec- ular] benefit, what do those who diligently cultivate it attain, and why do you say they attain it in no [secular] benefit? This is the testimony that both the body and the spirit are exhausted. I am afraid that this is not what you should articulate in your discussion.

Moreover, you say, “Those who hope for this path can be said to have desire for non-desire. With regard to instructing and leading ordinary people, [heaven and hell] have the reality of [reward and retribution, just as] a shadow [follows a form] and sound [responds to a voice]. Similarly, because of Yu Gong’s benevolent work, [his descendants] were invited to ofﬁcialdom and given a ﬁef. Yan [Yannian] was fond of killing people and consequently he was executed. Even though those who practice with wonderful determination

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in order to hope for [rebirth in] Heaven and who attentively [observe] the ﬁve precepts in order to keep away from Hell have desire for necessary desire, they practice the pure path to reduce themselves day by day [until they attain wuwei]. This is also like heading west in order to seek Ying, [which is in the south]. Why would you worry that they will not arrive there?”

I would like to answer this. It is very good that you mention that ordinary people are instructed and led and you compare reward and retribution with shadow and sound. What was caused by shadow and sound, however, must be matched to the original form and voice. How can a form of usual [length] produce a shadow of eighty thousand yojanas? To be stagnant, just like to have desire for non-desire, is still usually to stagnate in the object of desire. The ears and eyes preside over different [senses]. Engineering and art craft are dif- ferent kinds of work. Even in such minor ﬁelds, thought and faith are not on the same level with each other. Thus, even if the [sounds of] metal and stone are able to harmonize,285 Mount Tai would not be able to reveal its height. Even if wild geese and swans get together, the deep autumn is not able to transmit its intention. [This is because they originally have nothing to do with each other.] Accordingly, you want to achieve non-desire by means of having desire, and you hope to undergo reducing day by day [to reach wuwei]. Even though you say to head west [in order to seek Ying, which is in the south], you have traveled this far from Ying. What can you do about it?

Furthermore, you say, “If it is the true nature of living creatures that the body dies and the spirit perishes, [in conformity with the nature of mortality the sage] would have surely just transmitted the teaching in cooperation with the Duke of Zhou and Confucius Why is it necessary [for Buddhists] to

deceive [people] by [speaking of] the immortality [of the spirit] and imposing the Buddhist doctrine upon them, [to indulge in] shaving their hair and burning their skin, and to cut off the marriage relationship? If they harm themselves like this and injure the virtue of fulﬁlling their natures ”

I am responding to this. Chinese people and non-Chinese people naturally have differences. What are [these differences]? Chinese people receive the vapor that is pure and peaceful, and they have benevolence and righteousness in their minds. Therefore, the Duke of Zhou and Confucius elucidate the nature [of the Chinese] and the teaching in which they learn [their natures]. People of foreign countries receive a nature that is tough and strong, and

they are greedy, angry, and perverse. Therefore, Śākyamuni was strict with the rules of the ﬁve precepts. In the discussion you sent to me, this is called “the sage has no invariable mind of his own; he simply accommodates himself to other people’s natures.”286 In the admonition to chastise cruelty, there is nothing more painful than Hell. In the exhortation to lead to good, there is nothing better than Heaven. It is not the meaning of the golden mean (zhong- yong) to exhaust the root of heartlessly causing injury. The Duke of Zhou and Confucius do not do so. They follow its natural temperament and leave behind its very [evil elements].

Misconduct in sexual behavior and stealing are set forth in the ﬁve penal- ties. The crime related to wine is clariﬁed in the section called the Announce- ment about Drunkenness (Jiugao), in the history of the Zhou dynasty (a chap- ter of the Book of History).287 “[The ruler of a state,] in the spring hunting, will not surround a marshy thicket” [in order not to harm young animals].288 When we see living creatures, we cannot bear their death. [We established] the laws for the ﬁve offenses in hunting and chasing game from only three directions [so that the animals have a chance to escape].289 We ﬁsh without a net. Hence, benevolence is extensively diffused, and beneﬁts reach even to pigs and ﬁsh.

For a gathering on a happy occasion, there is always [meat] on a cutting board. Even old people are able to have meat [because there is enough]. We till land in spring and gather the harvest in fall. Sericulture and weaving are done in a timely manner. The three numinous beings have come,290 and a hundred deities are all worshiped. When we compare these with what they (i.e., Buddhists) do, wouldn’t these be [considered] great?

Furthermore, we make clear the praise of offering a libation in worship, while we are strict in the punishment about dubious laws. To give an account of the questions asked by the chief magistrate of Pu (i.e., Zilu) is the foundation to exhort the teaching.291 To expound [Confucius’s] answer, “the fume rising as the vapor,”292 clariﬁes the testimony of our next life. Those who wear a black [monk’s] robe and stare in anger, and who are emulous of me in this discussion, have a wrong frame of mind.

In addition, you state in your discussion, “people like Jīvaka, [Jian]tuo[le], and Śrīmitra . . . do not fall behind Bhikṣu [Hui]lin in spiritual operation, character, and behavior.” You have already clearly mentioned that

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we, ordinary people, are not able to infer familiar matters. On what basis do you now conclude the superiority or inferiority of people who lived a hundred years ago or who live several thousand li away? One such as Bhikṣu [Hui]lin is a monk in appearance, but has [the mind of] disinterestedness like Heaven. He seems to discern truth or falsehood profoundly. Particularly, he is not willing to fear the scriptures, to protect his master, and to garnish illusory remarks. For this reason, I respect him. It is said in Sun [Chuo] Xinggong’s Discourse [on the Way and the Wise] that Dharmarakṣa is erudite and intel- ligent and Yu Falan is sincere and knowledgeable. With whom of the Middle Kingdom do you want to compare these two people?

Moreover, Ying, the king of Chu, built a Buddhist temple. Ze Rong offered relief to starving travelers. How could they have pure character and behavior? Formerly when I was in the eastern capital city (i.e., Jiankang), Śramaṇa Daohan visited me from Wuzhong and exhorted [Buddhism to] me. He was very earnest and sincere. Because of this, he stayed for three nights. He talked for my sake about the [causes and] conditions of reﬁning the body and purifying the spirit, and the testimony of the arising and extinguishing of sin and merit. All of this makes sense. I folded my hands before my breast and listened to his outspoken remarks without sleeping from night till morning. I withdrew and thought. The reason a person rises in the world, becomes famous, has faith, and practices the Way really relies on the teaching of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius. Zilu says, “When I hear [well-intentioned advice], if I cannot carry it out in practice, I am concerned only that there is [something else] I have yet to hear.”293 I have to do many things. Why should I suddenly abandon this and attend to that (i.e., Buddhism)? In addition, I sought [the reason why] the written form [for the three-year mourning], which is well matched to human feelings, had been established, and I came to know that the next life is above my means. Having investigated thoroughly the endless grief [about death] throughout our lifetime, I have realized that

it is difﬁcult to receive this body again.

Sages are my teachers. How could the Duke of Zhou and Confucius deceive me? As I was overcome by your generosity, I have fully presented the ins and outs [of my opinions]. Hoping that the aged and respected person of great intelligence instructs others without being wearied, I have simply not yet kept silent here. You said formerly you had already sent the Discourse

to Clarify Buddhism. I am looking forward to receiving it. I hope you will be clear in your thinking.

Sincerely,

He Chengtian

Response to He of Hengyang, the Criticism on the Elucidation of the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy by Zong Bing

I have respectfully read the discussion you sent to me. You repress the ediﬁ- cation of Buddhism and set forth your aspiration in the teaching of Confu- cianism. [In your discussion,] signiﬁcant matters are collected and expressed, and your talent in literature and argument examines and clariﬁes [these issues]. It may very much be a key writing that enlivens people of the world’s feelings, and it is really an instructive discussion of the central region (i.e., China). Having observed your intention, I see that you do not mean that the one who established Buddhism is not a sage, but [you say that] the teaching is an expedient [way], without truth. I, [however,] have not completely appre- ciated on what basis you base your belief that [Buddhism] has no truth. Now, when we determine and see a long-range plan of things together, the gains and losses are about on par. The marvelous ediﬁcation [of Buddhism] arose outside the acme of profundity and its cause is bound together with the unseen world. Couldn’t it be that we have had holy people who talk to each other [as easily as] pointing at their palms? You vainly believe in the incomplete historical records [compiled] after the incident of burning books [carried out by the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty], and then, with [these incomplete records,] you want to reject and stop the supernatural ediﬁcation [of

Buddhism]. It makes my blood run cold.

Sages “make an exhaustive discrimination of what is right, and effect the complete development of every nature, till they arrive at what is appointed for it [by Heaven].”294 If there are those who do not attain [the appropriate] points, [sages feel] as if they have cast those people into a moat. Now [Buddhists] delude people [by the tenet of] the immortality of the spirit, and deceive them [by the tenet of] the attainment of buddhahood. They indulge in shaving the head, wearing red robes, and burning their bodies and ﬁngers.

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In addition, they do not employ their natural gifts in order to support their parents and the way of husband and wife or father and son. From the time Buddhism was introduced to the thirty-six states west of the Sha River (near Turfan) prior to the time of its introduction to China, those who cut off [famil- ial] relations [of husband and wife or father and son] number in the hundred millions or hundred billions. It is quite possible that there are sages and wise people among the eastern and western barbarians. If we think of those [who were born in barbarian tribes] and who came to [China], such as You Yu and Jin Ridi, there were more people who were about to be born and yet who could not [be born]. If Buddhism has no truth, wouldn’t the cruelty of casting people into a moat, [just as Bai Qi and Xiang Wu did,] be unspeakable?

Regarding the expedient [stated] in the Buddhist scriptures, what kind of way do you think it is in accord with? Do you say you want it in order to exceed the proper limits in righting a wrong, or in order to govern foreign people whose natures are “tough and strong” and who are “angry and per- verse”? The sort of people who are angry and perverse will still not believe and will not be frightened if you bind them with the three-article [provisional] law [promulgated by Emperor Gaozu of the Han dynasty], or punish soon after rewarding. Would it be possible to rule over them by means of the tenets “[emptiness is] nothing other than form,” fundamental nonexistence, nirvana, the dharmakāya, the twelve causations (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda), and kalpas as numerous as the minutest particles of dust?

Those who receive this instruction are what you call people who “receive the vapor that is pure and peaceful, and who have benevolence and right- eousness in their minds.” Since we avail ourselves of [the vapor that is] pure and peaceful in order to explicate the sublime words, and encourage the right- eous nature in order to learn the subtle practice, we are consequently able to purify our illumination and contemplate the Dharma. When [we realize that] the Dharma and illumination are all empty, we reach the [Buddhist] Way (i.e., awakening). These are entirely stated in the Buddhist scriptures, and are what you believe. As to people in modern times who are superhuman and have excellent virtue, such as the eight wise men for whom Sun [Chuo] Xinggong made eulogies and the ﬁve thinkers praised by Zhi Daolin, they are all considered to be lofty by their contemporaries. Therefore, the two

(i.e., Sun Chuo and Zhi Daolin) could make a composition about them. How can this be called wild talk?

Sun [Chuo] praises Dharmarakṣa as erudite and intelligent, and Yu Falan as sincere and knowledgeable. I do not have relationships with the sophis- ticated and the simpleminded. [Therefore] I have no idea with whom I should compare these bhikṣus. [Yu] Falan’s disciple, [Yu] Daosui, however, has not yet caught up to his master. When Sun [Chuo] comments on him, [Sun said,] “[Intelligent people] equate him with noble people.”295 I would say that I think [one of these noble people] is Yu Wenbing. The two eminent monks, Dharmarakṣa and [Yu] Falan, must have been even more outstanding than this person. I do not know of Bhikṣu Huilin at all. Moreover, I have no idea about public opinion. If you say that [Bhikṣu Huilin] is as good as [Yu] Wen- bing, he may not naturally fall behind [Yu] Daosui, but he must still be below Dharmarakṣa and [Yu Fa]lan. The comment I made previously is not an impropriety of speech. If [Huilin] has the appearance of a Buddhist monk who is sincere and capable, [the mind of] disinterestedness like Heaven, and profound knowledge [to discern] truth and falsehood, why is it not certain that Śakra-devendra will transform and willfully urge him to attain buddha- hood? The Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy cannot yet be consid- ered upright.

In the discussion I received, you express a doubt: “If there really are reward and retribution in the next life, why did the Duke of Zhou and Confucius keep silent, without even a few words about it?” This is indeed a common question, based on prejudice. This is truly something we should clarify together.

The sacred spirit originates profoundly. As it is moved, then it responds. It is not something that leads people prior to a necessity. During the declining years of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the people fell into great misery, and regicide was rampant. The reason the masses moved the sages to action is [because the world was in] disorder. Consequently, the responses found in the Six Classics are only about governing [the state]. Therefore, there is no word of the Buddha.

Liu Xiang says that the nine provinces mentioned in the Yugong (i.e., the earliest known book of the geography of China) probably follow what is recorded in the Book of Mountains and Seas, which states: “The people

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of India (Shendu) are very dear to others and love each other.”296 Guo Pu says that India (Tianzhu) is the place where Buddhism originated. Even though this is a barbarian region [from the Chinese point of view], countless domains spread out like stars in the sky. Somewhat to our surprise, we do not know which domain [is the center of] glory. Since the people extend their feelings of dearness and love, the ediﬁcation of Buddhism [was founded] responding to this. The coarse people of that region (i.e., India) are petty and numerous. Some of them are confused and ferocious and the relations between sovereign and subject are not controlled properly.

The exquisite people of this region (i.e., China) used to cherish the Way at all times, and Buddhist services existed, too. Even though they might have received the Dharma-nature [as a natural endowment] near the Yi and Luo Rivers, or they might have experienced the ultimate reality near the Zhu and Si Rivers, Shi Yi, [the historiographer of the Zhou dynasty,] carelessly did not record [these events] because they had nothing to do with the way of governance, and Bu Shang (i.e., Zixia) did not compile them because they go against the Confucian way. Even if there were some [Buddhist documents] in the non-Buddhist canon hidden in the double wall [of Confucius’s house], they would have also been burned by the king of Qin (i.e., the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty). It is not yet necessarily known whether or not the Duke of Zhou and Confucius kept silent about [reward and retribution in the next life]. There is no case where the way of the profound absolute vacancy and issues of the mysterious immortals have not been mentioned in worldly books. The words of Confucius regarding the Way are found in chapters of Zhuangzi’s book, [the Zhuangzi,] of the remote age. [The record of] the feast [of the Queen Mother of West] at Yaochi was discovered from a high grave of Ji county (in present-day Henan province). In that case, through the Five Classics that are concerned with state administration, we cannot yet ﬁll in the wonderful ediﬁcation beyond this world [due to the lack of records]. You also say in your criticism, “Things are permanently empty, and emptiness and things are the same. If emptiness and existing objects are no different from each other, why are the wise and the ignorant so called in dif- ferent ways?” What Buddhist scriptures state is that form is empty; there is nothing other than emptiness. It is not said that there is no existence. There is existence but it is simply empty. There is existence, so there are two different

appellations: the wise and the ignorant. It is empty, so all differences are alto- gether empty. Form is naturally not form. Even though form is empty, con- ditions join together and become an existence. From the beginning, existence is naturally not existence. All [phenomena] are just like those things that are produced by illusion, or revealed in a dream. They exist, but they do not. The future has not yet come, the past has already gone, and the present does not stay. There is no ﬁxed existence, either. Generally these several principles are the laws all profound sages attained ultimately. It is really difﬁcult to make them clear by indicating them with language. When I observe things from this point of view, I truly realize it is evident. Therefore, I feel free from worries and petty thoughts, and so I increase purity [of mind] by washing away [deﬁlements]. How can you be content with it?

Furthermore, you say, “The body and the spirit mutually support each other. People of ancient times compared them to a torch. When ﬁrewood burns down, the ﬂame becomes weak. When the ﬁrewood is completely burned, the ﬂame dies out. Even though [the spirit] is subtle, how could it alone be transmitted?” Well, ﬁre is produced from ﬁrewood, [but] the spirit is not made from the body. Of thoughts, there are both exquisite and coarse ones. They are moved and obtain the bodies that follow them. When the [exquisite] spirit reaches its acme, it transcends the body and becomes inde- pendent of it. There is no body, but the spirit exists. This is called the eternality of the dharmakāya. Hence, we begin as an ordinary person, and will become a tathāgata at last. Even though our life is coarse until now, if we have a view that turns upward for countless kalpas without exhaustion, we will certainly learn [Buddhism] in order to ascend to the pure world. [It is said in the Book of Odes that] “A mulberry insect has a child, which a wasp carries on its back [as its adopted child].”297 If we compare [this unusual matter] to those in the spiritual world, where we “will be sheltered under the jeweled canopy [offered by Ratnaśikhi], or we will ascend to the [lion] seat of Merupradīparāja [Tathā- gata],” why would we have no hope?

In addition, you have doubt and say, “[The teaching of] Śākyamuni deliv- ers people by means of expedients,” “Why doesn’t he value the several tens of millions of talks [of the teaching] and yet is sparing of momentary super- natural light?” and “[Why] does he not show its mysterious transformation in order to cause people of evil views to understand?”

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Although it is called “expedient” as a term, [the degree of manifestation] of people’s receptivity and the Buddha’s response, either dim or apparent, complies with evil acts and meritorious deeds variously. In former times the Buddha expounded [the Dharma] and emitted light for sentient beings, [because] they all usually accumulated wonderful sincerity. Consequently they could make a spiritual journey [to the world of buddhas]. In addition, at that time the Buddha’s words were already evidently expedient. Therefore, even negligent people could hear them. The light is emitted and it illuminates us through contemplation. People of wrong views do not have the conditions to look at [the light] even if it envelops them. Now if we see Buddhist scrip- tures and yet do not repent of our negligence, even if we are enveloped [by the light] in advance, how beneﬁcial would it be? People such as wise men of sincere faith are able to clearly perceive supernatural illumination by them- selves. On what basis do you know this and always say that [supernatural light] is simply wild talk? [It is stated in the Chunqiu Zuoshizhuan that] “The regular stars are not visible, yet it is a bright night.”298 When I examine what year and month [this happened], I see it corresponds to the night when the Buddha was born and emitted a light. Guan Youan set sail on the sea on a windy night. All his companions sank [with the boat], but Youan saw a light in the darkness. Heading toward the light, he [and his family] reached an island, and only he and his entire family were saved.299

The Buddha has no discrimination. He responds only to good. There are too many cases to mention in which the Buddha’s responses were given to people like Wang Xiang or Guo Ju.300

These are also auspicious omens of seeing the light. Couldn’t there be the Buddha even if you have not seen [the Buddha’s response]?

In addition, you explain the prosperity [of the teaching] of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, which you compare to and consider to be greater than [the teaching of] the Buddha. The regime of this country is, however, merely the prosperity of sovereigns. But the exquisite spirit still never perishes and trans- migrates in the unseen world. Our life is as short as a breath, in which the eight kinds of suffering are abundant. Even though we strive for the Confucian teaching in order to rectify ourselves momentarily, we will soon die. In the disaster of the three superintendents, the uncle and nephew distrusted each other, and the brothers killed each other.301 Even though among the seventy-two of disciples

[of Confucius] some “ascended to the hall and some passed into the inner apart- ments” (i.e., attained mastery),302 those who lived until the age of ﬁfty were few. Yan [Hui] died young, Ran [Boniu] was afﬂicted with disease, [Zhong] You (i.e., Zilu) was cut apart [as a punishment], [Zai] Yu was executed together with his relatives, and Si (i.e., Zigong) lost his beard. Was not the suffering [of Confucius] in the Kuang and Chen regions unspeakable?303 He spread the teach- ing abroad while suffering hunger, and wandered from state to state. How many people could he save after all? When we observe this alongside the Buddhist teaching, we see only his lament there. Isn’t this the result of the congregation of causation from the previous existences of people of the world?

Moreover, the truth spread by [Confucius] has not yet been deep and great at this point. If we outwardly act in accordance with [Chinese] rites and music, and cultivate inwardly with [the teaching of] nonarising (i.e., Buddhism), purify the spirit in the state of nirvana, and consider thousands of millions of kalpas to be bygone years [of our lifetime], wouldn’t it be really great? Events are not transmitted [accurately] to later generations and we have not been able to know the principles [sufﬁciently]. I hope you will not say that based on crude evidence the Duke of Zhou and Confucius were not so. All people say that the Buddha makes wild talk, but the Book of Mountains and Seas says that those who died and who were reborn are very numerous.304 In the immortal realm such as Mount Kunlun, the ﬁeld of Guangdu [where Houji was buried], and the mound of Xuanyuan, the weather is neither cold nor hot, phoenix’s eggs are eaten, sweet dew is drunk, the inhabitants are sheltered by jade trees, they sip the water of the Zhu fountain, and they do not die even though they reach a thousand years of age. Regarding such stories as [the spirit of Gun, Emperor Yu’s father,] being transformed into a yellow bear and entering an abyss under Mount Yu,305 [the spirit of] Shen Sheng, [the crown prince of Jin state, talking with Hu Tu, his former attendant,]306 and Boyou [of Zheng state becoming a ghost and avenging himself on the people of the state],307 not a few [of these stories] are found in what [Zuo] Qiuming related.308 All of these can be inferred from the crude [traces] of this [country] (China) in order to believe the exquisite [talk] of that [country] (India).

I was told that in former days you had [a chance to hear] the [Buddhist]

Way. I can see that one who hears the Buddhist Dharma and straightens him- self is indeed [equal to] a daring soldier of Pucheng (in present-day Shanxi

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province).309 Is it because what you have heard is not yet lofty? If what you heard is lofty, it is still possible [for you] to change your mind, just as a leopard changes [its spots]. Human beings are creatures of exquisite spirit. If we, however, take refuge in the culmination of numinous beings (i.e., the Buddhist Way) and roughly receive the teaching and precepts, it is enough to move even an insigniﬁcant amount of [the Buddha’s saving power]. If we move it, we will rise higher. Wouldn’t it be an eternal good plan to leave behind delusions?

In former days, the fact that the spirit is immortal was just as the Buddha says, but the spirit casts away, the mind is wounded, and we go against the gov- ernment of the unseen world by ourselves. How could we know that suffering and difﬁculties in this existence would not be due to [sins we committed in] previous existences? If we imprudently despise the teaching of the respectful spirit with our own view, I am afraid that we may pass on this difﬁculty to [our next existence]. A Buddhist scripture states: “Once when Śākyamuni was a bhikṣu of the Hinayana, he slandered the Mahayana. Because of this, even he fully underwent hardships, passing through hells for a very long time.” [Even Śākyamuni fell into Hell,] to say nothing of those who have no faith at all. More- over, on what basis can we determine that this Buddhist scripture must be false? The words used in your previous letter rebuking me are merely in accor- dance with Bhikṣu [Hui]lin’s chapters and sentences. My intention has already been roughly told. I could not reply to each [of your questions], but everything has already been thoroughly covered in my composition, the Discourse to Clarify Buddhism. Now I will attach it [to this letter] and send it to you. I ask you to please do your best, make a thorough investigation properly, and tell me completely whether I am right or not. I am old and about to die. I would like only to continue this until my last day. When you have received

this letter, please write your frank response to me.

Sincerely, Zong Bing

He’s Second Response to Zong

I read your second letter together with your great discourse. The tactical deployment you took up [for the discourse] is just like what Xiang Ji (i.e.,

Yu) [of Chu state] did [for his campaigns]. You have already made [his rival,] Emperor Gaozu, [the founder of the Han dynasty,] look humble, not to speak of a less capable person [like me]. The testimonies and examples [you showed] are solid and clear. The language and expressions [you used] are erudite and rich. You really wish to spread your beneﬁt and kindness and your instruction is extended to even ordinary people. I deeply acknowledge that this is due to a gentleman’s consideration. [Nevertheless,] you just intend to make the teaching mysterious by means of [abstract discourse, just like] shadow and sound. Therefore, I had better keep silent and help fulﬁll your cherished hopes. I, however, always think that foreign matters may not be what the Chinese are engaged in. Thus, I simply made the previous statement. If China and foreign countries should now surely be the same, I am simpleminded. I venture to apologize for my slowness. In spite of it, I still have a thought. Those who are versed in the nature of Heaven and Earth are not misled by unrealistic, peculiar matters. Those who discern the way to prosperity or decline do not employ their minds for unreasonable, illogical matters. Oth- erwise, if your discussion is not on the basis of an expedient, and the general instruction is entirely expressed from your feeling, wouldn’t this be the igno- rance of a well-read, experienced person? I have not yet had a chance to meet and talk with you. I send my letter in lieu of a meeting with you.

Yours truly,

He Cheng[tian]

End of Fascicle Three of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Four

The Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life (Daxinglun)

by He Chengtian

The two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth) were already positioned, and a sovereign joined them. In the universe, there is nothing nobler than [these three]. [The Way of] Heaven has two divisions: yin and yang; Earth has two functions: toughness and gentleness; and human beings have two foundations: benevolence and righteousness. People are born only when there is Heaven and Earth, while Heaven and Earth become supernatural only when there are people. The three powers (sancai) are a single and interdependent unit. Con- sequently, the one who can receive the vapor that is pure and peaceful, whose spiritual intelligence is particularly prominent, whose feeling is in overall charge of all ages, whose wisdom encompasses all things, whose ingenious thought traces to the very source of the deep and dark world, whose production is equal to that of Nature, and who results in benevolence and capability, is a sovereign. When he nurtures the common people and helps Heaven in prop- agating virtue, the sun and moon are clear and bright; the four kinds of super- natural animals (i.e., kylin, Chinese phoenix, turtle, and dragon) appear; the auspicious wind has the same tune; the four seasons are harmonious; various types of foods, including the nine kinds of grains, animals that feed on grass or grain (i.e., cattle, sheep, and dogs), products of the soil, aquatic products, and foods of various ﬂavors such as sour or salty are served at the table; and a house, a boat, a vehicle, things decorated with gold, pottery, and dark yellow fabrics made of silk or linen are supplied for equipment, implements, or clothes. The culture follows rules of decorum and entertainment follows the eight kinds of musical sounds [produced from the calabash and musical instruments made of earthenware, stretched hides, wood, stone, metal, silk strings, and bamboo]. All things are protected, and living creatures reproduce. There is nothing that is not provided.

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If people are careful in spending, it is easy to be sufﬁcient. If it is easy to be sufﬁcient, there will be a surplus of power. If there is a surplus of power, the people’s will and feeling will become extravagant. Then, the mind delighted with governance will arise. If things are concise, nothing will be disturbed. If nothing is disturbed, the spiritual intelligence will be sharp. If the spiritual intelligence is sharp, one will make plans carefully. Then, the business to save and govern [the people] is accomplished. Therefore, Heaven and Earth instruct the people with [the virtues of] thrift and simplicity. [The two diagrams] qian and kun, [the opening sections of the Book of Changes,] teach the people with [the way of] ease and concision. This is why instructions are attentive and generous like this. How can [human beings] be sentient beings on the same level with birds, ﬁsh, snakes, and insects?

Sentient beings have appropriate seasons in which to be caught and [per- tinent means] of employment. To start a ﬁre [in a ﬁeld for a winter hunt], we wait for a gale to blow. For hunting and ﬁshing, we inquire into [the activities of] the wolf and otter.310 This is because we follow the seasons of nature. A real man neither hunts a fawn nor takes eggs. The common people do not use a ﬁne-meshed net [for ﬁshing]. The song “Rushes” (Xingwei) was composed.311 We bestow good inﬂuence even upon the ﬁsh. This is because we love what we human beings use. [Gentlemen] stay away from the kitchen. We are cautious not to commit the ﬁve offenses in hunting.312 Emperor [Tang] of the Yin dynasty took a new prayer.313 When Confucius ﬁshed, he did not use a net. This is because we deﬁne the way of benevolence.

All living things must die. The physical body is destroyed and the spirit scatters, just as [all things] become luxuriant in spring and decay in autumn, and the four seasons change, one after another. How could there be further [rebirths] to receive another body? The Book of Odes states that “Happy and easygoing gentlemen seek a blessing by no crooked ways.”314 This means that the propagation of the Way lies in oneself. [The Book of Odes also says:] “The three sovereigns (i.e., Dawang, Wang Ji, and Wen Wang) reside in Heaven.”315 This denotes that the exquisite spirits ascended far to [Heaven]. Nevertheless, one harbors sensual desires in the mind while outwardly fearful of the expedient teaching (i.e., Buddhism), or one deeply considers his present life while giving donations in hopes of a reward in the next life. Our prede- cessor Confucian masters in former times said nothing about these issues. I

am originally deﬁcient in intelligence and vigor, and I do not know how to make it my business to practice [this teaching].

The Expatiation of the Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life of He of Hengyang

by Yan Yanzhi (384–456)

I formerly obtained your discourse, in which with deep views and extensive thought you take the human way to be lofty and degrade other living creatures. The content is clear and subtle, and the subject does not lose signiﬁcance. This is really helpful for the [Confucian] teaching, and good enough to wipe out the heretical school. There is no need to speak of those who seek [the Confucian teaching] equally. How could they forget what they rely upon? I am merely concerned that if [music played only with] Chinese zithers is monotonous, it will lose the clear harmony. Thereupon, I will brieﬂy and broadly write several articles, and take all your responses, [which I expect to] receive later.

You say that he who is in one unit together with the two polarities and who becomes the three powers with them must be a name of the virtuous one, but this is not a category of people in general. Generally, however, various species [of living creatures] are equally called sentient beings; this is the name for those who bear consciousness. How could it be the title for sages and wise people? In that case, to comment on the three powers has nothing to do with the masses. How does calling them sentient beings abuse sages and wise people? Even though I have the feeling to depend upon [the importance of] order, I am not worried that [calling them sentient beings] causes disorder. If both registers (i.e., sages and ordinary people) can be taught and all can be lifted up, understand the principles thoroughly, make a restriction to leave language behind, adopt this, and share reality, then it is possible [to be harmonious], just as when the notes of beilü and the note gong naturally harmonize, or just as two separated pieces of a tally join together.316 Why do you discontentedly stick to lü [of the yin notes] and slander lü [of the yang notes]?317

Moreover, [it is said in the Book of Changes that] “the great virtue [of Heaven and Earth] is called life.”318 [In life,] there is a common feature of all things, which is the same as what differentiates all things. How could it be distinguished to attain life? The life that is not different for each living

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creature should be [known as] sentient beings. In the ranks of sentient beings, however, there are a great many differences between the ignorant and the wise. People employ other living creatures in order to nourish themselves, and other living creatures are put to work in order to support people. Even though at the beginning [people] may follow [the law of Heaven], they come to kill [other living creatures] at last. Various causes sprout. Sensual desires are not repressed. Life is harmed in increasing and miserable ways. The law of Heaven will be pent up and destroyed.

Emperors and sages lament this situation, but they cannot suddenly take away [the habits that] remain entrenched [in the world]. Therefore, they set up the teaching to plan seasonal hunting and the scriptures to prudently follow the seasons. It is simply to nourish those who bear consciousness by opening up [the way of] benevolence and to gradually return to the cessation of extremities. Those who take the Way to be the mind will probably stop [evils] before they come to [the worst] like this.

Furthermore, you understand that in the great law of Nature the life and death [of all creatures] are equal in rising and falling. Various existing things are really suitable for this. In the truth of spirits, however, the issue of remaining in existence or not might differ from the issue of the withering of grass or the fading away of [living creatures]. If [the spirit] is the same as trees and plants, then it will disappear like smoke. Moreover, you say that the three sovereigns ascended far and their exquisite spirits reside in Heaven. If the exquisite spirits indeed exist, and they are surely different from trees and plants, then there is nothing to support your opinion regarding the doctrine of receiving a body. Is it that because the three sovereigns were purely good, they were rewarded and reborn in Heaven? You intended to denounce [the doctrine of] future life, but on the contrary you established [the concept of] ascending far [to Heaven]. Since you undertook to denounce [the doctrine of the future life] and yet established [the concept of ascending far to Heaven], I understand without doubt that this is not what is removed by the power. If there is merely the exquisite spirit, which does not have any form and appear- ance, I have no idea what it relies upon to establish itself in Heaven. I am too cowardly to make a conclusion. Therefore, I strive for and depend on your opinion. So, [my thoughts go] back and forth, but I have not yet attained contentment.

Generally, within [the realm of] fate there is nothing that does not move [others] without response. Actions and the way of reward and retribution inevitably tally with each other. Even if it is said that they inevitably tally with each other, why do you suspect we have hope [for a reward]? Conse- quently, those who forget kindness have no demand [for a reward] and those who keep merit have hope [for a reward]. Cherishing merit while hoping [for a reward] is not yet wholesomeness. When kindness is removed, this will be the highest level [of virtue]. There are wise people and those who are not so wise among human beings, and then there are public and private in our thoughts. In this physical world it cannot be said that since some people expect rewards, those who establish their virtues all wish for [a reward]. Moreover, according to the common talk of those who reign over the world, people who value giving donations have no recollection [of their act of giving], and when government ofﬁcials conduct righteousness, they still show kindness to others without thinking [that what they are doing is whole- some], not to speak of those who listen to the essentials of the [Buddhist] Way. Wouldn’t it be possible for them to be disinterested? Would they never fail to have sensual desires when they take actions? Wouldn’t they be afraid of the expedient teaching at every chance? You have never been able to pro- mote [Buddhism], and you always put it down. Even though you deeply reproach, correct, and upbraid [Buddhists], please cease your arrogant speech and do not attack them. You usually ﬁrmly entrench yourself in a castle, and it is difﬁcult to send a letter [to convince you]. Furthermore, I have been cooped up with worries and distresses in my house, and I had no chance to entrust my feelings and reasoning to you. Recently I received a graceful and great letter from you. I wanted to express my intention and judge your former explanation. I worry that it may not be worthy.

Sincerely yours, Yan Yanzhi

Response to Yan of Yongjia

I respectfully read your esteemed letter and examined repeatedly your deep intention. You draw a line between each of the three powers. Your inference of testimonies is reﬁned and pure. You declare your aspiration for the [Buddhist] Way and praise and admire Buddhists. You take account of all

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through this world (ming) and the other world ( you). You act in sincerity and reach out to [all] things. When you practice it in yourself, it is excellent. When you expound it in the teaching, it is magnanimous. It is faultless. [Nevertheless,] when I take a step backward and seek what your good instruc- tion came from, [I feel as if] you want me to inspect the Big Dipper and the North Pole, but you get even more lost and your thoughts may become obscure. You have not yet understood completely. Therefore, I will relate my original intention once again.

You said, “[You say that] he [who is in one unit together with the two polarities and] who becomes the three powers with them must be a name of the virtuous one. Why are sages and wise people also so?” [I am afraid that you misunderstand my words.]

The way of human beings was established incorporating various benev- olences and righteousness. Natural compassion is a manifestation of the vir- tuous. To feel ashamed for evils is the beginning of a chivalrous mind. [Never- theless,] the trees of Mount Niu were cut with scythes and axes [and lost their beautiful] nature.319 A peaceful and quiet state of mind is put into disorder by the thought of interests. We should really nourish the initial stage [of a wholesome heart] and help its growth. Then, can there be no mistake [if it is said that a wholesome heart] exists but it is not counted?

In addition, you say, “To comment on the three powers has nothing to do with the masses. Why does calling them sentient beings abuse sages and wise people?” I have already heard your instruction, but I have still not under- stood on what basis the two roads [of sages and ordinary people] are judged [separately]. Would Yi [Yin] and Yan [Hui] belong to the lower stratum [of sentient beings]? Would [Sun] Qiao (i.e., Zichang of Zheng state) and Ji[zha of Wu state] belong to the upper stratum? If we people hope for [sagehood] tirelessly, in order to dispel what we have not yet understood, we certainly raise both registers [of sages and ordinary people]. If [the notes of beilü and] gong [naturally] harmonize and two separated pieces of a tally join together, wouldn’t this be the highest wholesomeness?

Moreover, you say, “The great virtue [of Heaven and Earth] is called life. [In life,] there is a common feature of all things, which is the same as what differentiates all things. How could it be distinguished to attain life?” I do not say that this is not so. Even though people are born and equally

placed under the great virtue (i.e., life), they cannot be called sentient beings. It compares to the case that although sages equally receive the ﬁve primary elements, they cannot be called the people. What merit is there in considering that the life that is not different from each other must be sentient beings? In the letter received, you say, “People employ other living creatures in order to nourish themselves, and other living creatures are put to work in order to support people.” If you broadly judge like this, then you have the same thought as my humble view. As to passion and sensual desires, if we do not restrain them, we will destroy life and be brutal to other living creatures.

We will be the so-called one of excessive [desire] or the arrogant one. Sages assuredly remove this.

Furthermore, you say, “Those who take the Way to be the mind will probably stop [evils] before they come to [the worst] like this.” I would like to ask you a question. Are those who stop [evils before they come to the worst like this] not going to kill [animals] with their own hands? Or do they make all [people] equally receive the teaching [of not killing]? If you mean that they do not kill with their own hands but go to a market [to buy] a nec- essary amount [of meat], the issue is originally the [same] intention as that [gentlemen] should stay away from the kitchen. If you want to recommend it to families entered in the household registers (i.e., common people), I see that your discussion does not hold water.

Moreover, you say, “If [the spirit] is the same as trees and plants, then it will disappear like smoke. What does the exquisite spirit rely upon to estab- lish itself in Heaven?” Well, the disembodied spirits are dim and faint. Wan- dering spirits become evil spirits. When [the spirit] is gloriﬁed and [its depar- ture from the body] saddens others, it will go somewhere. Zhongyou (i.e., Zilu) received [no answer from Confucius] when he wanted to know about death.320 Si (i.e., Zigong) was also unsuccessful in getting an answer [regarding the nature of human beings and the Way of Heaven].321

As for the matter that we will never again receive a body, I clearly stated this in my previous discussion. Regarding the matter of what the spirits rely upon to exist in Heaven, I ask you to depend on Confucius’s answer. Regard- ing [the comment,] “Actions and the way of reward and retribution inevitably tally [with each other],” I should say that the Yu family [of the Han dynasty] made a gate higher and waited for the merit of the accumulation of their

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virtuous deeds,322 and Lord Boyang, [who rescued Emperor Xuan when the emperor was still an infant,] did not attack [any enemy] yet he was blessed with the rank of marquis.323 How are these concerned with the next life? In addition, you say, “According to the common talk of those who reign over the world, people who [value] giving donations have no recollection [of their act of giving], and when government ofﬁcials conduct righteousness, they still show kindness to others without thinking [that what they are doing is wholesome].” This statement is true. There is, [however,] something to slightly regret [about this]. To require kindness in order to plan for a reward is what a preacher exhorts. To be kind in order to be delighted with a reward is a common affair of the world. If one doubts [the Buddhist] scriptures, he will suffer hardships for successive kalpas. If he diligently makes donations, he will obtain rewards accumulated many times over. These issues are not likely to be included in the teaching of our school. Thereupon, I am simply

discontented.

I know that you want to draw it (i.e., Buddhism) to the upper stream. This is also something for which I do not begrudge supporting immensely. Those who place themselves in reality, however, considerably take the splendor of foreknowledge to be vile. Therefore, I do not [draw Buddhism to the upper stream]. If donations are not made as aid in an emergency and if kindness is given [only in order to receive] merit and fame, when these are all evaluated by a wise person [like you], we feel ashamed. Thus, I have acted in accordance with my perseverance for a long time, but I have never improved myself. I feel inwardly ashamed at [Qu] Boyu [of Wei state, who continually tried to practice good conduct].324 I have not spared the time to censure others.

Sincerely,

He Chengtian

The Second Expatiation to He of Hengyang

I have been occupied in farming for a while. I was [busy] personally gathering the crops in a rice ﬁeld among the hills. In spare moments from my farming, aged rustics are my companions. The topic of our conversation is limited to crops. My work is entirely to plow land and pasture animals. We talk about ripening, and plan how to plough side by side. I did not hear anything of

intelligent signiﬁcance. I received a subtle argument from you, by which I am brightly consoled. The content of your letter is very detailed, and I feel more ashamed of my obstinacy. [Nevertheless,] I now again forget [my obsti- nacy] and write to you of what I cherish in my mind, in order to convey to you what I have not yet expressed.

In investigating the principles, to rely on our intentions is not as good as to analyze it from the sacred literature. The discussion on the three powers must be originally based on all three lines (hua) [of the Book of Changes]. When the three lines are displayed, the middle line refers to the virtue of a sovereign.325 Therefore, it is so supernatural that it can reach the uppermost, and so lofty that it can unite with the head of the state. Consequently, I said formerly that if one is not suitable to Heaven and Earth, he has nothing with which to originally respond to the knowledge of these things. Even if you broadly examine your clear thought, you have not been willing to remain in agreement with me.

You still take [all people] without discarding [anyone] in [the three powers]. You carry them extensively without leaving anyone out. Your resolution to be generous to people is really ample. I am, [however,] afraid that your arrange- ment of positions is disordered and consequently there will be numerous ambiguous issues. If wherever natural compassion arises you exhaust the capacity of universal love, and if wherever the feeling to be ashamed of evils arises you accomplish the righteousness of [divine] help for honest people, you are the most benevolent and the most righteous. I can ﬁnd no ﬂaw [in this], but those who care about [benevolence and righteousness] are few and those who use them for their own beneﬁt are many. Those people who possess their lot [of benevolence and righteousness] in advance and have not reached its apex simply cannot be a match for the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth) [of the three powers].

Now, if one who renders himself at the apex [of benevolence and right- eousness] is a teacher, if those who have not [yet reached the apex of benev- olence and righteousness] are [his] disciples, if their minds of respect and yielding are helped [to develop], if their minds of jealousy and conﬂict are removed, if we cause the blades of scythes and axes [with which the trees of Mount Niu were cut down] to be melted down [and made useless], if [we cause] the arising of the thought of merit and demerit to stop, and if we urge

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the people of a hundred generations to go out and get onto the path of sincerity and kindness, why doesn’t a bud [of the wholesome mind] grow? Why isn’t the wholesome mind invoked? Nevertheless, you falsely accuse that “[a wholesome heart exists but] it is not counted.” I have not yet evaluated your intention. Even if the three powers are equally arranged in a line, we cannot bring people of superﬁcial talent into the line. Even if they are called sentient beings, we cannot mix them up recklessly with the man of nonarising (i.e., the Buddha). Therefore, in this land, those of humble birth are not counted in [the three powers]; and in [the Buddhism of] that land, sages and wise people are clearly distinguished. The purpose of recommending all [members] of both registers [of Buddhism and Confucianism] lies in this.

Regarding people like [Sun] Qiao (i.e., Zichang) and [Ji]zha, their virtue is not able to be one with [that of] emperors and kings. How could they belong to the upper stratum? Yi [Yin] and Yan [Hui] still rely on birth [through receiving] the natural vapor. They ought to belong to the lower stratum. The judgment of the two paths [of sages and ordinary people] is easier than giving instructions to one’s servants by merely gesturing with one’s chin.

Moreover, I am aware that you say, “Even though people are born and equally placed under the great virtue, they cannot be called sentient beings. It is comparable to the case that although sages equally receive the ﬁve primary elements, they cannot be called people.”

The reason [sages] cannot be called people is that [sages] are more vig- orous than people in spiritual intelligence. Now, [sages] are equally placed under [the great virtue] in the same way as [ordinary] people. Why do you avoid [the idea that sages] and people are the same? Certainly, we must dif- ferentiate them on the basis of their extraordinary spirits, but we should not distinguish them based on the life they received. You avoid in vain the name of the people, but the reality of the people is not damaged.

[What you are doing] cannot help but resemble the case that if one is afraid of a single-plank bridge and tries to avoid [stepping on] it, in the end he will not be able to avoid [crossing over to the other side]. As for my state- ment, “People employ other living creatures in order to nourish themselves, and other living creatures are put to work in order to support people,” I intend to mean that the ignorant and the wise restrict each other, and the confused and the intelligent control each other. This matter, [the difference between

human beings and animals,] derives from human intellect; it does not derive from the laws of Heaven. Therefore, at the beginning we are compassionate to its emergence, and lament its stagnation and [eventual] disappearance in the end. Would your [feast of] various types of food including livestock serve the same purpose as this?

Generally, moving and ﬂowing well are the nature of those of the lower stratum, while making judgments in transformation and shaping (i.e., change) is the work of sages of the upper stratum.326 If one carefully builds a fence [around a house], he is still worried that a thief may come over the fence, not to speak of [his worry when] he completely sets up everything in order to satisfy extravagant desires. This is precisely the beginning of extremities. How could we discuss abandoning excessive [desires]? Therefore, I know that in your discussion of “to destroy life and be brutal to other living crea- tures” I cannot share anxieties with heartless people [like you]. The intention to be fond of killing is found in some people, but the feeling to love life is abundant. “Those who take the Way to be the mind,” which I said refers to having abundant feelings of loving life, rejecting unreality, casually fulﬁlling [life], stepping on reality, and having no premature death, and yet it is not considered to be benevolence whose beneﬁts and favors reach Heaven. Why would kindness be limited to just fawns and eggs? Why would the issue emu- late only [the activities of] wolves and otters?

Judging from this, we should simply not [kill] with our own hands, but we should also not put the blame on the market or the kitchen [where animals are butchered]. Moreover, this does not mean that outside of the market and the kitchen there is nothing to be offered [as food] to nourish us. The writing of Shen Nong is explained by Zhongsan (Ji Gang, 233–262) [in the Discourse on Health Care (Yangshenglun)]. Gongli (i.e., Zhong Changtong of the Later Han dynasty) praised this matter (i.e., health care), and Zhongyang (i.e., Jiao Shen of the Later Han dynasty) worked hard at the practice [of guiding the breath (daoyin)].327 This shows exactly that formerly there was a biography of that person and we now hear of him. Why is it necessary to take carving meat to be the nature of people who received [a vapor of] harmony, or to take broiling and boiling meat to be a means to help wholesomeness? If you worry that my shallow argument does not hold because it is difﬁcult to rec- ommend equally to common people, [it is just like] your concern that since

the two men [Guan]shu and [Cai]shu were not intimate [with the royal family of the Zhou dynasty], the virtue of the Zhou dynasty would be lost in the future. If we can set forth a far-reaching prospect and seek [a good result] for a long period of time, we will be able to fulﬁll it in a short period of time and to expect merit in a long period of time.

If the exquisite spirit is exactly distinguished from grass and trees, your answer, “Wandering spirits [become evil spirits. When the spirit is gloriﬁed and its departure from the body saddens others, it will go somewhere],” is the theory that exquisite spirits [exist]. If [you say] that even though there are [spirits] and they have no form, then could there be beings without form in the world? This, indeed, is the question. You ought to show the assured view. The reason Confucius did not answer [the question about the spirits] is because he had not discerned whether or not [spirits] exist. [Nevertheless,] you have already accounted for their existence. How could you align yourself with him in not giving an answer [to the question]? Even though you are fond of studying, I am afraid that you have not gotten to what you rely upon. Otherwise, this is because the paths of understanding and of obscurity are very much separate from each other, and the mysterious issue and the evident are far removed from each other; these facts consequently cause the bright moon to stop shining on the world, and [worldly] knowledge restricts your mind from understanding [Buddhism].

You say that if my words, “[Actions and the way of reward and retribu- tion] inevitably tally with each other” are embodied, it is the Yu family at an end. Wouldn’t it be that my discussion was too elaborate and yet, against my intention, I ended up with a noncommittal opinion? Or, [it is like] a worldly person who has an unpolished gem and displays it in a market is censured. Otherwise, [it is like] an ofﬁcer in charge of translation who is affected by the customs [of his own state] talks even more about the conditions of that state. If I have not completely taken care of the matter, please let me again present my recent explanation in minute detail.

[The relation between] reward and retribution and actions is primarily called fate. I think that there are no absurd things. Each one is moved with good virtue. Among those who are moved [with good virtue], the minds of human beings are the greatest. The movement of one’s thought cannot be perceived by servants practicing divination. When it is extended to its

accumulated point, we are not competent enough to determine its origin and we must give up [examining it]. I will take the popular view, and based on this I will show clear evidence.

Zhuangzhou (i.e., Zhuangzi) says that if the land is tilled in a careless and haphazard manner, the reward (i.e., the harvest) is poor, too.328 Lord Sun (i.e., Xunzi) says that the force of reward or retribution falls on a person according to each category.329 These statements are set forth to admonish us for our future lives. Shouldn’t we respect them? Since merciful people deeply saw this fate, they made the correct statement of its foundation. This is not to invite its end. [The Buddhist teaching] is to increase good qualities, prevent evils, return the people to the grand submission [to the natural course],330 deliver sentient beings [from evils], and cause them to enter into the land of eternal life. It brings about widespread blessings for everyone, and [the Buddha] is the highest of a hundred deities in nobility. Why should it be merely that blessings are extended to one’s descendants and happiness is limited to being ranked as a high ofﬁcial or minister? If we continuously save [others] with good [intentions], a good [result] will also follow. That force is just like that

of a sundial. Without any exercise of thought, it will occur naturally.

Why do you say, “To require kindness [in order to plan for a reward is what a preacher exhorts],” “[To be kind in order] to be delighted with a reward [is a common affair of the world],” “If one doubts [the Buddhist scriptures], he will suffer hardships [for successive kalpas],” and “If he diligently makes donations, [he will obtain rewards accumulated many times over]”? It appears that this is because you verify the parsimonious feeling familiar to you, and you doubt the virtuous teaching with which you are unfamiliar. Consequently, you just punish those who boast about achievements, but are recklessly censured for forgetting about wise people. The difference in signiﬁcance between “those who forget [kindness]” and “those who keep [merit]” and the distinction in thought between public and private have already been fully explained in my previous letter. I will not repeat it here. You, who thinks that “those who place themselves in reality, [however, considerably] take the splendor [of foreknowl- edge] to be vile,” tend to simply stay in kindness and leave behind coldhearted- ness. If there are people like those who make donations not in order to give aid in an emergency, or who are kind only expecting fame [in return], then you will be ashamed of them and I will also be ashamed of them.331

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The Second Response to Yan of Yongjia

I have believed in my narrow view from the time I was young. The older I grow, the deeper [this tendency] becomes. If I scruple to say what I have already begun to say, I [feel] that my heart will become clogged and rotten. Hence, I was hoping to ﬂoat relying on a stream or to soar entrusting myself to a female kylin, when you expressed your thoughts with good intention and again kindly gave explanations. The way you investigated and testiﬁed is thorough and clear. Your beautiful expression is extensive and abundant. If sometimes good jade has a ﬂaw, even a humble person may point out the ﬂaw. When there is a waning moon, even a rustic looks askance at the part that is lacking. How could I, such a [rustic] person, be fond of arguing? How- ever, I cannot stop talking. Again, I will take a step further and ask you ques- tions to get [your instructions], with which I will examine completely what brings me to a standstill.

In your letter you say, “The discussion on the three powers must be orig- inally based on all three lines [of the Book of Changes]. When the three lines are displayed, the middle line refers to the virtue of a sovereign. Therefore, it is so supernatural that it can reach the uppermost, and so lofty that it can unite with the head of the state.”

If, just as your point of argument, we consider the three lines [of the Book of Changes] to be the three powers, the ﬁrst (bottom) line is intended to be the line of Earth and the third (upper) line is said to be the rank of Heaven. [The Book of Changes,] however, [says,] “The one can live in seclu- sion without regret.”332 This does not mean a category of [things like the Earth] which supports and contains all things in its largeness. [It is also stated in the Book of Changes] that “Gentlemen are active and vigilant [all the day].”333 This does not refer to the deep blue [sky] (i.e., Heaven).

As a matter of fact, as long as the two polarities, [Heaven and Earth,] have no consigning basis, how can we take [the second line] to designate the establishment of [the way of] people? Since the line is located between justice and harmony, it is simply suitable to correspond to sovereign virtue.

Moreover, you say, “[If] wherever natural compassion [arises] you exhaust the capacity of universal love, and [if] wherever the feeling to be ashamed of evils [arises] you accomplish the righteousness of [divine] help

for honest people, you are the most benevolent and the most righteous.” This indicates that you admit that those who practice benevolence and righteousness become the three powers.

Again, you say that Zichang and [Ji]zha cannot belong to the upper stratum, and Yi [Yin] and Yan [Hui] ought to belong to the lower stratum. People who are qualiﬁed to put on yellow lower garments (i.e., ranking ofﬁcials such as Zichang and Jizha) still fall below [the sovereign virtue of the three powers]. Although you said [the judgment of the two paths of sages and ordinary people is easier than] giving instructions to one’s servants by merely gesturing with one’s chin, since there is no warrant for high and low (i.e., sages and ordinary people), a deluded one [like me] has not yet comprehended this.

Yin and yang nourish the vigor [of people], while toughness and gentle- ness give them their natures. They each have a round head and rectangular feet; they do not differ in their appearance. They have much natural com- passion and the feeling to be ashamed of evil. So does everyone. For those who take part in and accept the two polarities [in order to be in the three powers], however, it is necessary to hold benevolence and righteousness as the ﬁrst step. I feel that you want to limit [the qualiﬁcation of human beings] with rank or proper equipages such as vehicle and clothes that [the emperor] should carefully bestow upon his vassals. Consequently you cause the nature of kind people and incorruptible scholars [such as Zichang and Jizha] to be compared with that of beasts, and you see the wise, [such as Yi Yin and Yan Hui,] who are capable and virtuous, as having the same physical energy as shellﬁsh. Would the meaning to develop the symbolism of the hexagrams be like this?

Furthermore, you say, “[Now, sages] are equally placed under [the great virtue] in the same way as [ordinary] people. Why do you avoid [the idea that sages] and ordinary people are the same? Certainly, we must differentiate them on the basis of their extraordinary spirits, but we should not distinguish them based on the life they received.”

Such extraordinary spirits are already different from [the spirits of] other living creatures. Why would they all suddenly be the same under the law of receiving life? Life is based on the law and the law differentiates [between sages and other living creatures]. Then, on what basis is the same name, “life,” given to other living creatures? If you stick to this name “life” and

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cause the people to certainly follow it, then is something undeﬁned and com- plete (huncheng zhi wu)334 [that came into existence before Heaven and Earth] also included in this instance?

Again, you say, “If one carefully builds a fence [around a house], he is still worried that a thief may come over the fence, not to speak of [his worry when] he completely sets up everything in order to satisfy extravagant desires. This is precisely the beginning of extremities. How could we discuss aban- doning excessive [desires]?”

You said at the beginning [of this series of arguments] that emperors and sages set up the teaching to plan seasonal hunting and the scriptures to prudently follow the seasons; in this way [they tried] to gradually return to the cessation of extremities. Now, you criticize with the statement, “This is precisely the beginning of extremities.” I have not known in detail whether this rebukes my view or ridicules sages.

Furthermore, you say, “Outside of the market and the kitchen, why can there be nothing to be offered [as food] to nourish us? The writing of Shen Nong is explained by Zhongsan Why is it necessary to take carving meat

to be the nature of people who received [a vapor of] harmony, or to take broiling and boiling meat to be a means to help wholesomeness?”

Well, in offering to Heaven and Earth, calf’s horns [are used]; in the state offering the three domestic animals, [cows, pigs, and sheep,] are sac- riﬁced; and the thick soup of beef or pork is served in a wooden vessel on a painted wooden stand to offer to guests of honor. An old man of seventy years is not satisﬁed until he eats meat. Why can you merely display herbs and medicines and reserve them as the best remedy? The reason I am worried that [your argument] does not stand up is not that it is difﬁcult for me to sup- port your great discussion, but I take a step back and doubt this matter; simply, [such dietary habits] cannot be suddenly removed from the world.

Moreover, you say, “If [you say] that even though there are [spirits], they have no form, then could there be beings without form in the world? This, indeed, is the question. You ought to show the assured view.”

I examined the intention [of this point] in your letter, as [I feel] it seems you do not reject that there are spiritual beings. Just on the point in which you say that spiritual beings should have some substance, isn’t it possible you are confused, since Indian books state that spiritual beings become other

living creatures? People of former days considered spiritual beings to be [the foundation of] the teaching. Moreover, they wrote it down in books and scriptures, and it is widely found in written materials. [Lord Sun] Qiao (i.e., Zichang) of Zheng state and [Ji]zha of Wu state considered this so, too. Therefore, when music is played six times [with the Chinese zithers made out of wood from] Mount Yunhe, the spirits of Heaven really descend [from Heaven], and when it is played nine times [with the Chinese zithers made out of wood from] Mount Longmen, the manes of people all come and gather.335 You often adhere to the Rites of Zhou (Zhouli), but recently you disregard this meaning. Just now you berate beings without form. It is an incoherent argument!

Again, you say, “These statements (i.e., Zhuangzi’s and Xunzi’s) are set forth to admonish us for our future lives. Shouldn’t we respect them? Since merciful people deeply saw this fate, they made the correct statement of its foundation.”

You have not made it clear about so-called merciful people. What are they? If you depend on the doctrine of reward and retribution [in accordance with] actions that is stated in books other than [Confucian texts], it is entirely the teaching of expedients to which I refer. In investigating the utmost doctrine, you have not analyzed with the sages’ words and yet you have adopted many crafty and strange [words] in order to support [your argument]. Can it be to give the impression of rescuing by means of water from disasters caused by water?

Furthermore, you say, “I think that there are no absurd things. Each one is moved with good virtue,” and “If we continuously save [others] with good [intentions], a good [result] will also follow. That force is just like that of a sundial. Without any exercise of thought, it will occur naturally.”

If these words are certainly so, those who are moved with good virtue must be equal in degree of seriousness, just as the force of a sundial must have a certain extent in length. As to decorations in building or construction, they are not initiated by a benevolent mind. Even though hunting is done according to the [appropriate] seasons, the extremely cruel nature [of human beings] has not been uprooted. For what is a person rewarded to ascend to Heaven, which is splendid and joyful? For what is one punished to fall into hell, which is dark and full of suffering? Excellent words come to an end in

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differentiating high from low, and the law is made without a scale (i.e., measure or standard). All things have come to this point!

Moreover, a guardian attendant who teaches and loves [his master] encourages [his master] to abstain from eating the intestines of dogs and hogs, [which resemble those of human beings].

A good cook who wields a knife [to butcher cattle for meat] feels afraid whenever he comes to a complicated joint.336 The sage is as bright as the sun and moon, and his ediﬁcation can open the three powers (santong).337 If [actions and the way of] reward and retribution inevitably tally, how does it hinder the teaching? Why was it sealed in the ages of [Fu]xi and Tang [Yao]? Why was it buried in the time of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius? In the beginning, nets [to catch animals and ﬁsh] were made and this has given rise to a number of sins. [The practice of] offering animal sacriﬁces was established and opened the punishment of the long night [of spiritual darkness] (Skt. dīrgha-rātram). The heavenly kitchen (i.e., food naturally collected) is aban- doned, and those animals fed with grass and grain are considered delicious. There has been no benevolence to save people from drowning [in extreme misery]. The cruelty of putting people into a dry moat was carried out without restraint. In order that these acts not be repeated, you should sincerely consider the issues deeply. If you think that the intelligence of the exquisite spirit [of sages] is not yet complete in some points, even though you are thoughtful and love strange ideas, you have not come to disgrace the sages.

When you talk about benevolence and righteousness, you say, “those who care about [benevolence and righteousness] are few and those who use them for their own beneﬁt are many.” However, when you speak of doing kindness, you approve that men of virtue and talents who are left neglected forget a reward. Since those who care about [benevolence and righteousness] are few, who are able to be those of virtue and talents yet who are left neglected? Since those who use [benevolence and righteousness] for their own beneﬁt are many, how can you say to forget a reward? If you can encourage people who are willing to give [to the poor], expect companions who want to be benevolent, expound the meaning of forgetting reward and retribution, and lead the people toward a mind of righteousness, then righteousness is truly here and you are not far [from the goal] in seeking benevolence.

As to your statement, “[The Buddhist teaching is to increase good qual- ities, prevent evils, return the people to the grand submission to the natural course,] deliver sentient beings [from evils], and cause them to enter into the land of eternal life. It brings about widespread blessings for everyone, and [the Buddha] is the highest of a hundred deities in nobility,” the intention of this is nonsense, and it is not what I am concerned with in this discussion. Isn’t this like the case when the Qin army was about to escape and their mes- senger talked nonsense?338 How could I continue to press you? Please take a seat. I will explain it to you.

Sages are [originally] placed above, and they do not have to strive for supremacy against a hundred deities. If there is a beginning, there is an end. How can you be in the land of eternal life? Well, the other world and this world are distinguished clearly from each other. Various things are investigated completely. From early times, when [people kept records by] tying knots, up to the later period, when culture and education ﬂourish, [sages] lead the nature of human beings by means of the Way. Therefore, they cut off the inti- macy and fame of being praised. They manage Nature within the proper rules. Nothing hurts the capacity of universal love. By hunting and ﬁshing, both the wise and ordinary people are nourished. Game for its threefold use [in hunting] is served to guests as a practical matter.339 Gold and precious stones illuminate splendidly. A panpipe with thirteen reeds (sheng) and a short ﬂute ( yue) harmonize the rhythm. Getting drunk and being satisﬁed with kindness, one is beneﬁted in this way for ten thousand years. Recluses [who do not serve the government] broaden new works every day, while ofﬁ- cials expound the teachings of ancient sage sovereigns. Sincerity is apparent in bright rulers. Beneﬁts spread to all people. The dragon seal [of emperors] manifests [magniﬁcent] views. Musical stones create harmonious rhythms. These are for the paradise of Yao and Confucius.

During the time of obscurity, a man lives in seclusion on a hill or near a mountain stream in order to attend to his own virtue. He kills chickens, makes a variety of millet, and entrusts somewhat his ambition; or, [ just like Yi Yin,] he carries a heavy three-legged caldron on his back to cook, becomes famous and immortalizes his fame; or a man [like Taigong Wang Lü Shang] butchers sheep, uses a knife [to cook], and lets his lofty aspiration ride the drifting clouds. These are the ways for gentlemen to set the mind. Why is it

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necessary to consider the future blessings of the family that has accumulated enough good deeds to be vile, to hope for the blessings of the next existence of which there is no proof, to turn one’s back on the real pleasures of one’s own lifetime, and to be tired of working in vain, without a place to return to? [To practice something elusive like] trying to harness [shapeless] wind or catch a shadow is not the grace of the golden mean of the Confucian school. To admire a barbarian and to be confused by absurd things go against the goal of a masterly mind. [A Buddhist monk’s] squatting or kneeling upright in worship and [the Chinese style of] bowing complaisantly are inconsistent with each other after all. I personally wish that you would give up practicing both [Buddhism and Confucianism] and abide by [Confucianism] alone. Metaphors such as a single-plank bridge, the two men [Guan]shu and [Cai]shu, a person in the world [who keeps an unpolished gem and displays it in a market], and an ofﬁcer in charge of translation, have nothing to do

with the original meanings. Therefore, I say nothing about them.

The Third Expatiation to He of Hengyang

Sacred thought is difﬁcult to investigate, and a mysterious response is unfore- seen. It is as the courtier [Ji Kang] said, “No matter how hard mediocrity devotes himself, he cannot catch even a clue of it.”340 How could superﬁcial and obstinate people search and draw out [an answer]? I vainly think that [the inscription of Emperor Wen of the Wei dynasty, which denied the exis- tence of] the cloth that could be washed in ﬁre (huohuanbu), was [engraved in stone, but it was] cut down in a later generation,341 and Teng Xiu felt ashamed of himself throughout his life [for his ignorance] about the barbels of a shrimp.342 Therefore, I simply fear to judge with my own speculation anything outside my consideration.

You have already discerned the truth or falsehood [of Buddhism]. The scriptures of doctrines ( fangshu) are everlasting,343 and their unique insights are strong, durable, and skillful. It is difﬁcult to have doubts about them. I will write a little more about what I think and explain it, itemizing in accor- dance with your responses. Since fortune and misfortune are mingled in the matter, and foreign and Chinese [thoughts] are mixed in the meaning, although

I tried to make a brief and concise statement, it ended up becoming a petty composition. After I send this out, I would like to maintain my silence.

You respond and say, “If, just as your point of argument, we consider the three lines [of the Book of Changes] to be the three powers, the ﬁrst (bot- tom) line is intended to be the line of Earth and the third (upper) line is said to be the rank of Heaven. [The Book of Changes,] however, [says,] ‘The one can live in seclusion without regret.’ This does not mean a category of [things like the Earth] which supports and contains all things in its largeness. [It is also stated in the Book of Changes] that ‘Gentlemen are active and vigilant [all the day].’ This does not refer to the deep blue [sky] (i.e., Heaven). “As a matter of fact, as long as the two polarities, [Heaven and Earth,] have no consigning basis, how can we take [the second line] to designate the establishment of [the way of] people? Since the line is located between justice and harmony, it is simply suitable to correspond to sovereign virtue.” My explanation is this: According to former scholarship I have heard,

the simple symbol of the diagrams (xiang) begins with three lines (sanhua) and the sixty-four hexagrams (jiangua or zhonggua) end with six lines (yao).344 With the three lines the foundation of the position of the three powers is set up. [In the hexagram qian,] before the six lines change [each line shows] what a group of dragons pass through.345 Hence, after the sixty-four hexa- grams, the signiﬁcance of one’s course of action is clariﬁed. Therefore, [it is stated in the “Explanation of the Words and Sentences” (Wenyan) in the Book of Changes that] “The one can live in seclusion [without regret],” “[Gentlemen] are active [and vigilant all the day],” “[This is ‘the dragon’] lying hidden,” and “[Gentlemen] advance together with the movement of time].”346 These are the meanings for sages to adapt to the circumstances of their times and the way to unite [the diagrams]. If we consider that the two polarities [Heaven and Earth] have no consigning basis, and we do not take the second line to be designated for the establishment of [the way of] people since the ﬁrst line is not intended for Earth and the third line is not positioned for Heaven, then I do not understand on what basis your previous assertion that “the three powers are one unit” arises.

If you still accept the theory found in the “Commentary of Appended Judgments” (Xicizhuan) [in the Book of Changes] and you do not surpass

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the instruction received from your teachers, why do you take only the meaning of the hexagrams correctly and decline the meaning of the simple symbol of the diagrams? If there is [a theory of] the three powers other than [those for- mulated by Fu]xi and King Wen, this is “a new thought of spring and autumn,” about which I have no idea.347 Moreover, although “The one can live in seclu- sion [without regret]” and “[Gentlemen] are active [and vigilant all the day]” are not described for Heaven and Earth, the connotation for low and high has not been lost overall. How could you reject the signiﬁcance in setting up the foundation [of the three powers with the three lines] on the basis of the treatises that are variations [of the original text]?

In addition, I know you say, “Since the line is located between justice and harmony, it is simply suitable to correspond to sovereign virtue.” If there are merely the lines for justice and harmony and rather unexpectedly there is no person of justice and harmony, to what are the lines going to be applied? If justice and harmony lie in [sovereign] virtue and all ordinary people cannot have justice and harmony, my discussion that one is suitable to [Heaven and Earth] cannot be seen as extravagant.

You respond, “[Moreover, you say,] ‘[If] wherever natural compassion [arises] you exhaust the capacity of universal love, and [if] wherever the feeling to be ashamed of evils [arises] you accomplish the righteousness of [divine] help for honest people, you are the most benevolent and the most righteous.’ This indicates that you admit that those who practice benevolence and righteousness become the three powers.”

Again, you say that “Zichang and [Ji]zha cannot belong to the upper stra- tum, and Yi [Yin] and Yan [Hui] ought to belong to the lower stratum. People who are qualiﬁed to put on yellow lower garments (i.e., ranking ofﬁcials such as Zichang and Jizha) still fall below [the sovereign virtue of the three powers]. Although [you said the judgment of the two paths of sages and ordinary people is easier than] giving instructions to one’s servants by merely gesturing with one’s chin, since there is no warrant for high and low (i.e., sages and ordinary people), a deluded one [like me] has not yet comprehended this.”

My explanation is this: The so-called most benevolent and most righteous are designations only for those who have completely reached the acme of benevolence and righteousness and who can receive [the virtue] standing on an equal footing with Heaven and Earth. [By this] I do not mean that anyone

who has even a little bit of the feeling of shame for evils and of universal love is in the three powers. As I have already explained this in my previous discussion, I am surprised that you still have a question about this. In the four [great elements] (i.e., the Dao, Heaven, Earth, and the Sage King) of the universe,348 only the sovereign is an entity [among sentient beings]. We know that those who make the two polarities [of Heaven and Earth] the three [powers] are none other than sages. The Book of Changes and the Laozi [Daodejing] come to the same [standpoint]. You should have no more doubts. According to the grading of the Eastern Lu, [where the Duke of Zhou and Confucius are from,] [Sun] Qiao (i.e., Zichang) and [Ji]zha do not fully equip righteousness. Why are they placed higher to occupy the highest rank? In the light of the basis of the western land (India), since Yi [Yin] and Yan [Hui] have not attained the dharmakāya, they must be placed lower, in the rank of living beings. In the discussion you gave me, you comment on Śākyamuni’s [teaching] with the view of the Duke of Zhou. Therefore, my intention was taken con- tradictorily. I hope you will understand this. I have become rather verbose.

Sages become sovereigns or teachers, while wise people become subjects or assistants of the teachers. When they approach supernatural achievement smoothly, and are inﬂuenced by the great work, they can share the course of action, and keeping silent and speaking are also achieved at the same time. If one masters a part [of the virtue of Heaven and Earth] to this point, how could he turn his back to become a ranking ofﬁcial of the yellow lower gar- ment? You vainly see that there are those who cannot be ranked equally with sovereigns, unreasonably and resentfully blame it on them, and do not know to raise [the people in the three powers] up to the highest point. Furthermore, it is not the feeling of sticking to principles. If you pointed out and concluded like this, why do you say there is no warrant [for high and low] (i.e., sages and ordinary people)?

You respond, “Yin and yang nourish the vapor [of people], while tough- ness and gentleness give them their natures. They each have a round head and rectangular feet; they do not differ in their appearance. They have much natural compassion and the feeling to be ashamed of evil. So does everyone. For those who take part in and accept the two polarities [in order to be in the three powers], however, it is necessary to hold benevolence and righteousness as the ﬁrst step.”

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My explanation is this: If it is assumed that those who have a round head and rectangular feet, and who most certainly have the sincerity of feeling shame for evils and natural compassion in the same way, and who do not differ in their appearance, can all take part in and accept the two polarities [in order to be in the three powers], then is a group of people like Jiao (a younger brother of King Zhuang of Chu state) and Zhi [who are known as robbers] reckoned among those in the three powers? If this is actually impos- sible, we cannot place them on the same level with great people, if the only reason for this is that they are equally human. It is difﬁcult for ordinary people to become equal to [great people] in dignity and capacity. It has already been stated that “The benevolent rest in benevolence and the wise seek benevo- lence,”349 “To practice energetically is close to benevolence,”350 and “The one who is afraid of vice strives to be benevolent.”351 If we regard those [who try to be benevolent for beneﬁt] in the same light as the one of the principal seat, truth and falsehood become mutually indistinguishable. Zhuangzi says, “In the world, the good people are few and those who are not good are many.”352 If [the people] are divided like this, how can you say, “So does everyone”?

You respond, “I feel that you want to limit [the qualiﬁcation of human beings] with rank or proper equipages such as vehicle and clothes that [the emperor] should carefully bestow upon his vassals. Consequently you cause the nature of kind people and incorruptible scholars [such as Zichang and Jizha] to be compared with that of beasts, and you see the wise, [such as Yi Yin and Yan Hui,] who are capable and virtuous, as having the same physical energy as shellﬁsh. Would the meaning to develop the symbolism of the hexagrams be like this?”

My explanation is this: The reason to limit the qualiﬁcation [of human beings in the three powers] with ranks or proper equipages such as vehicle and clothes is indeed that [some people’s] natural dispositions do not qualify them [to be equal to Heaven and Earth]. Although they want to avail themselves of [ranks or proper equipages], what can be done about those who are suspi- cious or deceitful? We bear a numinous being in ourselves and become a human being, which cannot be equated with beasts. In receiving vapor to be born, even incorruptible scholars cannot have divergences. The symbolism of the hexagrams shows numinous beings. It does not symbolize life. If you

see [a numinous being and life] as the same, would it not be rather a reckless false accusation?

You respond, “[Furthermore, you say, ‘Now, sages] are equally placed under [the great virtue] in the same way as people ’ Such extraordinary

spirits are already different from [the spirits of] other living creatures. Why would they all suddenly be the same under the law of receiving life? Life is based on the law and the law differentiates [between sages and other living creatures]. Then, on what basis is the same name ‘life’ given to other living creatures? If you stick to this name ‘life,’ and cause the people to certainly follow it, then is something undeﬁned and complete (huncheng zhi wu) also included in this instance?”

My explanation is this: I said previously, “[In life, there is a common feature of all things,] which is the same as what differentiates all things. How could it be distinguished to attain life?” You responded to this, “I do not say that this is not so.” Furthermore, you asked, “What merit is there in considering that the life that is not different from each other must be sentient beings?” This indicates that you contradict my [opinion] that [those who attain life] are sentient beings, yet you accept [my opinion that life] is not different. Could there be anything that is not different and not sentient beings? Therefore, I again simply said: “Certainly, we must differentiate them on the basis of their extraordinary spirits, but we should not distinguish them based on the life they received.” You responded this time, “Why would they all suddenly be the same under the law of receiving life? Life is based on the law and the law differentiates [between sages and other living creatures].” May I ask you about the law of receiving life? Is it originally yin and yang? I do not see the difference [between sages and ordinary people in the law of life], but you said that you have suddenly not been the same. If there are differences in the law, isn’t it that [yin and yang] escape in vapor? Then, beyond yin and yang there is moreover a realm [of transmigration of birth and death] where one receives life. How should the three periods, [past, present, and future,] be ﬁrmly founded? If the life of the undeﬁned and complete existence [before the formation of Heaven and Earth] has a common vapor with that of people, would this be the meaning of the undeﬁned and complete [that Laozi uses]? If vainly in the name of life you do not see the truth of life, it does not match your previous statement. If you say that life is not life, this means that people

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are not people. Venerable Sir Li’s (i.e., Laozi) theory about this, [namely that something undeﬁned and complete that came into existence before Heaven and Earth,] probably has such meaning. To censure something that exists by means of a nonexistent thing is somewhat unprecedented.

You respond, “[Again, you say,] ‘If one carefully builds a fence [around a house], and so on.’ You said at the beginning [of this series of arguments] that emperors and sages set up the teaching to plan seasonal hunting and the scriptures to prudently follow the seasons; in this way [they tried] to gradually return to the cessation of extremities. Now, you criticize with the statement, ‘This is precisely the beginning of extremities.’ I have not known in detail whether this rebukes my view or ridicules sages.”

My explanation is this: Formerly I read your original discussion, [the Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life]. Regarding the section from “the nine kinds of grains” up to “When Confucius ﬁshed, he did not use a net,” I came to understand for the ﬁrst time that you meant in your discussion that whatever is governed and produced originates entirely from the sages, who are personally good teachers, in order to lead common people. In my solitary, humble, and clumsy opinion, I would say that whatever [sages] do, there must be reasons for their actions. Sages manage and control [their actions], and do not let them go to excess. This is the great point of two views, yours and mine, in deciding the issue, and the point on which you and I differ. Since I am going to control its excessiveness, I have a theory of stopping excessiveness. On the other hand, you just clariﬁed [the sages’] preparing and providing. You, however, have not been aware in what way [the sages] leave behind excessiveness. In your response, you said again, “We will be the so-called one of excessive [desire] or the arrogant one. Sages assuredly remove this.” I do not understand your intention here. Therefore, recently I asked you about the issue of excessiveness. You replied and said, “I have not known in detail who is to be rebuked.” Probably you forgot what you said previously.

You responded, “[Furthermore, you say,] ‘Outside of a market and a kitchen, and so on.’ Well, in offering to Heaven and Earth, calf’s horns [are used]; in the state offering the three domestic animals, [cows, pigs, and sheep] are sacriﬁced; and the thick soup of beef or pork is served in a wooden vessel on a painted wooden stand to offer to guests of honor. An old man of seventy

years is not satisﬁed until he eats meat. Why can you merely display herbs and medicines and reserve them as the best remedy? The reason I am worried that [your argument] does not stand up is not that it is difﬁcult for me to support your great discussion, but I take a step back and suspect this matter; simply, [such dietary habits] cannot be suddenly removed from the world.”

My explanation is this: Shen Nong laid down how to live and the people of the Zhou dynasty provided the instruction [for rites]. They already advo- cated a diet of grains. In addition, the best remedy was mentioned and sacriﬁce was already offered. Moreover, [plants to be used for offering in rites, such as] duckweed and white southernwood, were praised.353 In the way to offer sacriﬁces [to Heaven and the ancestors] and the way to victuals, there is orig- inally no ﬁxed method. I previously adduced that outside of the market and the kitchen, there are other things that support and nourish us. I mean to remove the longstanding [foul habit of] cutting meat apart or boiling it in soup in order to clarify that there is more than one way to prolong one’s life span, but I mean neither to manage the habits of the world nor [to insist] that everyone must obtain and prepare herbs and medicines. Even with the merit of eating the meat of domestic animals, however, it is rare to live a hundred years. As a good aspect of taking divine herbs, I often hear about a life span of a thousand years. For this reason I say, why is it necessary for an old man of seventy years to appreciate the great favor of eating meat? If, however, one who sequesters himself completely in a closed-in area gives up this [meat diet], he simply has no other means [for his sustenance]. I think that [your statement:] “[Such dietary habits] cannot be suddenly removed from the world” is similar to “They (i.e., emperors and sages) cannot suddenly take away [the habits that] remain entrenched [in the world],” which I expressed in my previous expatiation. We can agree on a point for the ﬁrst time. Why don’t you dare to attribute it to good? Since you understand that [these dietary habits] cannot be suddenly removed from the world, probably you do not think that the Way is complete in this [point].

You respond, “[Moreover, you say, ‘If you say that even though there

are spirits and they have no form,] could there be beings without form in the world? and so on.’ I examined the intention [of this point] in your letter, as [I feel] it seems you do not reject that there are spiritual beings. Just on the point in which you say that spiritual beings should have some substance,

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isn’t it possible you are confused, since Indian books state that spiritual beings become other living creatures? People of former days considered spiritual beings to be [the foundation of] the teaching. Moreover, they wrote it down in books and scriptures, and it is widely found in written materials. [Lord Sun] Qiao (i.e., Zichang) of Zheng state and [Ji]zha of Wu state considered this so, too. Therefore, when music is played six times [with the Chinese zithers made out of wood from] Mount Yunhe, the spirits of Heaven really descend from Heaven, and when it is played nine times [with the Chinese zithers made out of wood from] Mount Longmen, the manes of people all come and gather. You often adhere to the Rites of Zhou, but recently you dis- regard this meaning. Just now you berate beings without form. It is an inco- herent argument!”

My explanation is this: It is not only that I do not reject that there are spiritual beings but also I think that if there are [spiritual beings], they must have a form. You do not think that they do not exist and I agree with you, but we have different views on whether or not [the spirits] have [forms]. Hence, you recently questioned closely and wanted to demand [answers] thoroughly. Please forget about the Indian theory, and strictly comply with the Chinese classics. Moreover, put aside the issue that [spiritual beings] become other living creatures. Let us discuss the exquisite spirits that ascend far to [Heaven].

The appearance and the issue of existence or nonexistence should be assuredly reported and settled. Spiritual beings are very often mentioned in stories and writings. It is not that I do not understand their names and titles. Recently I received three discussions [from you]. Every time I received [a new discussion], the number of [spirits] increased. A myriad of spirits have all gathered together, but you have not answered even a part of the question [about the appearance and the issue of existence or nonexistence]. Even though your letter is thorough and erudite, it does not relieve my thirst to know. Regarding beings without form, you do not teach at all. You vainly said that it is an incoherent argument, and considered it a common opinion. If investigating honestly is considered to be incoherent, is being superﬁcial and unsystematic considered to be fair and intelligent?

You respond, “[Again, you say: ‘[Zhuangzi’s and Xunzi’s] statements are set forth] to admonish us for our future life,’ and so on. You have not

made it clear about so-called merciful people. What are they? If you depend on the doctrine of reward and retribution [in accordance with] actions that is stated in books other than [Confucian texts], it is entirely the teaching of expedients to which I refer. In investigating the utmost doctrine, you have not analyzed with the sages’ words and yet you have adopted many crafty and strange [words] in order to support [your argument]. Can it be to give the impression of rescuing by means of water from disasters caused by water?” My explanation is this: Thinking about merciful people, I hear for a long time that there are such people. Since you demand who they are, I would say that they are Mañjuśrī and Śākyamuni. I know that you think the doctrine of reward and retribution is entirely the teaching of expedients. The way of expedients is mysterious and deep; only sages can accomplish it. Even though you are proﬁcient in knowledge and understanding, you have not seen its culmination. I am exhausted from trying to ascertain it, yet you easily make your own judgment. It is very shameful. If what the doctrine of expedients states is all deceptive and delusive, there would be no reward and retribution in the [law of] Nature. I am reluctant to jump to a conclusion, while you vehemently make an arbitrary decision. Again, this is dreadful! The spirit [of the doctrine] is lofty, but the one who hears it is low. How can you bring

a false accusation?

I think that the “sages’ words” you mentioned must be the words of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius. What we talk about now is entirely the issue of “believing and following” [of which they speak]. Nevertheless, you say that I have not analyzed [the issue]. This again shows a lack of complete pru- dence. Since your discussion respects the Duke of Zhou and rejects Śākya- muni, I refer to Śākyamuni and equate him to the Duke of Zhou. My answers do not go beyond your questions. I do not feel that I have “adopted many [crafty and strange words].” [Great men such as] You Yu and [Jin] Ridi were not born in the Chinese region. How can we specify that there is no one who has mastered the principles outside of the nine regions away from the royal domain? It is also really difﬁcult to distinguish Buddhism from non-Buddhist teaching (i.e., Confucianism). If you believe your own criteria, have only your ears and eyes to teach you, and consider that everything except what you have already learned and known is crafty and strange, then I will stop my argument!

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You responded, “Furthermore, you say, ‘I think that there are no absurd things. Each one is moved with good virtue, and so on.’ If these words are certainly so, those who are moved with good virtue must be equal in degree of seriousness, and the force of a sundial must have a certain extent in length. As to decorations in building or construction, they are not initiated by a benevolent mind. Even though hunting is done according to the [appropriate] seasons, the extremely cruel nature [of human beings] has not been uprooted. For what is a person rewarded to ascend to Heaven, which is splendid and joyful? For what is one punished to fall into Hell, which is dark and full of suffering? Excellent words come to an end in differentiating high from low, and the law is made without a scale (i.e., measure or standard). All things have come to this point!”

My explanation is this: I spoke of [the force of] a sundial in order to give evidence [of perceiving reward or retribution]. The intention of your letter is to raise a doubt that it is not necessarily that [actions and the way of reward and retribution] correspond to each other and to suspect that there is no rule between them, and then you again try to remove a fortunate response. Afortunate response is nothing other than what is produced by fate. If a fortunate response is extin- guished, there is no fate. You are accomplished in astronomy and proud of your knowledge. I think that one who keeps it in mind to believe in the Way must not come to this point. If you think that decorations in building or construction are not initiated by a benevolent mind and it is worse than taking another’s life in accordance with [appropriate] seasons, wouldn’t it be seriously ungrateful to the mind of that man (i.e., Śākyamuni)? The emperor’s vehicle and seal are not necessarily the sentiments of Yao and Shun. Would respectful buildings and magniﬁcent offerings be Śākyamuni’s intention? To demand the reward [of rebirth] in Heaven and to ask for punishment in Hell are very similar to the stories that the ancient questioned [Zhou] Yafu (a general and minister of the Han dynasty who died of starvation, as had been foretold by an elderly woman physiognomist) about, and that Ying [Bu] asked a question [to a guest who had foretold his future misfortune].354 How tasteful these words are! This is, however, what many śramaṇas fully know. I will leave it out.

You responded, “Moreover, a guardian attendant who teaches and loves [his master] encourages [his master] to abstain from eating the intestines of

dogs and hogs [which resemble those of human beings]. A good cook who wields a knife [to butcher cattle for meat] feels afraid whenever he comes to a complicated joint. The Sage is as bright as the sun and moon, and his ediﬁcation can open the three powers. If [actions and the way of] reward and retribution inevitably tally, how is it hindered by the teaching? Why was it sealed in the ages of [Fu]xi and Tang [Yao]? Why was it buried in the time of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius? In the beginning, nets [to catch animals and ﬁsh] were made and this gave rise to a number of sins. [The practice of] offering animal sacriﬁces was established and opened the punishment of the long night [of spiritual darkness]. The heavenly kitchen (i.e., food naturally collected) is abandoned, and those animals [that are] fed grass and grain are considered delicious. There has been no benevolence to save people from drowning [in extreme misery]. The cruelty of putting people into a dry moat was carried out without restraint. In order that these acts not be repeated, you should sincerely consider the issues deeply. If you think that the intel- ligence of the exquisite spirit [of sages] is not yet complete in some points, even though you are thoughtful and love strange ideas, you have not come to disgrace sages.”

My explanation is this: I know that you think the meaning of reward and retribution was sealed in the times of [Fu]xi and the Zhou dynasty. For this reason, you ascertain that it is testimony that [reward and retribution] do not correspond to [good and bad actions]. The time of [Fu]xi and Tang [Yao] was long ago, which no one knows fully. The record [of that time] in the Book of History comprises no more than a few sections. When the merits of virtue and punishment were just mentioned, they had no scope to record the origin of weal and woe. Now, in the writings on emperors and kings, the issue of a person’s life is still not written, but taking the lack of a written record as evidence, you consider that indeed it did not exist in ancient times. This is again a fault caused by considering your mind as your teacher. Moreover, it is all displayed in the works of the Duke of Zhou and Con- fucius to believe and follow [the view of] blessings [left to one’s children] and misfortune [which makes itself felt long after the seed was sown]. You said, “[Why] was it buried [in the time of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius]?” Was it [buried] just like a narrow path? Since there are familiar and unfamiliar

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in language and shallow and deep in teaching, is it to have the wise give this and snatch away that?

While we live, we indeed have desires. When we have desires, we certainly ask for something. If desires are not satisﬁed, there is conﬂict. If desires are satisﬁed, the mind becomes peaceful. If we ﬁght, we harm each other. If we are peaceful, we stabilize each other. The reason a net was made is to remove harmful things in order to have peace. Furthermore, hunting and ﬁshing are no different from the sacriﬁce of livestock. In the previous reply you were already aware that sacriﬁces of livestock could not suddenly be removed from the world. [Now] you say, “Wasn’t it possible to abandon at least hunting and ﬁshing in ancient times?” This has not yet been a coherent discussion. [The tendency] to cling to life becomes stronger the lower the social class. Therefore, to try to dispense with death is [an action] of following one’s feeling and to take away other [sentient beings’] lives is [an action] of going against one’s nature. The perfect person (i.e., Śākyamuni) is esteemed. Why would he offend and go against the natural course? From this, we know that since we cannot suddenly remove longstanding customs, [Śākyamuni] simply set up a system to control them. Even though the spirits of sages are vigorous, they have nothing to make [people’s] ignorant minds wise and clever. How could the people who left their homelands and wander in other lands (i.e., those who left the truth and who do not know the way to return to it) be better?355 The reason sin and punishment visit is that people them-

selves invite them.

The heavenly kitchen was involuntarily abandoned since [heavenly] mat- ters are far away and difﬁcult for us to reach. Since substantial things are familiar and easy for us to indulge in, [we feel that the meat of] domestic ani- mals is always delicious. [Good deeds such as] saving a man from drowning and taking a man out of a dry moat [in which he had fallen] are common to many wise people, but [the way] to teach people differs [for each person]. It is not that the Way itself differs. Your reprimand that [I think the intelligence of the exquisite spirit of the sages] is not yet complete in some points also seems inappropriate. Zichang (Sima Qian) loved strange ideas, but it is orig- inally not similar to this.

You respond, “When you talk about benevolence and righteousness, you say ‘Those who care about [benevolence and righteousness] are few and those

who use them for their own beneﬁt are many.’ However, when you speak of doing kindness, you approve that men of virtue and talents who are left neglected forget a reward. Since those who care about [benevolence and righteousness] are few, who are able to be the men of virtue and talents yet who are left neg- lected? Since those who use [benevolence and righteousness] for their own beneﬁt are many, how can you say to forget a reward? If you can encourage people who are willing to give [to the poor], expect companions who want to be benevolent, expound the meaning of forgetting reward and retribution, and lead the people toward a mind of righteousness, then righteousness is truly here and you are not far [from the goal] in seeking benevolence.”

My explanation is this: “Those who care about benevolence and right- eousness are few and those who use them for their own beneﬁt are many.” I learned this [expression] from Zhuangzi’s book.356 It is not my own statement. You hastily impeached me before you made a complete examination. Well, “Since those who care about [benevolence and righteousness] are few and those who use them for their own beneﬁts are many, no one is able to be a man of virtue and talents. Yet who is left neglected, and how can you say to forget a reward?” [Your statement] is really what I have diligently and pru- dently considered from the beginning: simply, we cannot set [human beings] down for [the three powers] arranging with the two polarities [of Heaven and Earth]. It is not something on which you should depend in order to show that your great discussion is correct. If being willing to give [to the poor] and forgetting a reward are to master benevolence, and if forgetting a reward and giving [to the poor] tally with righteousness, we may leave behind the word “want” [in the phrase “in order to hope for companions who want to be benevolent”] and also remove the word “toward” [from the phrase “lead the people toward a mind of righteousness”]. If [righteousness is truly] here and you are not far [from the goal in seeking benevolence], who would not long for these?

You respond, “As to your statement, ‘[The Buddhist teaching] is to increase good qualities, prevent evils, return the people to the grand submission [to the natural course], deliver sentient beings [from evils], and so on,’ the intention of this is nonsense, and it is not what I am concerned with in this discussion. Isn’t this like the case when the Qin army was about to escape and their messenger talked nonsense?”

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My explanation is this: Your discussion holds [the teachings of] the Duke of Zhou and Śākyamuni. I also respond to it taking [examples] from both the foreign land (India) and the land of Zhou (China). You repress [the teaching of] that land using [the teaching of] this land, and you say that the highest level of happiness is [achieved] in an illustrious family. I inculcate [the teach- ing of] that land, explain [the teaching of] this land, and say that [the Buddhist teaching] brings about widespread blessings for everyone. Based on the views of this land, you say that blessings rest with high-ranking ofﬁcials. I believe in the information from that land and say that [the Buddha] is the highest in nobility among a hundred deities. These are controversial points in our dis- cussion. Why do you say “It is not what I am concerned with [in this discus- sion]”? The foundation of the criticism of this discussion takes [presenting] by turns to be the essence. If every time it gets beyond your control you say that it is vast and preposterous, then the road to look for principles is nearly blocked up. The statement “When [the Qin] army was about to escape [and their messenger] talked nonsense” is probably not relevant to this case. You respond, “How could I continue to press you? Please take a seat. I will explain it to you. Sages are [originally] placed above, and they do not have to strive for supremacy against a hundred deities. If there is a beginning, there is an end. How can you be in the land of eternal life? And so on.” My explanation is this: “How could I continue to press you?” How wholeheartedly you strive after virtue! “Please take a seat, and I will explain it to you.” What great expressions these are! In general, would being a leader of people be something to attain through ﬁghting? [The one who becomes a leader] not only refrains from ﬁghting but also certainly assumes a humble attitude. When you see the phrase “The highest in nobility among a hundred deities,” you may not think to contend with a hundred deities for supremacy. Instead, you take it as Lord Teng and Lord Xue, [who fought each other for supremacy]357 and forget to master benevolence. I am aware that you think there is a beginning and an end in things, and that there is no land of eternal life. If we look for it within our realm [of existence], it is true, just as the purpose of your letter, and it is just as I said in my previous expatiation, “Var- ious existing things are really suitable for this (i.e., in the great law of Nature life and death are the same in arising and falling).” As to illustrations in the

Book of Mountains and Seas and records in the Biographies of Arrayed Tran- scendents, these issues are concerned with this world, but they can no longer be traced back, not to mention the case where the Way separates from common practices and the principles separate from an ordinary pattern. Since something is not within your own [experience], you think that it must be entirely dis- carded. This is again hard to understand.

You respond, “Well, the other world and this world are distinguished clearly from each other. Various things are investigated completely,” and so on. My explanation is this: When I came to examine the section on this sub- ject, [I realized that] you enthusiastically relate [historical events of] successive generations. Your writing is extensive, the content is complete, and you are very good at methods [taught by] your teacher. Your voice to sing for the world of sages is vigorous, but you simply have not made a key remark in studying to ﬁnd the signiﬁcance of the Way. Formerly, when I was young, I spent a little time randomly studying a large number of historical records. I have been vaguely informed of the outline of the ways of emperors and kings and the traces of the virtuous and the intelligent. I dare to thank you for your detailed explanation. You have given me a generous instruction. Truly you

are diligent in the management of business.

You respond, “Why is it necessary to consider the future blessings of the family that has accumulated enough good deeds to be vile, and to hope for the blessings of the next existence of which there is no proof” and “[A Buddhist monk’s] squatting or kneeling upright in worship and [the Chinese style of] bowing complaisantly are inconsistent with each other after all. I personally wish that you would give up practicing both [Buddhism and Con- fucianism] and abide by [Confucianism] alone,” and so on.

My explanation is this: [The issue that the future] blessings [of the family] that has accumulated [enough good deeds] are not considered to be vile was already explicated in the section of “believing and following.” The issue about hoping thoroughly for the next existence was also [presented] completely, when I spoke of perceiving reward or retribution. The ﬁve-colored strings of the emperor’s ceremonial cap (zao) and the emperors’ ceremonial gown [of dragon patterns] (gun) and the great robe of fur (daqiu) [worn by emperors for the rite of making sacriﬁcial offerings to Heaven] are the same, and

27b

integral to the rites. Why wouldn’t it be possible that [a Buddhist monk’s] squatting or kneeling upright in worship and [the Chinese style of] bowing complaisantly are practiced together in the same world? In principle, it is possible to practice them concurrently. Do not presume that [one of them] should be rejected.

You respond, “Metaphors such as a single-plank bridge, the two men [Guan]shu and [Cai]shu, a person in the world [who keeps an unpolished gem and displays it in a market], and an ofﬁcer in charge of translation, have nothing to do with the original discussion. Therefore, I say nothing about them.” My explanation is this: These several passages in my latest letter arose somewhat from a joke. It is similar to the incident in which the story of the people of Yue, [who were always naked,] asked about clothing was adopted in an old tale. When an arbitrary opinion has come to this point there is no help, but it is just very strange. The reason, however, that I questioned using the metaphor of two persons, [Guan]shu and [Cai]shu, is because I want to dispel your suspicion that [a diet without meat could not be recommended to] common people. Since you have never responded to this, it is really prom- ising [for me]. You are powerful, as if allied nations follow you just like clouds, and your great discourse has become popular. I, [on the other hand], live apart from society, and every time I present my solitary opinion, it is commented on in whispers. There is no doubt of the fact that I am not equal to you in this way. I truly rely on a versatile scholar. We are common in prin- ciples. I abruptly forgot about the troublesomeness [of this] and have greedily

written all to my heart’s content.

End of Fascicle Four of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Five

The Discourse on Regeneration

(Gengshenglun) by Luo Junzhang

It is good that the scholar Xiang [Xiu] said, “What is Heaven? It is the general name of all things. What is Man? It is one of the things in Heaven.” From this, we may say that each thing has its own term of existence, while Heaven and Earth are everlasting. In that case, changes of the everlasting [Heaven and Earth] do not go beyond [the boundary of] all things from the beginning. If all things did not regenerate, Heaven and Earth would have an end. Heaven and Earth are not supposed to have an end. So we can conclude that [all things] regenerate.

I seek [this fact] in various ancient discussions. It is said that “Omens of all things were determined a long time ago. All living creatures repeat birth and death,” “The sage composed the Book of Changes, in which the culmination was already provided,” “To trace to the very source of the spirit is to know [the law of] transformation,”358 and “To trace to the very source of the principles is [to know] completely the nature [of all things].”359 If it is possible to trace to the very source of the spirit, anything that has

a form cannot have no term of existence [in this world]. In that case, human beings and things have their ﬁxed terms. You and I have our own station [in existence]. It is impossible that existence extinguishes and becomes non- existence. It is impossible that you can transform to become me. Gathering, scattering, disappearing, appearing, we circle round and round on our eternal path. [Anyone]—the wise, the ignorant, one who lives long, or one who dies young—circles round and returns to one’s [original] being. [The circle] spon- taneously goes on consistently, and there is not an iota of difference. Together with their fate [all things] extinguish and then return. People of the world are absurdly not aware of this. How far and distant it is! Its way is profound. Even though Heaven and Earth are vast, they are harmonious, without disorder. Although all things are numerous, they are sorted according to their classes. Each of them has its foundation. There is the sequence in successive

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ancestors. In the direct line and the collateral branches for a hundred gener- ations its longstanding [element] is never lost. Furthermore, the spirit and the physical substance are a natural couple. The natural couple’s separation and reunion are the change in birth and death. There are gathering and scat- tering in the physical substance. It is the natural course of transmigration [of birth and death]. When people and things undergo change, each of them goes [from life to death]. Each is its own part in going [from life to death]. There- fore, when each of them returns [from death to life], there is a principle. Even though things are confused and indistinguishable when they scatter, they are not out of order when they gather. The farther they go, the closer they return. In addition, the spirit and the physical substance profoundly meet each other, and spontaneously unite together exactly, just as two pieces of a tally ﬁt together. People of the world all lament that uniting leads to separation without fail, yet no one consoles himself with [the thought] that separation leads to uniting without fail, as well. All people know that gathering leads to scattering without fail, but no one recognizes that scattering leads to gathering without fail, as well. They do not give much thought to this [matter]. How could there be distance [between uniting and separating, or gathering and scattering]? Generally, since the present existence arises in conformity with the former existence, [present] affairs are in alignment with past affairs. In the essence there is nothing disordered. In the intention, we are not aware that [the one of the former life] profoundly unites with [the one of the present life]. Who would say “I realize this”? Now, a talker merely knows that the one of the former life is not [the one of] the present life, but he simply does not know that the one of the present life is the one of the former life. Those who have extensive views, therefore, see that life is equal to death, and say that life and

death are just like wakefulness and sleep. How true this statement is!

Sun Changsha’s Letter [to Luo Junzhang] by Anguo (Sun Sheng)

I have examined the Discourse on Regeneration, in which you sum up the issue of changes, and thoroughly analyze gathering and scattering. Your logic is distinguished. Moreover, your purpose and composition are also

pleasant. This is a good discussion. Nevertheless, I still have a different opinion.

Since now there are innumerable cases that all things transform into other forms, you do not miss in complying with the law. However, it takes many years until what is hidden reveals itself. If this is so, the cases that all things transform [into other forms] should still be many, but there is no case that being obtains its [original] form again. When things exhaust the condition [to exist in this world], they must go far off to an unseen place where our ears and eyes cannot perceive them. Only at that point do they return to their foundations. Therefore, I think that since our physical bodies scatter all over, so do our sensory perceptions. They are disorderly, confused, and mixed, and they transform into other substances. Each of the other substances loses its former [state]. They are not what they used to be. This is the reason why all creatures that have feelings grieve. If this is so, you cannot console only yourself.

Response to Sun [Sheng]

I received your letter. Your composition is brief yet your purpose is expressed, and the logic upholds actual facts. Even though I am glad for your simple and easily understandable reply, I have not yet appreciated it. Moreover, I have in my mind small and unimportant things endlessly. Please examine my original [discourse again].

In the original [discourse] I did not say that things do not change at all. Each of those things that change, however, attains by itself what it transforms into. Those that decay do not lose their former essence. Who takes charge of molding them, namely, mixing [clay] and making [each form]? This state- ment is the most apt for the case. [Things] are separated and never thrown into disorder. If they are like this, would regeneration occur only once? [Things] arise endlessly and regenerate for a long time. When they come to an end, they return to the beginning. The truth is evident. While you are not able to know the present, how can you know about [the next life after] regen- eration? Probably, since my grief had accumulated, I spoke in a rough way and consulted with you about what I came to understand. How could it be said that I console only myself? I simply have a little diversion under pretense of this.

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The Discourse on the Immortality of the Spirit (Shen bumielun) by Zheng Daozi (364–427)

Many [people] think that body and spirit perish together and the function of the spirit (zhao) and consciousness are extinguished along with them. Can it be explained why this is so? All people of the world already consider the Duke of Zhou and Confucius to be the culmination. Benevolence, right- eousness, and ethical education were ﬁrst formed in their minds. The foun- dation of the spiritual intelligence is never mentioned in even a single word. Therefore, [in their teachings] what is done with sensory perception is limited within the concrete [realm]. The Buddha speaks words of the utmost impor- tance, but ordinary people do not believe in him. I fell into delusions when I was young, but I thought to get out of the delusions. I sought the profound purport and examined the essence of the spirit. I realized that the principle is more exquisite than a physical body and the spirit is more subtle than the principle. Entrusting what has appeared, I will transmit my mind and brieﬂy adduce the testimony. I hope that this will shine upon all who will be awak- ened to [the truth] and consequently contribute to [removing] longstanding delusions.

Spirit and body are mixed and come together. Even though they exist together while one lives, with regard to the point that there is a difference between coarseness and subtlety in their origins, there is a distinction between corporeality and incorporeality. Why do I say this? A body consists of the ﬁve viscera (i.e., liver, lungs, heart, kidneys, and spleen), the six entrails (i.e., gall, stomach, bladder, the three parts of the abdominal cavity, small intestine, and lower intestine), the limbs and the seven apertures in the head (i.e., eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth). All unite to become one [body]. Therefore, one is alive. At just the moment when people are born, each one receives the ﬁve primary elements in a different way [from others]. Hence, some people suffer from being crippled in a limb or some part of the body, or lack either ears or eyes, but this does not prove fatal. Even with the body it is like this, not to mention with the spirit whose essence mysteriously shines. It governs all bodies ingeniously. Body and breath move together, while the spirit and the wonderful realization ﬂow in the same way. Although motion (i.e., the body)

and inactivity (i.e., the spirit) support each other, exquisiteness and coarseness separate from each other in their origins. Wouldn’t it be because each has its origin and they depend on each other to function? When you take a familiar example of this, the reason is clear. I hope you can comprehend this.

In what a body supports, muscles and bones have sensations of pain and itching, while nails and hair do not. Why is this so? Wouldn’t it be because muscles and bones are the essence of life but nails and hair are not the foun- dation of life? When life is in the foundation, sensations exist. When life is in the periphery, there is no sensation. For the function of a body, it is still considered that the foundation and the periphery are concerned with rising and falling, not to mention the spirit that is the foundation of life, and whose origin is the most subtle. How could [the spirit] wither along with a seven chi-tall [body] and be exhausted together with [the sense organs that are like] doors and windows? If you infer from this truth, you can clearly understand that the spirit is immortal.

A guest criticizes, “Your argument on the body and spirit is complete. It is astute to speak of sensibility and insensibility in a body. Nevertheless, even though the body and spirit have different origins—[the body] is of coarse origin and [the spirit] is of subtle origin—both consider existence to be their status. The reason for being is that life is the foundation. Why, then, is it possible that the foundation of existence has become exhausted and that which has depended on the foundation alone exists? Beyond the outside of life, it is vast and completely obscure. Since it is completely obscure, it is not only that there is nothing to establish with words but also that there is nothing to extablish with consciousness. If it is not established by the con- sciousness, where does the spirit deposit itself? Since there is nothing [into which the spirit] can deposit itself, how can it be immortal?”

I respond, “Your criticism is good as an argument. It has not yet been based on the mind. Is this why a criticism such as this comes up? Now all changes are entirely existence. Prospering, declining, rising, falling, dying or being born, take the place of each other. A body becomes exhausted and another is born. This is the whole process of a living being. With regard to water and ﬁre, they prevail over all sentient beings thoroughly and are abun- dant, without deﬁciency. Wouldn’t it be because the essence of ﬁre follows things, the law of water annihilates [water itself] and follows others, [both

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ﬁre and water] are not self-generated when they are generated, they are what all sentient beings depend on, they are useful in the light of [other things], and therefore things cannot use them up? Even [ﬁre and water that] exist in the same sphere of life are clever in this way, not to mention the principle of the spirit that is singularly transcendent and unparalleled. It is not on the same level with ordinary things, but is it ﬁxed that, since it is outside of life and is completely obscure, the spirit has nothing into which to deposit itself? If we carry out a discussion on this basis, the Grand Terminus (taiji) is the mother of the two elementary forms [ yin and yang], and the two elementary forms are the foundation of all things.360 The Grand Terminus, [however,] is simply the vapor of Heaven and Earth. It can still unite the roots of all these changes, and it does not change that it is the root. How much more can the spiritual intelligence—the apex of the numinous being that exhausts both existence and nonexistence—do? You can comprehend that [the spirit] is immortal.”

The critic says, “You infer that the function of the spirit is beyond the body and you indicate that the Grand Terminus comes before things. This is really signiﬁcant. It is, however, valuable that reason satisﬁes the minds [of people]. Then a discussion can [actually] be carried out. The spirit and the body have not been separate from each other even for a moment. If they were separate from each other, there would be no spirit. There is no spirit in trees and plants because they do not have consciousness. When the body is exhausted, to what does the spirit attach itself, being called immortal? If it is able to be immortal, it rides on the numinous being [of the dead] without availing itself of a body. Since it does not avail itself of a body, why does it exist with a body? It is not separate from [the body] at last. If [the spirit and the body] cannot be separated from each other, it can certainly be understood that the foundation of life [in both spirit and body] is the same.”

I respond, “There is a criticism of this. The body and the spirit have their own origins. Let me explain it for you from the beginning, in orderly fashion. As to ﬁre, there is ﬁre on the basis of ﬁrewood. If there is no ﬁrewood, there is no ﬁre. Even though ﬁrewood is a device to make ﬁre, it is not the foun- dation of ﬁre. The foundation of ﬁre spontaneously exists, and simply comes to function complying with ﬁrewood. If ﬁrewood came before ﬁre, would it be reasonable to say that there was no ﬁre before Suiren (a legendary ruler

who ﬁrst discovered ﬁre)? The foundation of ﬁre is the utmost degree of yang, and yang is the culmination of ﬁre. Therefore, ﬁrewood is what ﬁre deposits itself into, but it is not the foundation [of ﬁre]. That the spirit and the body avail of each other is also like this. Availing of and complying with each other are merely the cause of the path [of transmigration] of birth [and death]. Why could it be that if there is a body, the spirit exists; and if there is no body, the spirit is exhausted? Its foundation is entranced, unconscious, and indescribable.

“Let me extensively give an example in order to clarify this for you. When ﬁrewood is in water, ﬁre is dead. When ﬁrewood is out of water, it makes ﬁre.361 The ﬁrewood remains the same, but ﬁre is designated beforehand [to either burn or be extinguished in accordance with conditions]. That the spirit does not rely on a body is also like this. You can understand thoroughly that the spirit does not need a body.”

The critic says, “It cannot be promptly concluded that the spirit does not need a body. If [the spirit] does not need a body, as you said, what avails itself of a body and what shines alone are usually the same in the principles. Even though [the spirit and the body] avail themselves of each other, this is not interdependence in the foundation. According to what the Buddhist doc- trine clariﬁes, we must educate and mold this spirit in order to save that body. Why is this so?”

I respond, “Your question has some intention. This is what ordinary people are deluded by, because they have not reached the foundation. Although the spirit does not need a body, that body is surely produced. In the body that is surely produced, this spirit certainly dwells. If [the spirit] certainly dwells in [the body] that is surely produced, the function [of the spirit] and the perception [of the body] become one, and they are spontaneously beneﬁcial to each other. If they are spontaneously beneﬁcial to each other, it is the highest degree of educating and molding in the principles. If it is [the highest degree of] educating and molding, it is fruitful. If it is fruitful, the Way is practiced. This can be compared to [the relationship between the changes of] the four seasons and [the changes of] all things. How could it be intentional to be mutually beneﬁcial? It is what the principles follow and what is naturally reached.”

The critic says, “I have respectfully heard that although the body and the spirit are different from each other, they are mutually beneﬁcial. You

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have already compared the spirit in the body to ﬁre in ﬁrewood. Firewood has no intention to make ﬁre and ﬁre has no frame of mind to deposit itself into ﬁrewood. Therefore, they can collaborate endlessly. They spontaneously transform together for a long time. It is not that the ﬁre of this ﬁrewood moves to that ﬁrewood and becomes ﬁre. Nevertheless, in Buddhist doctrine, on the basis that after the body is exhausted [the spirit] further dwells in that body, the coming into and going out [of life] of the spirit and the body originate in evil acts and meritorious deeds. Let me ask you: If this body performs evil acts, are evil acts done by the physical body or by the spirit? If the body [com- mits evil acts], [the body] is merely one of all things created by the Great Founder.362 If the spirit [commits evil acts], since the spirit does not act inde- pendently and is tied to something else, namely the body, your assertion that the body and spirit do not avail themselves of each other fails in this point.” I respond, “It is good to have this question so that I can explain the reason thoroughly. I said [previously] that body and spirit do not avail themselves of each other, by which I simply meant that they have different foundations. Once they come into life, in the endless transmigration of birth and death each of them pervades its function. If this life is used in order to commit evil acts and perform meritorious deeds, could it be possible that the spirit performs its function subtly by itself and does not do anything for the function of the body? If this is so, it would be intentional to be [either] wise or ignorant. It is not that [the spirit] neglects the function and mysteriously meets with [a body]. It is logical that [the spirit] meets mysteriously with [a body], and it is logical that the body is exhausted. The spirit that was educated dwells in a body. You do not doubt the original [assertion that spirit and body are inter- dependent]. That (i.e., the previous discussion) and this (i.e., the latter dis- cussion) follow the same logic. Why do you doubt only the latter part?”363 The critic says, “The spirit functions in conformity with the body, and the body functions in accordance with the spirit. This is exactly so! Since realization derives from the spirit, delusion lies in the spirit as well. The spirit follows the body. Therefore, there are the wise and the ignorant. Being wise or ignorant is not [a function of] the spirit but [results from the fact that] the spirit does something in the functioning of the body. [The spirit] revolves in the three periods (past, present, and future) for a very long time, beyond calculation. Being wise or ignorant has no beginning, and the potency [of being wise or

ignorant] becomes evident midway [through the course of the transmigration of birth and death]. The law of non-beginning is profound, while the potency [manifested] midway is immature. Could it be possible that what exists in the later potency rises far above the origin of non-beginning? If you have a good [explanation] for me to understand this thoroughly, please let me follow in your footsteps.”

I respond, “Since you inquired into the origin [of being wise or ignorant], you made this statement. In the principles there is neither beginning nor end. The culmination of profundity is boundless. Once we have already been born or transformed, continuously committing evil acts or performing meritorious deeds simply takes place naturally. So-called sagacity truly derives from the ears and eyes, but the foundation of the ears and eyes is not sagacity. What is called being wise or ignorant really ought to have a beginning. If there is already being wise or ignorant, nothing about the beginning can be known. There is something, but it cannot control [other] things. There is only nothing [as the foundation] that is later able to become to what things return. If there is a beginning, it is impossible to have no end.364 Only when there is non- beginning do beginning and end become inexhaustible. This is naturally a matter of course. It is impossible [to deny this]. Based on the assumption that things have a beginning, you cannot demand that the spirit is the same as things. The Way of the Spirit is abstruse and subtle. The ultimate principle is unspeakable. As the principle is indicated indistinctly, we come to under- stand it together. If we seek for the foundation from the end, we are apt to fail to catch its entirety. So I would like to abide by this viewpoint and hope that it offers steps to lead to the peak [of realization]. If you [were to continue to] indulge in arguing and competing in compositions, I know that you should cease.

“The Hongfan chapter [of the Book of History] speaks of the foundation of living. On this point it is the same as Buddhism. As to the matter that in what the Buddha expounds there are many [statements like] the Milky Way [that are too far-fetched to gain credulity],365 this is simply because you indulge in daily matters. Shangchen (King Mu of Chu state) extremely trans- gressed against [ethics] (i.e., he killed his father, King Cheng), but his descen- dants made the state prosperous. Yan [Hui] and Ran [Boniu] were virtuous, but they were not well known because they died young. The teaching of the

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Duke of Zhou and Confucius is for matters of this world (i.e., this existence). If this reason is inferred, it can be understood.

“Let me extend the testimony in order to examine it in more detail. If one receives a numinous being and embraces harmony, he can master the ultimate way and become pure. Yao begat Danzhu, who was stupid and evil, who had no sense of order, and who did not know benevolence and right- eousness. Gusou begat Shun. When we trace the origin of [Shun’s] birth, [we ﬁnd that the father] was not a man who could raise [a virtuous son]. When we seek the principle [based on the teaching of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, we know that] good qualities should be passed on, but the [real] matters are like this. You, however, said that the Buddhist doctrine is unre- alistic. Shouldn’t you realize [that this is not true]?”

The New Discourse on Body and Spirit by Huan Junshan

I, [Lu] Cheng (425–494), think that Junshan had never heard Śākyamuni’s teaching, but he already excerpted the simile of ﬁrewood and ﬁre when he discussed [the relationship of] body and spirit. In the later disputant’s state- ment, there is a point that obscurely matches with [this simile]. Accordingly, I carry on [his discourse] here.

I once visited the former magistrate of Chen county, Du Fang, who [now resides] in Tong prefecture. I saw that he was reading Laozi’s book. He said, “Laozi preserved his health by [living] a tranquil life without worldly desires and enjoyed his life for as long as several hundred years. Today if we practice the way he did, would we be able to prolong life and stay young?”

I responded, “Even though [human beings] are the same in form and name, each has a different degree in their temperament, nature, and ability. Some have strong air, some have weak air; some have determined air, and some have timid air. By loving, cultivating, and appropriately using [our natures and abilities], we can simply alleviate [the pain of] our aging. It is just like if we take good care of clothes, footwear, and utensils, they remain in good condition and last long.”

Nearby I saw the embers of a ﬂaxen torch that hung down one chi. On the basis of this, I then made the analogy, “[The condition] of the spirit dwelling

in a body is similar to that of a ﬁre burning a [ﬂaxen] torch. If we are good at holding it and shifting its position in accordance with the ﬂame, it is possible that the ﬁre will not go out until the torch fuel is entirely consumed. Without the torch, no ﬁre can be produced by itself in emptiness. Moreover, it is impos- sible for the embers [of the torch] to burn after [the ﬁre goes out]. The embers are like a person’s aging and inﬁrm [body]. When teeth fall out, hair turns grey, and muscles lose their vigor, the spirit cannot invigorate [the body]. When [the symptoms of aging] completely cover the inside and outside [of the body], the vapor is exhausted and we die. It is just as the ﬂame and the torch come to an end together. [Suppose] a man encounters an evil thing and is injured or falls ill. If he does not receive [medical] treatment or meet a good doctor, he will probably die an unnatural death. If he dies [in this way], his muscles and bones are usually just like ﬂames that are fanned by a strong wind, which are not protected from [being extinguished], and which die out. Namely, the body remains, [just as] the main part [of the torch] remains. “Once while sitting and drinking in my inner chamber at night, I lit a ﬂaxen torch. In the midst of burning, the torch was crushed and about to go out. I closely inspected it by myself and found that the bark [of the torch] covered [the top] like a scab. So I supported [the torch by my hand] and shifted its position. Consequently, the ﬂame recovered [its strength]. This indicates that when a human body has a sickness or is severely injured, if it is taken care of and maintained well, it is possible to restore the body to

[good] condition.

“Furthermore, no one can know the beginning of the time of his birth, and even when he gets old, he ought not to know when he will die, either. In ancient times, when it was a peaceful world, people were born under good- ness and prosperity. All were strong and enjoyed longevity. They lived for about a hundred years and died. When they died, they looked like they were sleeping and suddenly [their spirits] left [their bodies]. It is just like fruits and grains that fully ripen and naturally fall [to the ground]. People of later ages are victimized by the vicious vapors of declining and waning. Moreover, they lose [their chance for] a timely marriage and work excessively and dili- gently despite hardships. Hence, even if they give birth, both [parents and children] are impaired, and their bones, muscles, blood, and breath are not strong enough. Therefore, many people die of misfortune that shortens their

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life, or while still young in midlife. When they fall ill, they may suffer from pain, sadness, and worry, and later they pass away. Therefore, we sigh, we hate death, and we consider it to be a great [occasion].

Formerly Lord Jing of Qi state praised his state, commended his hap- piness, and said, ‘If from the earliest times there were no death, what would that be like?’ Yanzi (i.e., Yan Ying), [prime minister of Qi state,] answered, ‘The Supreme Thearch considers that human death is good, the virtuous con- sider it to be a rest, and those who are not virtuous consider [that death is simply] to go away.’366 Today [people] do not think to make effort to broaden [their knowledge], to study every day, and to understand [the Way] thoroughly in order to quickly rise in the world and become famous. If they have a long life only coveting proﬁt and still seek to prolong their life, they are deluded and do not understand [the truth].”

Someone criticized this, “When the body and spirit are compared to a torch and ﬁre, it appears that there is a parallel point, but I am afraid that there is not. The reason human skin and ﬂesh are healed spontaneously when they are ﬂayed or injured is that the blood and breath circulate. When the ﬂaxen torch is damaged, although it burns, it cannot completely recover [its original force]. Hence, [human beings] grow with the spiritual breath. If the torch is unable to recover by itself, this is probably what is considered different [from human beings]. Why do you assert that [human beings and a torch] are the same?”

I responded, “A ﬁre begins from the edge [of a torch], but the spiritual vapor of a human being is within the body. It is gradually released from the interior and united at the exterior. Even if it moves from the exterior toward the interior, assuredly it is not necessary to go in from an edge. This is similar to a red-hot charcoal ﬁre: if water is sprinkled on it, it may seem to be about to go out but it glows again. This is the same as the case where the human blood and breath stimulate the growth of skin and ﬂesh. When we look at [the state of something after complete combustion, we ﬁnd] that some parts become ashes, and other parts become embers. Why is it impossible to com- pare this to [the human body and spirit]?”

On another night I was talking with [Liu] Boshi, sitting face to face, burning the oil of a lamp. Since the oil in the lamp was exhausted and the

wick was bare, the light was going out. Then, showing this to Boshi, I said, “Human aging is also like the bare [wick of] the lamp.” Furthermore, I spoke of the matter of the ﬂaxen torch that I previously [mentioned to you]. Boshi said, “When the lamp [oil] and the torch burn out, we must add oil or switch to a [new] torch. When a man becomes old, he should quickly pour [blood and breath in his body in order to sustain his life].”

I responded, “A man has already received a body [from Heaven] and formed himself. This is just like holding that lamp or torch. When [the lamp and torch] are exhausted, how can they change themselves, since they have been exhausted? When they are exhausted, the one who changes them is a human being. That which quickly pours [blood and breath in a human body in order to sustain its life] is Heaven. If Heaven is able to do well for human beings and ﬁll up their bodies with blood and breath and strengthen their muscles and bones, then their bodies and spirits become vigorous, even to the extremities, and they live for a long time. Otherwise, they get a fatal illness or are injured. It is just as a ﬂame lasts a short or long time according to the quality of the oil or the length of the torch. If you want a lamp to add [oil to itself] or a torch to [replace] itself [with a new one], it is impossible. Just by collecting nearby oil in order to soak the tip of [the wick], or shifting the position of the main part of a torch in order to make the ﬂame stable, their brightness can be recovered. [But] when the foundation [of the ﬂame] is exhausted, there is no longer anything to burn.

“Now, regarding the preservation of our health, we may be able to replace a lost tooth, dye gray hair black, or regain lustrous skin and face, just as in the case of collecting [nearby] oil or shifting [the position of] a torch. When life comes to an end, [however,] one dies alone. Since intelligent people are aware that it is difﬁcult to seek [a long life], they do not trouble themselves about that. Ignorant people are deluded and hope to gain the power to add oil or replace a torch. Therefore, they are anxious and restless. Moreover, trees, plants, and the ﬁve kinds of grains spring up on the earth by the vapor of yin and yang, and produce fruits and seeds when they mature. The fruits and seeds go back into the earth and are later reborn. This is compared to human beings, birds, beasts, and insects: all are born through the union of male and female. When they are born, they grow up; when they grow up, they become old; and when they are

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old, they die. It is similar to the changes of the four seasons. To attempt to change its nature and seek to practice a peculiar way are done only by those who are deluded and who do not understand [the truth].”

The Discourse on Why Śramaṇas Do Not Bow to the Sovereign (Shamen bujing wangzhelun) by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan

During the reign of Emperor Cheng (321–342; r. 337–342) and of Emperor Kang (322–344; r. 342–344) of the [Eastern] Jin dynasty, Chariot and Horse General Yu Bing (296–344) had doubts about why śramaṇas treat the emperor as equal to themselves, without regard to formalities. [Yu Bing] clariﬁed the reason, and Cavalry General He [Chong] (292–346) responded to this.367 Later, in the Yuanxing era (402–404) [of Emperor An (382–418)], Defender-in- Chief Lord Huan [Xuan] agreed with [Yu Bing], but he thought that Yu’s argument was not complete. He then gave a letter to the eight executives, in which he wrote:

“Even though the Buddha’s ediﬁcation is endlessly vast and infers the world beyond the visual and aural senses, respect is considered to be its foun- dation. On this point, there is no difference between the [Buddhist] clergy and laypeople. I assume that what they aspire for differ, but this does not mean that respect should be abolished.

“In the Laozi [Daodejing], princes are considered equal to the three great elements, [the Way, Heaven, and Earth].368 When [we examine] why they are considered so important, [we ﬁnd that the reason] entirely lies in that they support [all things] to grow and [the heavenly bodies] to move smoothly. [Otherwise,] how could they be referred to be equal to the two polarities, [Heaven and Earth,] only for the reason that sages are on the throne? [As the Book of Changes says,] ‘The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is called life.’369 [The virtue] to make life all over the country and arrange all things lies in sovereigns. Therefore, we respect the throne and we are gloriously courteous to it. How could we vainly revere and value them? The signiﬁcance is simply in the fact that sovereigns control [all things]. The reason śramaṇas are born in succession and live with supports is also that they are every day under the government ordinance [made by sovereigns]. How could it be that [śramaṇas]

enjoy the virtue [given by sovereigns] and abandon courtesy [toward them], or beneﬁt from [sovereigns’] kindness but reject [the propriety of] paying respect to them?”

At that time, many people of distinction both in and out of the government responded [to Huan Xuan’s inquiry]. Although their statements did not awaken [the people] of that time, they all made good points. [Nevertheless,] generally [their statements] consisted only of what these people expressed from their hearts, and [the objective] truth was hidden by [their subjective] feelings. Consequently, this caused the supreme monk’s robes to be damaged by earthly affairs. The mind that brightly aspires [for the Buddhist teaching] gave way to human customs. It is sad! This is precisely a cause for the case that “[The world and the Way] were lost to each other”370 or the bad luck that happens every thousand years.

I am deeply afraid that the Great Dharma is going to ruin, and I am impressed with [the old warning] that “Not to forget that previous lessons are [a teacher for later events].”371 Hence, I wrote a discourse of ﬁve sections, in which I actually expressed my humble intention. How could it be said that [Buddhism], which is as deep as a gully, needs [my humble statement that is as powerless as] the morning dew? I, however, would like to set forth my boundless mind [for Buddhism]. I hope that among gentlemen of later gener- ations those who hold Buddhism in esteem will read [my discourse] carefully.

Section One: Lay Buddhists

When we examine what Buddhism clariﬁes, we ﬁnd that in general the idea of renouncing the world is considered different [from other teachings]. Generally there are four different classes for those who have renounced the world: [bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, śrāmaṇeras, and śrāmaṇerikās]. In propagating the teaching and educating the people, their achievement is equivalent to that of sovereigns, and their ediﬁcation concurrently takes the way of statecraft. Regarding the time to awaken people, there is no time not to do so (i.e., people may be awakened anytime), but according to the period [in which Buddhism] is encountered, [Buddhists may] go out [to edify others] or retreat [for self-cultivation]. Therefore, following the rise and fall [of the world, the teaching] simply becomes evident or not evident. Let me brieﬂy mention here what among the issues can be discussed.

Those who remain householders and respectfully perform the Dharma are the people who obey the [sovereign’s] ediﬁcation, whose feelings are no different from those of people in general, and whose lifestyle is the same as that of non-Buddhists. Accordingly, they have attachment to their families and relatives and offer courtesy to their rulers. Courtesy and respect lie in the foundation [of the people’s feelings]. Consequently, on the basis of [the foundation,] the teaching is established. When we [inquire into] the origin of [the foundation] we ﬁnd that the accomplishment is derived from the world of antiquity. Therefore “By teaching love on the basis of the feeling of inti- macy” we cause the people to become aware that there is spontaneous kind- ness. “By teaching respect on the basis of sternness”372 we cause the people to become aware that there is a natural important one.

The two issues (i.e., relationships between parents and children and between sovereign and subjects) actually stem from the reward and retribution of the unseen world. Reward and retribution do not begin in the present life. One must inquire into their origins. Therefore, [in Buddhism] retribution for a sin is considered punishment, and [Buddhism] makes people fear [retribution] and exercise caution for their later [existences]. [Rebirth in] Heaven is con- sidered to be a noble reward, and [Buddhism] makes the people happy and has them perform [good] acts for their later [existences]. These all clarify the teaching with the law of reward and retribution, just as the shadow [responds to the form] and the sound [follows the voice].

To submit causes is taken as proﬁciency, and [the teaching was estab- lished] without changing the nature. This is because if one treats oneself gen- erously to maintain his life, he sticks to the confrontation [between himself and others] and has confusion, a nuisance roots deeply, and he assuredly never misses maintaining his life. He considers sensual desires to be a [plea- surable] garden, and music and women to be as joyful as sightseeing travel. He is addicted to worldly pleasures, from which he is unable to escape by his own effort. Accordingly, for the teaching to restrict [sensual desires, the law of reward and retribution is expounded] and taken as the limit [of the teaching for lay Buddhists], and nothing more than this is clariﬁed. Since nothing more than this is clariﬁed [for lay Buddhists], generally [they] are very much the same in obeying the law [established by the sovereign]. There- fore, it is impossible for them to receive the virtue [from their parents and

the sovereign] and yet fail to show courtesy toward them, or to beneﬁt from the favor [of their parents and sovereign] and yet reject paying respect to them. Consequently, [lay Buddhists] who are delighted with the teaching style of Śākyamuni always ﬁrst admire their parents and respect their sovereign.

When one abandons secular [life] and takes the tonsure, he must await the orders [of his parents and sovereign] and take action following [their orders]. If the sovereign and the parents have doubts about [his determination to abandon secular life], he should retreat, ask their intentions, and wait for the time when they have the same state of mind as his. This is precisely the reason why Buddhism values supporting [people’s] daily lives and helps the sovereign educate [the people] in the way of administration. The purpose of statements made by the advocates appears to be the same [as mine]. Therefore, I have posited the distinction between Buddhist clergy (nei) and laypeople (wai) in order to clarify the purpose regarding the three most revered people. I have brieﬂy narrated the tenor of Buddhist scriptures and pronounced my thoughts.

Section Two: The Buddhist Clergy

The Buddhist clergy are visitors from beyond the mundane world. Their lifestyle is beyond that of people of the world. The teaching for them is to master [the fact] that afﬂiction is caused by having a body and that afﬂiction is ended through not preserving the body, to know that [the operation of] life after life is derived from receiving the principle of the mutation [of birth and death in the phenomenal world], and to seek the ultimate law of Nature through not following the principle of the mutation [of birth and death]. Since they seek the ultimate law of Nature through not following the principle of the mutation [of birth and death], they do not value the support of [a sovereign who] manages the movement of [Heaven and Earth]. Since they bring an end to afﬂiction through not preserving the body, they do not esteem the advantage of [the sovereign’s] welfare [toward the people]. This means that principles and forms go against each other and monks and secular people are contrary to each other.

This kind of person makes a vow for himself by taking the tonsure at the beginning, and shows [his determination] in changing his ordinary clothes [to monk’s robes]. Accordingly, in general all members of the clergy renounce the world in order to pursue their aspiration, and they become different from

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secular people in order to realize their way. Since they become different from secular people, their clothing code must not be the same as the secular rule. Since they renounce the world, they ought to follow a lofty lifestyle. Well, [Buddhist] monks are like this. Therefore, they are able to save secular people who are drowning in the deep stream [of transmigration of birth and death], uproot their deep roots [of karma] for numerous kalpas, profoundly lead [them] to the ferry of the three vehicles, and open widely the passes to the realms of heavenly beings and human beings.

If a person completes the virtue [of a monk], the Buddhist Way diffuses [virtuous inﬂuence] over his family members of the six relations, and the beneﬁt spreads to all people. Even though [monks] are not placed in the rank of princes, [their way] is already compatible with the fundamental way the emperor rules over the world, and they can let the people be as they are. Consequently, while privately they oppose their family’s valuable [attachment to him and become a monk], they do not go against ﬁlial piety. While they may lack the courtesy of paying respect to the ruler in public, they are not impolite [to him].

Judging from this point of view, you know that if you go outside beyond the principle of the mutation [of birth and death in the phenomenal world] in order to seek the ultimate law of Nature, [you will know that to investigate] the principles is profound and the signiﬁcance is great. It is clear that [the Confucian] benevolence spoken of [by people], heaving a sigh, is insigniﬁcant in merit and of little beneﬁt. If that is the case, [Buddhist monks] are still ashamed to hear the teaching of “those who are about to face toward Mount Ming”373 (i.e., those who aspire to the way of Laozi and Zhuangzi beyond the Confucian ethics) and turn back. How could [monks] be compared with those who follow the [sovereign’s] education and the wise men who receive a stipend without rendering any service, and be [considered] the same as them in regard to showing ﬁlial piety and respect [for their parents and the sovereign]?

Section Three: Those Who Pursue the Ultimate Law of Nature Do Not Follow the Principle of the Mutation [of Birth and Death

in the Phenomenal World]

Question: “When we look to Laozi’s thought, we ﬁnd he means that Heaven and Earth are considered to be great because of their attainment of the One (i.e., the Way); princes and kings are considered to be noble since

they master to follow [the One];374 since [Heaven and Earth] attain the One, they are the foundation of myriad changes; and since [princes and kings] master to follow [the One], they have the function of leading the movement of Heaven and Earth. If this is so, to clarify the ultimate law of Nature must lie in mastering the root [of the Way]. To master the root [of the Way] must be due to following the principle of the mutation [of birth and death in the phenomenal world]. Therefore, wise people of former times thought that [Lao’s statement of this] is good. It is impossible that many other theories differ from this. If a theory that differs from these many theories is established, it is unworthy of serious consideration. Nevertheless, you said not to follow the principle of the mutation [of birth and death in the phenomenal world in order to pursue the ultimate law of Nature]. Why is this so?”

Answer: “Every existence in the ﬁnite world equally receives a life in [the law of] the great change (i.e., the Way). Even though a large number of individuals are multifarious and there is a difference between the exquisite and the coarse, generally speaking, in the long run they are simply divided into [two kinds:] those who have a mental function and those who do not. Those who have [a mental function] give rise to a feeling for change, and those who have no feeling for change. Since they do not have a feeling for change, when the change ends, their life is completed. Since their life has nothing to do with feeling, when the form decays, the change ceases to exist. [On the other hand,] those who give rise to a feeling for change respond to things and are moved. Since this movement must be caused by the feeling, their life does not cease. Since their life does not cease, the change becomes broader, the form (i.e., the body) goes through [the transmigration of birth and death] more and more, the feeling is more pent-up, and the afﬂiction gets deeper. How can this afﬂiction be described?

“Therefore, a sutra states, ‘Nirvana is the state of no change. Thereby the exhaustion of change is considered to be the realm [of nirvana]. The three realms of existence are the state of ﬂowing motion. Thereby, they are places full of sin and suffering.’ When the change comes to an end, causes and con- ditions cease eternally. When [the change] is in ﬂowing motion, we receive suffering forever. How can this be clariﬁed?

“Life is shackled by the body, and it continues to exist due to [the law of] the change. When [we human beings] give rise to a feeling for change,

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the spirit is tied to its foundation, and the intelligence becomes dull. When [the mind] is ﬁrmly blocked [by feelings], one tries to preserve only himself and gets involved only in the state of [ﬂowing] motion. Then the reins of mental function lose control, the path to [the transmigration of] birth and death is daily opened, and one just follows greed and clinging in the long ﬂow [of the transmigration of birth and death]. How would it be to receive a life only [in this world]?

“Consequently, those who turn back to the origin and seek the ultimate law of Nature do not toil their spirits with [the work of] life. Those who tran- scend the mundane world do not trouble their life with feelings. If we do not trouble our life with feelings, it is possible to sever [the transmigration of] birth and death. If we do not trouble our spirits with [the work of] life, it is possible that the spirit profoundly unites with [the transcendental world]. Since the spirit profoundly unites with the transcendental world, it is called nirvana. How could the term nirvana be named groundlessly?

“Let me infer and actualize it. Even though Heaven and Earth are great for producing and raising all things, they cannot make living creatures immor- tal. Although princes and kings consider causing all beings to survive to be their [major] achievement, they cannot cause them all to be free of afﬂiction. Therefore, in the previous discussion I said, ‘[The teaching for Buddhist monks is] to master [the fact] that afﬂiction is caused by having a body and that afﬂiction is ended through not preserving the body, to know that [the operation of] life after life is derived from receiving the principle of the muta- tion [of birth and death in the phenomenal world], and to seek the ultimate law of Nature through not following the principle of the mutation [of birth and death].’ The meaning lies in this. Since the meaning lies herein, this is why śramaṇas treat sovereigns as equal, without regard to formalities; they exalt their tasks, they are not graced with a title of nobility from princes and kings, and yet they beneﬁt from the kindness of [princes and kings].”

Section Four: Those Who Have Mastered the Ultimate Way Do Not Respond to the World by Serving Both [for Relief by Politics and Emancipation by Religion]

Question: “Looking at all previous histories, from the time of the earlier emperors on, those who occupy the throne and are united with the fundamental

ways [of the world] do not necessarily differ from each other in the original base. Since the original base cannot be dual, through all the generations cer- emonial forms are the same and the system is consistent. It is ‘Only Heaven is great and Yao solely modeled after it.’375 If it is like this, it is not the case that the wisdom [of sages] has nothing to illuminate, and there is nothing else that can be illuminated. Since it is not the case that in the law of Nature there is something that is not completed, there is nothing the law of Nature can complete. Inferring from this, [the world] beyond what we see and hear is empty; there is nothing to ascertain about it. Since there is nothing to ascer- tain in reason [about the world beyond what we see and hear], it can be clear what are the ultimate law of Nature and the ultimate Way [mastered by sages]. Today, all śramaṇas do not understand the meaning beyond writings, and they are puzzled about [the sages’] purpose that is beyond the teaching. Cer- tainly they are terribly wrong. If there were an apparent sign for this (i.e., that the Chinese sages did not realize the truth of the transcendental world), it would be invaluable information.”

Answer: “The mysterious ultimate law of Nature is vast and remote. The Way of the Spirit is profound. It can be sought with [philosophical] prin- ciples, but it is difﬁcult to cross-examine with phenomenal facts. Once [the Way of the Spirit] is established as a teaching, the teaching aims at following the fashion of the day. The capacity according to [the fashion of the day] varies between superiority and inferiority, but regarding [the fact that the teaching] completes [the nature of] all things, it lies in using the function of human receptivity of mysterious responsive activity, conforming to people’s minds, and leading their endowments. When their endowments reach the utmost limits, ‘the knowledge stops at what it does not know’376 and does not participate in more than that.

“If this is so, it is not that those who have mastered the ultimate Way do not comprehend both [worlds within and beyond human limits]; they com- prehend both, but they simply cannot manage both simultaneously. Therefore, [the Zhuangzi says,] ‘When the ancients spoke of the Great Way, [ﬁrst Heaven was clariﬁed], “objects and their names could be mentioned at the ﬁfth from the beginning,” and “rewards and penalties” could be stated at the ninth.’77 This [indicates] only the steps [to rule] the secular world, but [a teaching,

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regardless of the steps,] still cannot be suddenly established, not to mention about [teachings] in the world beyond [the secular world]. Let me infer this more broadly [in order to explore] the purport more deeply.

“As for the statement [in the Zhuangzi], ‘Outside the six conjunctions (i.e., the limits of the world of humans, literally, the four cardinal directions plus zenith and nadir), [the sage] keeps it in mind, but does not discuss [any- thing],’378 this does not mean that it is impossible to discuss it but that if [the sage] dares to discuss it, he may be at variance [with the truth]. The statement ‘Inside the limits of the world of humans, [the sage] discusses [in outline] but does not debate anything about it’ does not mean that [the sage] cannot debate, but that if he dared to debate it he may [cause others] to have doubts. The statement ‘The spring and autumn manages the affairs of the former kings’ designs. [The sage] debates these but does not criticize them’ does not mean that [the sage] cannot criticize them, but that if he criticizes he may [cause others] to be confused. These three manners (i.e., not discussing, not debating, and not criticizing) are all based on the fact that our visual-auditory senses are limited and place restrictions on our behaviors, and do not get involved in the world beyond our visual-auditory senses. If we seek the sage’s purport on this basis, the ways inside and outside [the limits of the world of humans] can be united and clariﬁed.

“I always think that the Buddhist and Confucian teachings, and that the Tathāgata and Yao and Confucius secretly have a close relationship with each other even though they differ from each other in establishing their teaching. [These two groups] actually make a distinction about renouncing [the world] or staying [in the secular world], but they are the same after all. Debating it in detail, we will be able to see a main theme [that the two ways are the same]. In reason, there may be those that are united at the beginning and sep- arate [into more than one] later, and those that are separate at the beginning and become united later. Those that are ﬁrst united and later separate are none other than all buddhas and tathāgatas, while those who are ﬁrst separate and later united are successive sovereigns who have not mastered the ultimate Way; they are in the [latter] group.

“Why is this made clear? A sutra says, ‘The Buddha mastered the sponta- neous, marvelous Dharma. He ediﬁes the people with expedients. Following the revealed world extensively, he becomes an immortal, the wheel-turning

noble king, a high-ranking ofﬁcial, a minister, the most reverend priest, or a monk. As [one of] these, he transforms and manifests himself everywhere. No one among all the kings and virtuous men knows who he is.’379 This case is that of the so-called one that is ﬁrst united and later separate.

“On the other hand, there are [sovereigns] who began a great enterprise [of educating the people] but have not yet achieved the meritorious education. Since the form [of the teaching] varies, what [the people] receive is uneven. Some expect achievement after death, or some have the testimony that responds to [the education] revealed in their lifetimes. Among sage kings, those who have accomplished the teaching based on [the Buddhist Way] are countless. Even though [their method of teaching] is that of the stick and carrot and has no set rules, their goals must converge. This case is that of the so-called ones that are ﬁrst separate and later united.

“If [things] are now separate and later united, those who intend to walk on a road leading everywhere will assuredly not limit themselves to only one passage. If [things] are united now and later separate, it can be certainly known that the conclusive point of Śākyamuni and that of Yao and Confucius are no different from each other. Hence, if we seek uniﬁcation from separation, we will know that [Buddhism and Confucianism] must arrive at the same truth. If we seek separation from uniﬁcation, we will realize that there are many methods to master the ultimate Way. Those who only look at [the surface of] phenomena, however, do not understand that both are one. Therefore, they are merely confused by the many ways and surprised by their differences. “Observing on this basis, the merit of the way of Heaven and Earth is nothing more than operating [the universe] and producing and nourishing [all things]. The virtue of emperors and kings is nothing more than following the way [of Heaven and Earth] and helping it in nourishing and leading [the peo- ple]. If we compare them (i.e., the merit of the way of Heaven and Earth and the virtue of emperors and kings) with [Buddhism], the singularly transcendent teaching and the immutable religion, it is already clear that it is doubtlessly impossible to talk about its superiority and inferiority in the same breath.”

Section Five: The Body is Mortal but the Spirit is Immortal

Question: “Your discussion takes the case that the mutation [of birth and death] comes to an end to be the utmost supremacy. Hence, those who want

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to reach the utmost supremacy must go against the mutation [of birth and death] and seek the ultimate law of Nature. Since in order to seek the ultimate law of Nature one does not go through following the mutation [of birth and death], you refer to successive sovereigns and equate [their teachings] with Buddhism, and take the one who has mastered the utmost supremacy to be a sovereign who rules with expedients. This is what your discussion entails. You must believe that it is the Great Pervader.380 When I inquire whether or not this conforms to reality, it is not so in reason. Why? A person [is born] receiving the vapor [of yin and yang], which lasts only for his lifetime. When his life comes to an end, he will vanish and return to nothing. Even though ‘the spirit is the most mysterious of a myriad of things,’381 this is originally just what yin and yang transform into. ‘By a transformation a person is born. By another transformation a person dies.’382 Since [the vapor] is collected, there is a beginning; when it is dispersed, there is an end.

“Inferring from this basis, it is assuredly known that spirit and body alto- gether transform, they are originally not in different lines from each other, the exquisite [vapor of the spirit] and the coarse [vapor of the body] are the same, and [both spirit and body] are one unit from beginning to end. When the body is complete, the vapor is collected and the spirit comes to exist. When the body is destroyed, the vapor is dispersed and the function [of the spirit] extinguishes. When [the vapor] is dispersed, [life] returns to the original place of Heaven where it received [the vapor]. When the function [of the spirit] is extinguished, it returns and becomes nothing. It is simply the law of Nature that all [existence] repeats extinction. What else could do this?

If [spirit and body] are fundamentally different from each other, these two different kinds of vapor are united in the law [of Nature]. When they are united, [spirit and body] equally transform. In addition, the spirit that dwells in the body is compared to a ﬁre that burns wood. When [the body] is pro- duced, [the spirit] must exist. When [the body] is destroyed, [the spirit] must be extinguished. When the body is broken up, the spirit is dispersed, as it no longer has [the body] to rely on. When the [vigor of] the wood is lost, the ﬁre goes out, as it no longer has [fuel] to rely on. It stands to reason.

“Even if it is difﬁcult to distinguish and clarify whether or not [spirit and body] are homogeneous, it can be said that existence and nonexistence are certainly due to the collection and dispersion [of the vapor]. The phrase

‘collection and dispersion’ is the general term for the change of the vapor [of yin and yang], and for birth and death of myriad transformations. Accord- ingly, the Zhuangzi says: ‘Human life is due to the collection of the vapor. When [the vapor] is collected, there is life. When it is dispersed, there is death. If death and life are in the same category, what is there to worry about?’383 The ancients who were good at speaking of the Way must have the idea [that life and death are due to the collection and dispersion of the vapor]. If that is so, the highest truth (i.e., life) terminates in one’s lifetime. I should ask you the meaning [of your statement] that the life [of the body] comes to an end, but [the life of the spirit] does not change.”

Answer: “Whatever can the spirit be? It is a being that comes to have mysterious functions at the apex of exquisiteness [of the vapor of yin and yang]. Since it is the highest exquisiteness, it cannot be illustrated with the symbols [of the Book of Changes]. For that reason, sages call it ‘the most subtle [of a myriad of things].’ Even the most intelligent person cannot deﬁne its form and cannot trace the very source of its profound purpose. Nevertheless, you, the speaker, have doubts based on general knowledge, join many others [who accuse Buddhism], and make yourself confused. Your false accusation is already serious. You intend to talk about [the spirit]. This is to speak of an unspeakable matter. Here, within [the limit of] unspeakableness, I would like to draw an outline of it for you.

“The spirit perfectly complies with [every change], being free from any- thing, and it is extremely mysterious and indescribable. It is moved by [exter- nal] objects and acts on them, and it operates availing itself of the law [of the phenomenal world]. It is moved by [external] objects, but since it is not a thing, when the thing changes [the spirit] is not extinguished [along with the thing]. It avails itself of the law [of the phenomenal world], but since it is not the law, even if the law comes to an end [the spirit] is not exhausted. Since we [human beings] have feelings, we can be moved by [external] objects. Since we have consciousness, we can seek with the law. There are [both] exquisiteness and coarseness in the law [of the phenomenal world]. Hence, the nature [of the law] varies. In intelligence there are sharp and dull. Therefore, the function [of intelligence] varies.

“Carrying out the discussion inferring from this point of view (i.e., that feeling and consciousness form the phenomenal world), it is known that the

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mutation (i.e., transmigration) [of birth and death] is affected by feeling, and the spirit is transmitted by the mutation [of birth and death]. Feeling is the mother of the mutation [of birth and death]. Spirit is the root of feeling. For feeling there is the law of encountering [external] objects, while for spirit there is the function of moving into the unseen world. Those who have become awakened thoroughly simply return to the origin [of the mutation of birth and death], but those who are deluded merely chase after [external] objects. The ancients who discussed the Way did not come to agreement [on this matter]. Let me cite [instances from their discussions] and clarify the matter.

“Zhuangzi, in the chapter on the ‘Great and Most Honored Master’ (Dazongshi) [in the Zhuangzi], pronounces profoundly that ‘the great mass [of Nature] gives us life so that we toil, and grants us death so that we can rest.’384 Moreover, he says, ‘Life is considered as being a human. Ah! Death is to return to the truth.’385 This is, as they say, to know that life is a great calamity and non-life is considered as returning to the origin. Wenzi quotes the words of the Yellow Emperor, ‘Although the body is dispersed, the spirit does not change itself. Based on the fact that it does not change itself, [the spirit] takes advantage of [every] change [of others]. Therefore, its change is boundless.’386

“Zhuangzi furthermore says, ‘When we take only the body of a human being [from the inﬁnite nature], we still have joy. This body undergoes myriad changes endlessly.’387 These words are, as they say, to know that human life is not exhausted only in one mutation [of birth and death], but follows [the changes of various] things and never returns [to the origin]. Even though the discussions of these two gentlemen (i.e., Zhuangzi and Wenzi) do not inves- tigate exhaustively the truth, they try to go along with the ultimate law of Nature, and it is worthy to listen to them.

“You, the disputant, have not examined [Zhuangzi’s] theory that ‘birth and death simultaneously exist side by side,’388 and you are deluded by the idea that [the vapor of yin and yang] is collected and dispersed just in one mutation [of birth and death]. You do not think that in the Way of the Spirit there exist numinous beings that are more mysterious than anything else, and you say that the exquisite vapor (i.e., the spirit) and the coarse vapor (i.e., the body) are equally exhausted. How sad would this be?

“The metaphor of ﬁre and wood [you cited as a quote from Zhuangzi] is originally derived from a sacred [Buddhist] scripture. Since its [correct]

transmission was lost, the deep purport has not been investigated, and the subtle words thereupon sank into a secular teaching. It causes you to avail yourself of it, and yet to have doubt.

“If until now there was no chance for a leader who was awakened to the ultimate law of Nature, we would not know that there was a pioneer who had insight into this law, and the function that [the spirit] transmigrates in the unseen world would never reach [the people of the world] until the end of their lives. Why is this so? When feeling and consciousness move each other389 [it gives rise to] the mutation [of birth and death], which is endless. [The relation between] cause and condition is ﬁrmly established, and it is transmitted imperceptibly. Other than those who thoroughly investigate, who could discern [the truth of] this change? Let me testify to it with facts for your sake.

“That a ﬁre is passed on to ﬁrewood is similar to the spirit transmigrating to the body. The ﬁre transferring to other ﬁrewood is just like the spirit mov- ing to another body. The former ﬁrewood is not the same as the latter, and then we know the extremely skillful performance of a hand [in transmitting the ﬁre from one piece of wood to another]. The former body is different from the latter, so we realize the profound response between feeling and consciousness. Deluded people, [however,] see the body decay in one exis- tence and then they think that the spirit, feeling, [and consciousness] die together with [the body]. This is simply compared to the case that when one sees that the ﬁrewood is burned up he says [that the ﬁre] is extinguished forever. This is to strain the passage from the chapter on ‘Nourishing the Lord of Life’ (Yangshengzhu) [in the Zhuangzi] and not to look deeply into the virtue [of the passage].

“Now, as you say in the discussion, if spirit and body altogether transform [and life returns to the original place of Heaven where it received the vapor], then [human life] begins from the original place of Heaven, and one’s dis- position of being dull or intelligent is the same as the natural endowments he receives [from Heaven]. Therefore I would like to ask you: Does a person receive his disposition [of being dull or intelligent] in the body, or in the spirit? If he receives it in the body, [since the disposition of being dull or intelligent is an attribute of the spirit,] everyone who has a body would all change and become spirit. If he receives it in the spirit, [since the spirit is

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not exhausted,] it would be passed on from spirit to spirit. [If this were the case,] then the [good-for-nothing] Danzhu would have been as holy as [his father,] Emperor Yao, and Zhonghua (i.e., Emperor Shun) would have had as [obstinate] a function of a spirit as [his father,] Gusou. Would this be pos- sible? Could this be possible? If it is impossible, we assuredly know that the unseen [cause and] condition was apparently established in the long-distant past, and the distinction of being intelligent or dull is destined before the body [is produced]. Although the marvelous lathe (i.e., the movement of Nature) revolves well, it still cannot change the character of Nature, not to mention that of [human beings, who] are more humble than [Nature]. If we examine [the metaphor of ﬁre and ﬁrewood] logically, [we ﬁnd] it is sublime language and has a veriﬁcation. If we follow it with the facts, it is possible that there is no delusion in the Great Pervader (i.e., the great truth).”390 After [the composition of] this discourse was completed, the guests who

had retired from public life walked under a bright moon and visited me one evening. We all gathered at the Dharma hall. Thereupon, one of the guests asked me, “I respectfully read your discourse. The fundamental point of argu- ment was perceivable and there was almost no ﬂaw in it. One day, [however,] when I tried to study it again I found there is a certain point that I do not understand thoroughly. You think that the śramaṇas’ system of deportment (i.e., religious precepts) is a special regulation that differs from the secular system, and which is an excellent tool (i.e., the rule of deportment) for those who cultivate the [Buddhist] Way; therefore, they certainly should omit making perfunctory respect to their sovereigns and parents.

“My present question is this: [Śramaṇas] devote themselves to begin the difﬁcult enterprise [of delivering sentient beings] and they hope [to achieve] the merit of transcending the world of the mutation [of birth and death] in the far future, yet their kindness is still latent and there is no [imme- diate] revelation of the efﬁcacy of the teaching. The reward and retribution for the next existence is profound and has not appeared responding to [what one does in this existence]. Nevertheless, they cause princes to offer [various things to them] and nobles who believe [in Buddhism] to kneel down [to worship them]. Shouldn’t they be censured for receiving kindness from others for doing nothing and being too hasty? Should they not be chastised for ben- eﬁting from others’ favors in vain, just like a parasite?”

I, the host, answered after awhile, “Let me take an example from familiar matters [and explain] for you, all wise people. [For instance,] suppose here is someone who, in order to announce an order he had received from the [government] of that time, is traveling to a remote place where the customs are different and where he needs nine different translators [to reach his des- tination]. The question is whether or not the king must provide him provisions and bestow upon him a carriage and clothes.”

[The questioner] replied, “Yes, he must do so.”

I said, “We can discover the case [of śramaṇas] from this example. What kind of person is called a śramaṇa? They are those who uncover the obscurity and confusion that cover common people, who open the profound path to the world beyond the mutation [of birth and death], who together with the people of the world follow the way of ‘forgetting both [others and myself],’391 who cause those who wish for loftiness (i.e., enlightenment) to take the custom handed down [from the Buddha], and who have those who rinse their mouths in a stream taste its surplus drops. If they are so, even though the great achievement has not yet been accomplished, when we see the trace of their superb footsteps, what we realize will indeed be magnanimous.

“In that case, [the sovereign’s] achievement in leading the operation [of Heaven and Earth] and advantage in supporting the existence [of all things] are still not as worthy as a śramaṇa’s initial vow [to save all sentient beings]. Needless to say, [the sovereign’s favors] do not match [a śramaṇa’s] toil to practice the three kinds of acts (i.e., of body, speech, and mind). In addition, although these people (śramaṇas) need [support from others to sustain] their bodies, they feel no inclination toward secular matters. They consider that to receive offerings of the four [requisite] things (clothing, food, shelter, and medicine) is just as if a horseﬂy or a mosquito were to ﬂy in front of them. Why is a favor [as tiny as] a bubble sufﬁcient to talk about?”

Thereafter, all the guests realized for the ﬁrst time that on the unseen path, to open the wheel tracks is considered to be a [śramaṇa’s] achievement, and a śramaṇa’s guidance is considered to be the way [to enlightenment]. Then they were happy, their minds at peace, and they all left, exclaiming. This was the third year of the Yuanxing era of the Jin dynasty (404), the year of efeng.392 At that time, Emperor [An] ﬂed from the capital and the people were all anxious [about the world]. All my comrades lamented the

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fact that the emperor was a puppet of his subjects. Consequently, based on [these facts], I set forth this discourse.

The Discourse on the Śramaṇa’s Robe Worn with a Bared Shoulder

(Shamen tanfulun) by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan

Someone asked, “The śramaṇa’s robe that shows a bared right shoulder is derived from the Buddha’s teaching. Does it conform with [proper] decorum?”

I answered, “Yes, it does.”

He asked [further], “The three dynasties (i.e., Xia, Yin, and Zhou) had different systems from each other and the decorum of each was not the same; [sometimes it was] simple and [sometimes it was] embellished. These changes are detailed in ancient books, but [the decorum of] Buddhism is excluded from those [of the three dynasties]. All the debaters have doubts about this. If there is a profound principle, I would be happy to receive your instruction for what I have not yet learned.”

I responded [to his question], “Primitive people did not lose the great simplicity and their decorum was not embellished. Since the three kings (i.e., King Yu of Xia, King Tang of Yin, and King Wu of Zhou) appeared in the world [and established their system], [decorum] changed in accordance with the times. Seen from this basis, what you, the debaters, maintain is simply the word regulated in the secular world [of ethical education]. How do I know this is so? What we do not have in China might be obtained from the customs of other countries. Since the people there have been without changes, their way (i.e., traditional decorum) has not been ruined. Hence, in Indian decorum, when they completely pay respect to virtuous ones or when they show their sincerity to gods, they usually dress with part of the body bared, which [the Book of Rites] refers to as a high degree in removing decorations [from clothing].393 Although the books that explain [this style of clothing] have not been circulated in this land, it appears that [the correct meaning of this style of clothing] was known at the beginning [when the style of clothing was established].

“The Buddha rose in the world and based on [Indian traditional customs] he established the teaching. He clariﬁed that since [Buddhists’ acts] are not

evil they should bare the right shoulder. Why is this? It is because the noble and the humble must be distinguished in their ranking; if virtuous ones are promoted by [receiving] a high rank, the mind to uphold the virtuous ones will arise. Therefore, śramaṇas go beyond fame and rank in order to cast away [the customs of] the times. They withdraw and never desire to take the initiative [in the world].

“Moreover, people are generally right-handed. If we do not follow [right- handedness] in doing something, we will have difﬁculties in everything. If we commit a blunder, although we may try to recover, it is not easy even for the middle level of wise people [to recover it], not to speak of those who are below this level. Let me try to explain this.

“The body consists of right and left, and the function of principles consists of right and wrong. To make up these two issues (i.e., right and left in the body and right and wrong in principles), each one avails itself of the foun- dation. If the foundation is blocked and [the blockage] is not uprooted, [each] responds more and more to the demands of the phenomenal world. Accord- ingly, if the body and principles help each other, the way [of the foundation] will be subtle and clear. [Nevertheless,] if the customs of the world do not change, to respond to the subtle [way of the foundation] is difﬁcult to manage. Once [the practice of wearing] a robe with one shoulder bared is made known, we will follow the practice in the body, be moved with the principles, and comprehend it in the mind. Thus, we control the vapor of following [the nature] and show the form of sincerity. Accordingly, the simultaneous practice of right and wrong is originally impossible.

“Hence, by wearing a robe with one shoulder bared, the World-honored One (Skt. Bhagavat) consolidated sincerity and shut off evil; he made the name and reality [of śramaṇas] well matched, and he caused reverence and laxity to not mix with each other. Later he opened the path to seek [enlight- enment]. He leads those who have been deluded for a long time to the true nature, he causes the wise who are stranded in the world to not despair by thinking that they have no hope [for salvation], and he causes those who hope to advance [in Buddhism] to not turn back by being deluded in the path. “In this way, those who have in mind the sacred gate [of Buddhism] all walk on the right [path]; they think of following [the law of Nature]; they obey the same rules regardless of the time or location; recollecting the past,

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they think of the simple [life]style [of ancient times]; they go against the splendid [customs] of the secular world in order to cleanse the mind; they examine the foundation to understand [the law of] changes thoroughly; they realize the profound [philosophical principles] in conformity with familiar matters; they feel shame if [their actions] contradict their appearance and dress; and they become deeply aware of the principles.

“If we act in this way, our feeling is ediﬁed, we earnestly approach [the Buddhist Way], and we do not tire of practicing [Buddhism]. Our acts must follow [the law of Nature], and our appearance unconsciously becomes respectful. This is indeed the external cause that the Tathāgata invites [people to Buddhism] and his wonderful method to teach ordinary people and to lead [them to Buddhism]. Nevertheless, many debaters have not been instructed [in the meaning of wearing a robe with one shoulder bared], and some people want to eliminate [this style]. It goes against the method of antiquity. How serious this problem is!”

A Criticism by He [Wuji], Zhennan [General]

I received your response to my question regarding the monk’s robe with one shoulder bared. Both the main point and the teaching are magnanimous. You connect the simplicity [of the robe] with [the customs of] primitive times, take [an example for the subsidiary relation between] the body and principles from familiar matters, distinguish respect from laxity, and completely explain both sincerity and clothing. There is almost no ﬂaw. Regarding the reason you clarify, that [having the right shoulder bared] is to follow [the law of Nature], however, I still do not agree with you. This is because to establish the system of decorum and clothing may be in accordance with the needs of the times. Hence, there are inside (i.e., statecraft) and outside (i.e., religion) in the phenomenal world, and then [the system] can be established roughly or minutely according to them.

Regarding Li (i.e., Laozi), Śākyamuni, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius, there are those who live in the secular world and those who leave the secular world behind. They are not the same in following their traditions, but it is clear that there is no difference between one who goes against [tradition] and one who follows it. Therefore, Laozi clariﬁes to make much use of the

right side in military honors and unfortunate rites,394 and in the Book of Rites it is instituted not to use the left in funeral rites.395 Moreover, the four immeas- urable minds (Skt. catur-apramāṇa or catvāryapramāṇāni) thoroughly refer to the most sincere mind to respect one’s parents, and the method of hunting called sanqu (i.e., driving game from three directions, leaving one side open for some to escape) shows the benevolence of the king’s acts.396

When we examine [events that happened] in later ages, the purpose [of those events] can be seen. Would we rather entrust the utmost way of following [the law of Nature] to inauspicious incidents, and show the auspicious sincerity in funeral rites? The reason that [Lord Xiang of] Zheng state stripped off the upper garment [and stood in front of the king of Chu state] is similar to the reason that [Lord] Xi of Xu loaded a cofﬁn on his carriage [to meet the king of Chu state].397 All these [incidents occured] because they thought that if what they availed themselves of went against [the law of Nature], they would assuredly receive an unexpected punishment. Testifying from this, where does following [the law of Nature] exist? [It exists in both China and India.] Therefore, I act in accordance with what I have in my mind, hoping you will explain more thoroughly and cause the inside (i.e., Buddhism) and the outside (i.e., Confucianism) to be united into one.

Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan’s Response [to He]

I respectfully inquired into the purpose of your question. [Your assertion] may open the lofty path, illuminate what I have not rendered, and cause the exquisite and the coarse to follow [the law of Nature] at the same time and Buddhism and Confucianism to be united into one. I read your instruction of this repeatedly and came to realize numerous things. I always think that in the teaching of the Way (i.e., Buddhism) and the teaching on social rela- tionships (i.e., Confucianism), or in [the case of] Śākyamuni, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius, although the method of establishing their teachings differs they secretly have a close relationship with each other. They actually differ in renouncing [the world] or staying [in the world], but they are the same after all. The trace of the wonderful [teaching of Chinese sages], how- ever, is hidden in daily use. The purport is deep and profound, and it is difﬁcult to seek. Consequently, [sages’] words of utmost [signiﬁcance] were blocked

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by scriptures of worldly teaching, and this caused those who speak [of Buddhism and Confucianism] to regard them as separate from each other. The reason I know this is so is that [Chinese] sages teach based on the idea of “ﬁshing [without a net] and shooting [at game excepting those in nests].”398 [They teach people] to remove the extremities [of hunting], to lessen [the trouble caused by] taking excessive catches by hunting in accor- dance with the four seasons, to not be stingy by letting some animals escape through the politeness of the method of hunting called sanqu, and to be sure to wait until [ﬁsh and animals] have grown to maturity before [ﬁshing for them and hunting] them with nets. [The Chinese sages’ teaching] is thorough, [extending even] to benevolence for the grass at the roadside in remote ages. Its tenor is a match for Śākyamuni’s compassion. If we think [everything that exists] in the world is equal to us and if we see ourselves as the same as others, [a large tree whose trunk] ﬁlls the arms and the ﬁne hair of an animal are the same. Would there be a difference between superior and inferior, or would they not be all of a sort? Nevertheless, examining from the trace [of the Chinese sages’ teaching], [the foundation of its tenor] is on the whole similar to universal love, but when we deeply seek reality, there are roles in social classes [in the Chinese sages’ teaching], and what is well constructed with the roles is too detailed to describe [here]. Accordingly, [in the Chinese sages’ teaching] we progress in virtue along with [our roles in social classes],

and make our duties clear for our superiors and parents.

The teachings in Buddhism and Confucianism can be understood from this viewpoint. The Chinese sages’ intention can be known. However, since the path that unites [Buddhism and Confucianism] into one has not been clariﬁed, people of the world do not know it. If [my view] of this is approved, the reason why śramaṇas wear a robe with the right shoulder bared is not open to question. In your letter, [however,] you wrote that I should explain it more thoroughly. Therefore, I would like to examine and express again my long-cherished thoughts.

When we seek how one takes a body that goes through changes, [we ﬁnd that the body] is molded by yin and yang and we receive a body that consists of a right side and a left side. With the shift of day and night, [the change of] life and death is explained. In human feelings, everyone is delighted with living and afraid of dying, and everyone is fond of advancing but detests

retreating. For this reason, former monarchs followed the people’s nature. Comforming to the nature [of human feelings,] they distinguished the [cer- emonial] system for auspicious [occasions] from that for inauspicious [occa- sions], and set up [two] different positions: the left and the right. Hence, on auspicious occasions the left is esteemed, one is promoted in the peerage, and he lives in comfort; while on inauspicious occasions the right is honored, and one expresses grief in order to dissolve the nature [of human life]. These are all based on what we receive [from Heaven]. We follow it in order to understand the teaching thoroughly, respond to the changes of the times, and recollect the virtue of our predecessors.

What people of the world value is nothing more than survival. When they live long, [according to the situation,] they stoop, stretch, advance, or retreat. This is entirely the way [of the secular world]. [The concept that “The system of decorum and clothing can be established] roughly or minutely according to [inside (i.e., statecraft) and outside (i.e., religion) in the phe- nomenal world,” as you mentioned,] lies here.

Śramaṇas are not like this. They put their own persons last, withdraw [from society], and yet do not detest being humble. If the time is not for them, they are resigned to the humble position. To govern oneself by being in the humble position is called modesty. To stay in the low place which many people dislike is called obedience. If we do not lose modesty and obe- dience as the base, it is easy to accumulate the merit of “reducing day by day [to attain wuwei],”399 and it is possible to ﬁnd joy on the path to escape from [delusions] and to attain [enlightenment]. Hence, [the śramaṇa] lives in seclu- sion, forgets glory, and conducts himself contrary to [the ways of] the secular world. Those who conduct themelves contrary to [the ways of] the secular world are different in reality from wise people who live in the world of ethical education, even though they may resemble each other in appearance.

How can I clarify this? Generally speaking, those who have renounced the world understand thoroughly that suffering is caused by having a physical body and it can be stopped by not keeping the body. They know that [the endless succession of] life after life is derived from receiving the mutation [of birth and death], and they can seek the ultimate law of Nature by not fol- lowing that mutation. Inferring from this point, we certainly know that those who aspire to the ultimate stage do not trouble their spirit by living, and those

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who are far beyond worldly affairs do not trouble their life by feelings. If we do not trouble our life by feelings, life can be cut off. If we do not trouble our spirit, it can profoundly unite with [the transcendental world].

In that case, regarding the establishment of ceremonies for auspicious and inauspicious occasions, admiring parents, and serving a monarch, as mentioned above, these are probably just statements for a limited world. They are what “have not been out from the closed world from the begin- ning.”400 If we do not go out of the closed world, we will just play with our writings and will not thoroughly understand [the law of] the change. If that is the case, [such people] just remain in [the world of] Confucianism and lose themselves in their lives; they avail themselves of myriad changes and go against the ultimate law of Nature. Seen from the position of utmost obe- dience, couldn’t it be said that this is contrary to [the way of śramaṇas]? [The difference] between those who remain in the secular world and those who abandon the secular world lies in this point.

The Discourse on the Clarification of Reward and Retribution (Ming baoyinglun) by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan, Responding

to Huan [Xuan] of Nanjun

Question: “In Buddhist scriptures, the destruction of life is considered to be a grave offense; [the one who committed such an act] will be punished in Hell; retribution meted out by the ofﬁcials of Hell according to the laws of Hell is just as a shadow [follows its original form] or a sound [responds to its voice]. I have a doubt about this. Why? The substances of the four great elements are merely earth, water, ﬁre, and wind. They gather together and result in a physical body, in which the spirit dwells, life lodges, and the mental function settles. Then the clear consciousness begins to develop [based on this]. Although [the spirit] exists entrusting itself to [the physical body], the law [of the spirit] is very different from that [of the body]. How could there be only the difference between exquisite and coarse? Certainly [unlike the body] there is no situation in which [the spirit] gets injured. When [the body] is destroyed, there is no harm to the spirit at all. [That the body is destroyed] is simply as if the water and ﬁre between Heaven and Earth were destroyed.”

Second question: “In the mind of all people, affection and desire are luxuriant, there is just the self, and emotion and anxieties are deep. If a person’s reward or retribution is brought about based on feelings, and if, based on affections of the mind, a response is produced, in what does the reason of following nature have its foundation?”

Answer: “I think these two issues are a key point of your questions and the pivot of your argument. If the pivot is cleared, myriad doubts will be dis- pelled in the same way. People who begin to practice [Buddhism] will prob- ably awaken to [the teaching] in accordance with this. It can be said that you clarify [people’s] stagnant feelings in the realm beyond common knowledge and offer unexplored wonderful advocacy. Nevertheless, Buddhism is deep and profound. It is hard to talk about its subtle language. If we do not [under- stand] the fundamental purport wholly, how can we speak of its profound purpose? Here, I would like to try to speak of what I have in my mind com- plying with the great ultimate law of Nature.

“If the fundamental reason why human beings receive a body is clariﬁed through inferring from the nature of the four great elements, ‘they borrow different substances, and pretend that the common form of the body is com- posed of them.’401 Life is just like a particle of dust that is easily brushed away. Arising and extinguishing are just a change of [the vapor]. [In the temporary nature of life] like this, we should perceive truth through intelligence and insight and freely wield the sword of wisdom. So, if we take advantage of the movement, the coming and going, of nature, even though [the four great ele- ments] gather together [to form the body] or scatter [to extinguish the body], this has nothing to do with the self. [When we see] a large number of bodies temporarily dwelling in a great dream,402 they are actually in the realm of existence, but it is the same as if they were in the realm of nonexistence. How could it be the case that we are blocked by what we receive (i.e., the body) and bound by that for which we feel a persistent attachment (i.e., life)? “If one comprehends this reason in one’s mind and yet other people have

not understood it, he feels sad about the fact that he alone has attained the truth without having achieved [saving others]; he is grateful to have become awakened before others and gives rise to the thought [of leading others to Buddhism]. Then, since he hopes to propagate the [Buddhist] Way and clarify the teaching, the virtue of benevolence comes into existence. If both others and

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myself attain [the Buddhist Way] equally, there is no opposition in our minds. Then, when we freely wield a sword, we will unite ourselves [with the Buddhist Way] and observe [all things] with the tranquil mind; even when we engage in battle, all whom we encounter are friends [since we have no opposition in our minds]. If someone tries to injure us, it is not only that we will have no harm in the spirit; it is also possible that there is indeed no life to be destroyed [from the beginning].

“This is exactly [why] when Mañjuśrī placed his hand on a sword403— the action is wrong, but the principle [behind performing this action] is right— and although he brandished his weapon all day long, there was no place to catch the sword. If this is the case, it is brought to realization that the mys- terious [works of the universe] are put to the best use by stimulating [diagrams and symbols as stated in the Book of Changes],404 or the education [of the barbarian people] is accomplished through [performing a dance while] holding a shield and a battle ax, [just as was done by Yao and Shun].405 Even though the achievement covers [all things, just as Heaven and Earth do], no [secular] reward is especially given. Why are sin and punishment brought into question? If we return to this point (i.e., that those who realize the Way go beyond reward or retribution), and look for the fundamental [law], then we will be able to clarify [the meaning of] reward and retribution [in the Buddhist sense]. If we analyze from the phenomenal world and seek the ultimate law of Nature, then we will be able to discuss sin and punishment [in the Buddhist sense]. I will try to explain this more.

“When cause and condition affect together and a change arises, wouldn’t they be derived from the [ﬁxed] law? Ignorance is an abyss of delusion. Greed and attachment is a mansion of numerous sufferings. When these two (i.e., ignorance and greed and attachment) work together, supernatural effects occur in the unseen world. Good fortune and ill, occasion for repentance or regret, all simply arise here.406 Since the function of ignorance covers up that of intelligence, feelings and thoughts stick to external objects. Since greed and attachment wash away [human] nature, the four great elements unite and form a physical body. When the body is formed, there is discrimination between self and others. When feelings stick to [external objects], there is subjective [discrimination] between good and evil. When there is discrimi- nation between self and others, we favor ourselves and are never unaware

of self-existence. When there is subjective [discrimination] between good and evil, we feel a persistent attachment to life, and [the transmigration of] birth [and death] never ceases. Thereafter, we sleep soundly in a great dream, we are confused in the midst of delusions, we suffer doubts in the long night of spiritual darkness, and we cling to whatever exists. Therefore, loss and gain come alternately, and weal and woe visit us one after another. For accu- mulated evils, disasters spontaneously come from Heaven; for committed sins, punishments [are inﬂicted] in Hell. This is precisely an inevitable destiny, and it leaves no room for doubt.

“Why is this so? There is the foundation to understand it; that is to say, in the law [cause and effect] spontaneously cope with each other in the unseen world. Even though its [outward] sign is obscure, when its force reaches an extreme point it becomes evident. Consequently, good and evil in the mind are considered to be [like] a form and a voice, and happiness and suffering as reward and retribution are considered to be [like] the shadow [of the form] and the sound [of the voice]. The foundation (i.e., the mind) is moved by feelings, and then the response (i.e., reward and retribution) spontaneously arises. Would there be ofﬁcials of Hell? It is because [people] mismanage [their minds] and lose the [proper] way. In that case, happiness and suffering as the response (i.e., reward and retribution) are merely due to [the mind], which is moved [by feelings]. Since [the mind] is moved and [a situation] becomes so, it is called Nature. Nature is simply nothing but the shadow and sound of the self. What achievement would even a Creator of the Universe have [in this matter]?

“Let me examine the essential points of your questions and analyze them with the realities. In the purpose of your criticism, you completely agree that earth, water, ﬁre, and wind unite and form a physical body, which is taken as a dwelling of the spirit. This precisely means that there is a master in the house. I will ask you a question. While the master (i.e., the spirit) stays in the house (i.e., the body), does he have feelings or not? If your answer is no, he does not, the uniting of the four great elements [to form a body] is not due to the master of the house having been moved. If [the master] lives [in the house] without feelings, since [the uniting of the four great elements] is not derived from the result of the master [of the house] having been moved, even if the spirit dwells in a physical body he has no feeling and no perception, such as

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pain or an itch. If the spirit has no perception and the house has no pain or itchiness, either, when it makes contact with other things, [the situation] is like mowing grass or cutting trees. It does not make sense.

“If [the master (i.e., the spirit)] has feelings, the uniting of the four great elements [to form a physical body] is due to the fact that the master was moved [by feeling]. If [the master] stays [in the house] with feelings, since [the uniting of the four great elements] is due to the fact that he was moved, while the spirit dwells in the house it must have perception of pain or itchiness. The spirit has perception and the house feels pain and itchiness as well. When it makes contact with other things, it certainly cannot be the same as water and ﬁre in the realm of nature.

“Speaking from this basis, spirit and body differ from each other, but they change together. They really differ from each other in the fact that [the spirit] is inside and [the body] is outside, but they are joined together. Except for those who reach the point of view [of the fundamental law], who could discern the relation between [spirit and body]? If one cannot discern this, simply the more time passes, the more deluded he will be. Generally, among those who receive a body and accept life, there is not one who is not like this. Since we receive [body and life] and we are like this, everyone is blocked by having a persistent attachment to the self. If the root of the blockage is not pulled out, [attachment to] the way to continue to exist will become ﬁrmer. If the origin of the persistent attachment [to the self] is not removed, [the desire] to maintain [life] will become deeper as well.

“In the case where a thing goes athwart [in our daily life], the mind becomes deranged; not to mention the case where the whole body is totally lost. Accordingly, when friends and foes mutually take advantage of a chance and are estranged from each other, unless the evil intention is removed, ani- mosities arise and never cease. Even if one has exhausted happiness, receives annoyance, and has no regret in the mind, since a form and a voice (i.e., one’s acts) are set forth, their shadow and sound (i.e., reward and retribution) spon- taneously manifest. There is nothing ﬁxed beforehand in reason, but the laws [of acts and reward and retribution] come together and make it so. Even though we want to escape from it, how can we do so? This is exactly to invite reward and retribution in accordance with feelings, or to produce responses by availing oneself of being moved. [You and I] fundamentally differ from

each other in the purpose of our arguments. Therefore, we are simply not the same in understanding [the reason].”

Question: “If, since people’s feelings cling to life and cannot cause death, then that feelings are brought into existence is simply derived from the delu- sion of egoistic attachment. [The Buddha] should clarify this by his tran- scendent view and let [people] understand it by the right path. Could it be possible, [without doing so,] to conform to [sentient beings’] delusion and consider [the delusion] as the object of retribution?”

Answer: “That phenomena arise is indeed derived from the mind. Ret- ribution must be derived from the phenomena [that are derived from the mind]. Hence, if we observe phenomena through retribution, the phenomena can be changed. If we are strict with the mind through seeing phenomena, the mind can return [to the right path]. Inferring from this point of view, we know that the Sage (i.e., the Buddha) clariﬁes the object of retribution based on delusion and obstruction; it is not to conform to [sentient beings’] delusion and consider [the delusion] as the object of retribution, [as you said]. Why is this so? It is difﬁcult for people to be awakened and [this fact] has indeed existed for a long time.407 For this reason, in Buddhism, on the basis of what it is derived from, the teaching is certainly given little by little. Since [the Buddha] knows that longtime habits cannot be given up immediately, he ﬁrst teaches that [retribution and reward are caused by] evil acts and meritorious deeds. [Retribution and reward caused by] evil acts and meritorious deeds cannot be totally forgotten. Therefore, he has [people] weigh the value [of retribution and reward]. If they assess which is valuable, [reward caused by] meritorious deeds or [retribution caused by] evil acts, they examine good and evil and [through this examination] place their mind [in good]. If [they know] good and evil are blocked by egoistic attachment, they [abandon the egoistic attachment], and advance the ego a step further in order to lead other people to [salvation]. If these two issues (i.e., examining good and evil and advancing the ego a step further in order to lead others to salvation) are con- currently developed, nothing binds the feelings. Accordingly, we will be able to ‘honor the talented and virtuous, bear with all people,’408 be benevolent to ourselves, give peace [to others], and ponder far ahead the reward and ret- ribution that are like shadow and sound, in order to relieve ourselves from the delusive realm of transmigration of birth and death. Once delusive feelings

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are dispelled, later words about the right path can be understood, and the deﬁlement to maintain life can be cut off. Since even wise people of the middle class cannot cut off the deﬁlement to maintain life, how would people of ordinary intelligence be able to accomplish this?”

The Discourse on Three Periods of Reward and Retribution (Sanbaolun), Composed for Those Who Doubt That There is No Testimony [of Reward or Retribution] Corresponding to Good or Bad Conduct, by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan

It is stated in a Buddhist scripture that there are three different periods in which [good or evil] actions mature and bring about [their effects], reward or retribution: the ﬁrst is reward or retribution of the present existence, the second is that of the next existence, and the last is that of an existence after the next. The reward or retribution of the present existence refers to that for a good or evil [act] begun in one’s present life, [reward or retribution] is given to him in the present existence. The reward or retribution of the next existence refers to that [for a good or evil act begun in one’s present life, reward or retribution] is given in one’s next existence. The reward or retri- bution of an existence after the next refers to that [for a good or evil act begun in one’s present life, reward or retribution] is given after the second, the third, the hundredth, or the thousandth existence from the present existence. There is no subject that receives [reward or retribution other than the mind]; receiving [reward or retribution] must be due to [the good or evil of] the mind. The mind has no ﬁxed task; it is moved by phenomena and responds to them. Since in its response there is [velocity], fast and slow, reward or ret- ribution comes early or later. Even though there is variation in the time of its occurrence, following what the mind encounters, all reward and retribution respond to it. Since there is variation in the strength of response [of reward or retribution], [they] are not the same in relative gravity. This is exactly natural reward and punishment, and the outline of the three periods of reward or retribution. Unless people have the all-around talent, intelligence, and brightness to reach the essential point [of the Buddhist Way], it is rare to be able to enter the gate [of this doctrine]. Regarding those in the level below

them, probably there are people who experience for the ﬁrst time the right path, who awaken taking a precursor as a guidepost, who broadly take account of Buddhist scriptures, who [are sharp enough to] ask a question on the remaining three corners [when they are told about one corner],409 who consider the virtuous to be their teachers and friends, and who improve their natures through learning. These people may be able to speak a little about [this doc- trine]. Let me try to discuss it.

Good and evil arise through being gradually fostered [for a long time]. When they are gradually [fostered and eventually] reach an extreme, [they become evident]. There is [a traditional] theory [in China] on the nine grades of [good and evil]. Generally, what is included in [the classiﬁcation of] the nine grades is not what reward or retribution of the present existence regulates. In that case, it can be known that reward or retribution of the present existence is beyond the ordinary classiﬁcation, and the classiﬁcations other than the nine grades are not what the three periods of reward or retribution regulate. Why is this so? If advantages and disadvantages intersect in front of one’s eyes and suddenly a dispute arises between them, the mechanics of the spirit spontaneously move and take action before thinking. If it takes action before thinking, reward or retribution responds to [the action] immediately. This is one example of reward or retribution of the present existence that is beyond the theory of the nine grades.

Moreover, the three kinds of acts (i.e., of body, speech, and mind) are different from each other in essence, but the same in regard to having ﬁxed [reward or retribution]. Since [having] reward or retribution is ﬁxed, people must receive them when the time comes. This is not something we can remove by prayer or avoid through intellectual power. When we infer and investigate this thoroughly, [we know that] the signiﬁcance is deep and the law is exten- sive. Since it cannot be examined in detail, I brieﬂy stated the characteristics. Through [my explanation of] this, those who participate in Buddhism will be able to understand [the issue of reward and retribution].

There are people in the world who encounter misfortunes even though they accumulate good deeds, and there are people who do evil deeds and yet are happy. These are all cases in which the reward or retribution of the present existence has not yet come and the response to actions one took in a previous existence has begun to manifest. Therefore, it is said that a person of a good

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omen encounters a disaster, while someone of an unlucky omen meets hap- piness. A suspicion regarding the ambiguous issue [of reward or retribution] arises here. Why is this so? There are those who intend to lend a helping hand to the monarch, aid the conditions of the times, save other people, model themselves after the lofty traces [of the wise], and make up their minds to render a [great] achievement, and yet who collapse in the middle of a great enterprise and are suddenly visited by heavenly disasters; or there are those who live leisurely in [a humble house with] a gate made out of only one beam, who have no attachment to the secular world, who consider a peaceful walk to be [equal to traveling in] a carriage, who live in comfort, and yet who encounter an undesirable fate unexpectedly when the destined time comes, who come to associate with and fall into secular ways and secular customs, and who [eventually] become accustomed to [the secular life]; or there are those whose names are known to be among the top of [the ten vir- tuous people of] the four subjects (i.e., virtuous principles and practice, ability of speech, administrative talents, and literary acquirements) [of Confucianism], who have mastered the heart of the Way, who have perfect love, who have realized benevolence, and who develop virtue through cherishing the highest wholesomeness. Among people like this, there are those who held [the vapor of] harmony and became ill, or who fulﬁlled [the way of] having faith and following it, and yet died young. These are all cases in which people encoun- tered misfortune while they were achieving merit or virtue, and this causes [other people] to doubt [the mechanics of reward and retribution]. Since the fundamental reason is clear, we should examine the responses. Each response has its base (i.e., the mind), which moves by [external objects]. Although [the responses]—the favorable (i.e., happiness) and the unfavorable (i.e., misfortune)—differ from each other, the principle is simply the same. The reason for this is that the situation in which [misfortune] stands close to [happiness, which] is lurking behind [misfortune], was settled a very long time ago, and the auspicious omen declared in the unseen world secretly keeps recurring. Therefore, the vapor of happiness and the vapor of misfortune alternately shift, while [the spirit transmigrates in] the six realms of existence. Reward and retribution for good or evil acts appear to be very disordered, but they work simultaneously. This causes both the ignorant and the wise to

be equally confused when the response (i.e., reward or retribution) manifests as phenomena; to think that even though they accumulate good deeds there is no blessing, or if they accumulate evil deeds there is no misfortune; to be moved by the gods [of Heaven and Earth] and yet grieve at misfortune; and to lament that a heavenly disaster befalls a good person.

All [people] think that Confucianism covers everything completely and there is no ultimate law of Nature above it, and consequently this causes the Great Way to become obscured by the minor way. If we consider the correct words to be good guidance and seek the true [law] responding to the mind, we must arrive at [the fact] that there is no such case in the law of Nature. When we trace back to what causes it, [we ﬁnd that] according to secular books [the issue of happiness and misfortune] is considered to be concerned with a single lifetime; anything beyond [a single lifetime] is not clariﬁed. Since [the issue of happiness and misfortune] beyond [a single lifetime] has not been clariﬁed, people who seek the law of Nature limit it to within [the sensual world] where they can see and hear. This is because monarchs of former times conformed to the people’s minds, understood their temperaments, and took [the sensual world] [that can be experienced by] ears and eyes to be within a boundary, [leaving unclear the world beyond the boundary].

If we now combine the way for outside (i.e., Confucianism) and the way for inside (i.e., Buddhism) and seek the [sages’] intention to propagate their teachings, we will know that [both these teachings] must be the same in the ultimate law, and we will not be confused by many different paths and fright- ened at the differences between them. If we can look into the three periods of reward and retribution and view the distinction between those who are dis- tressed and those who go smoothly, it will be entirely understandable why Confucius did not answer Zhong You’s (i.e., Zilu’s) [question about serving spirits] and Yan [Hui] and Ran [Boniu] were like ignorant people when they faced their sage teacher [Confucius].410 It is also because there is the law of dependent arising from causation (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda) and the law of existence arising from causation (Skt. pratītyasamutpanna). Even though they were bright enough to be ready to enter the truth [of Buddhism], they still did not forget [the way of] benevolence bequeathed by [monarchs of former times], and they still considered the three periods of reward and retribution

to be a beautiful garden; or they made rapid progress [to the lofty state of the mind] and yet did not leave behind the abyss (i.e., the realm of the three periods of reward and retribution).

From the viewpoint of inferring in this way, it is known that if the guests beyond the secular world (i.e., śramaṇas) keep the wondrous Dharma in mind, cleanse their minds in the profound gate [of Buddhism], and obtain [the Buddhist doctrine] by inspiration at once, they can transcend to the uppermost state [of mind]. Although people like this may have accumulated misfortune in some previous life, even if they do not control their achievement, [the accumulated misfortune] will spontaneously be put to extinction, and they are not subject to the three periods of reward and retribution.

Speaking from this basis of why [the teaching expounded in] Buddhist scriptures surpasses Confucianism and is beyond [the teachings] of the nine philosophical schools [of China], would it not be because [Buddhism teaches] to reach the essence [of the Way] through governing the spirit, to train the mind, to trace completely the very source of the change, and to mirror myriad phenomena upon [the world of] no phenomena (i.e., the world of truth)?

End of Fascicle Five of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Six

The Discourse to Elucidate the Refutation (Shibolun)

by Shi Daoheng (346–417)

During the Yixi era (405–418) of the Jin dynasty, according to what I have heard, the two wise men of the Jiangsu area, Yuan and He, got together to make a discourse on statecraft, and satirized the current administration. Even though I have not read this composition, its intention seems to be to ridicule the pitfalls of the world, modeling itself after the chapter on the “Five Kinds of Vermin” in the Han Feizi,411 and they issued the Discourse on the Five Kinds of Perversions. Śramaṇas, however, took no action [against this dis- course] and it vulgarly lowers their case. I am afraid that [the discourse com- posed by Yuan and He] misleads people of the world and causes them to fall into vicious delusion eternally. I cannot stand the extremity of resentfulness and regret. Therefore, I would like to elucidate this through a discussion in the form of [questions and answers between] the guest and the host.

There was a gentleman who was controlled by Confucianism in a metrop- olis in the east, who cross-questioned an impudent rustic in an out-of-the- way place in the west.

He said, “I have heard that the Buddhist teaching is too deep to discuss on the basis of Confucianism; the style of the teaching is too profound to determine by physical methods; it is too reﬁned, non-aggressive, simple, and distinctive to get involved in with common knowledge; it is too wondrous and beyond all existences; and it cannot be fathomed by ordinary thought. Consequently, [Buddhism] is often respectfully followed by sovereigns of the times and admired by the nobles, and then the common people crowd together, plight their faith, chime in, and quickly head [toward Buddhism]. All of them sigh together in admiration and praise the virtue [of the Buddha], saying ‘If we are imbued with the reﬁned taste [of Buddhism], we will reach the subtlety of its exquisite meaning. If we study the delicacy of its doctrine, we will be mysteriously harmonious in the function of the spirit, we will wash away the deﬁlements of the mind, we will leave behind the shackles

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of the physical body, we will transcend the nuisances of mundane life of the place of conﬁnement, and we will stay away from worldly duties and be aloof from the world. When we submerge in the true essence (i.e., awakening), even [Bo]yi and [Shu]qi would have no chance to surpass us in keeping integrity. When we abandon glorious favor, even Chao[fu, a recluse during the time of Emperor Yao,] and Xu [You, a philosopher during the time of Emperor Yao,] would have no chance to go beyond us in determination. When we taste the profound tenet [of Buddhism], even Yan [Hui] and Ran [Boniu] would have no chance to join us in the practice. When we leave behind disorder and impurity, even [Chi]song[zi] and [Wangzi]qiao, [immor- tals of ancient times,] could not compare with us in purity.’ If things are truly just as have been spoken, there is no ﬂaw in reason.

“Now, however, when I observe all śramaṇas, [I feel that] they are all lacking in talent; they live gregariously and they are vulgar. I have not seen anyone outstanding [among them]. They are confused and indistinguishable, just like a river in which the [muddy] water of the Jing River and the [clear] water of the Wei River have merged. They are disordered, just as if perfume and you (i.e., caryopteris divaricata), [the foul-smelling water plant,] are put in the same box. If the source of the water is clean, the stream must [also] be clear. If the root [of a plant] is deep, its branches and leaves will certainly be luxuriant. Examining the speech and behavior [of śramaṇas], they are not logical all the time. Examining their whole aspect, there is almost nothing to compare with [their disorderliness]. The reason I am surprised at them is precisely derived from these points. Just as the [Yellow] Emperor forgot that he is intelligent, and Ju Liang forgot that he has [great] physical strength, [when they heard about the Way], they all became sages by being forged in a furnace and hammered or molded.412 If ‘the Way is not to be practiced in vain,’ [as is stated in the Book of Changes,]413 the talent [for propagating Buddhism] must correspond to the capacity [of sages]. If so, since śramaṇas have left their homes, renounced the world, and attend to their own ambitions in a lofty spirit,414 they must go against their blood relations, abandon the secular value of glory, disﬁgure themselves, abide by the precepts, study the doctrines earnestly, take refuge in the Dharma wholeheartedly, sit easily stretching out their legs, and content themselves with a vegetarian diet. Even if their virtuous deeds are outstanding, they become esteemed by [the people

of] the time, their appearance and deportment are peaceful and majestic, and they serve as a good example to the people, even then they are in fact dark in everything and good for nothing.

“Why is their behavior contemptible and ignoble while they have such lofty [ambitions]? They never weary in seeking [fame and proﬁt]; they are anxious, lacking even temporary peaceful relaxation. Some reclaim land and cultivate it in agriculture, living like farmers. Some peddle or engage in trade widely and compete with many others for proﬁt. Some conduct medical prac- tice and hastily treat illness with cold or heat.415 Some devise tactics with heretics in order to beneﬁt their occupation. Some practice divination by directions and time and speak recklessly about the auspicious and the inaus- picious. Some go against the Way, avail themselves of authority, and skillfully curry favor of the time. Some hoard and save to nourish themselves exces- sively. Some talk idly pointing at their palms and consume [the fruit of] the common people’s labors without moving from their own place. This is all because [śramaṇas] are not equipped with virtue and their behavior is often against the Dharma. Even if they may temporarily have a good point, how much could it help to elevate their reputation? They should abolish these [behaviors] by themselves and standardize their customs. [Their present con- duct] is futile for the political affairs of the time, and harmful to the study of the Way. This is what people who lead a virtuous life detest deeply, and what concerns greatly those who rule over the state.

“Moreover, there are ﬁve kinds of perversions in the world and śramaṇas are included among them. The basis to clarify this is that śramaṇas skillfully devise expedients and instigate ignorant secular people; one way [they do this] is to give parables to induce the people, and the other is to coerce them. [Śramaṇas] say, ‘If you do evil deeds, you will certainly have misfortune for successive kalpas. [On the other hand,] if you cultivate good deeds, you will have eternal blessing.’ They say that those who are sinful will be inves- tigated in Hell, and those who have merit will be helped by deities. They earnestly encourage and lead the people, exhorting them to do what they ordinarily cannot do. They force people to improve themselves and urge them to do what they usually cannot do. [As a result,] in the worst case one will reduce [one’s] support for one’s parents, and the least bad case is that one will decrease the share [of living costs] for one’s wife and children. At

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a gathering of [śramaṇas] they have the best feast. Buddhist temples run the gamut of splendor.

“[Śramaṇas] make off with people’s valuable items; they waste more money on useless things; they use up others’ personal annual savings; and they cause a deﬁciency of funds for the state and military. In vain they raise their voice for the future; they pursue the formless before it shows a sign of mani- festation. When we listen to their statements, they sound great and ﬁll our ears. When we look at their appearance, they look aloof and ﬁll our eyes. [Yet] if I seek evidence [for their greatness] through examining actual facts, I have not seen any indication of it at all. It is truly as it is said: ‘Even though one tries to keep his shadow tied up, he catches [only] the wind.’416 I have no clue to [understanding them]. This is clearly what I have not been content with and what the learned are very confused about. If you have good information on [this matter], please let me humbly receive it. If I attain realization even for the time being, I will be able to leave behind this hindrance eternally.”

The host was disappointed [with the guest’s account]. After awhile he lamented with a long sigh and said, “What a strange story! How vile your account is! The reason it is impossible for a vulgar [person] to talk about the Great Way is that he is hampered by the appearance of things, and the reason it is impossible to explain the ultimate way to obscure people is that they adhere to the letter. Here, I will brieﬂy illustrate one corner [of a subject] for you,417 so that you can think and return to the ultimate Way.

“Now, when the Sage teaches, he gives the Dharma according to the capacity [of the recipient]. Since there is a limit to people’s capacity to accept [the Dharma], ediﬁcation is given gradually. Conscience is recorded even if it is [as minor as] the tip of a hair. A mean and stingy frame [of mind] is omit- ted even if it is [as large as] a hill or a ravine. Even a very minor virtuous act becomes eternally one’s own property. Even a momentary meritorious act results in [an object of] mysterious exertion in the end. When one begins turning over a bamboo basket of earth, we cannot blame him [because] he aims to achieve the making of a mountain.418 When one is about to proceed to the ultimate state of mind (i.e., enlightenment), we cannot slander him [because of] the fact [that he is completely prudent just as] he ties up a sack.419 On the other hand, the reason a sea is said to be great is because there is no

clamor for excessive cleanliness. The reason the Way is said to be obscure in trace is because there is no astonishing appearance.

“Loving parents and being affectionate to a wife and children are attach- ments of the people who possess a mind, but śramaṇas abandon these, just as they take off their shoes. Fame, social status, wealth, and carnal pleasure are what people of the world value, but śramaṇas regard those things [as being as insubstantial as] rice bran. It can be said that they put up with what people cannot leave behind. This indicates the lofty and reﬁned taste and the excellent task to propagate the [Buddhist] Way, yet you say that [śra- maṇas] are dark [in everything]. Isn’t this a statement of very good appre- ciation? Moreover, if your ambition and actions are not the same [as those of śramaṇas], your course to proceed differs from [that of śramaṇas]; wheel tracks separate at the fork in the road. Then [you and śramaṇas] do not mutually understand. Since you have not seen any outstanding points [of śramaṇas], [your unﬂattering account] is simply a natural consequence. It is quite natural that the ancients often lamented that it is difﬁcult [to obtain] people of talent.420

“The Zhou dynasty is known for having many scholars; there were ten talented vassals who helped their monarch (i.e., King Wu) in administration. During the halcyon days of Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, there were eight virtuous men [for Gaoxin] and eight gentlemen [for Gaoyang]. Confucius had three thousand [talented disciples]. They were all of outstanding ability in the country, but those who were selected to become proﬁcient in the four subjects (i.e., virtuous deeds, speech, administration, and writing) were less than ten people. Among them, [Ran] Boniu had an incapacitating disease,421 [Yan] Hui had [one of] the six extreme evils (i.e., an early death),422 [Zi]shang (i.e., Zixia) was stingy,423 [Zi]si (i.e., Zigong) was interested in [hoarding commodities] to make a proﬁt,424 [Zai] Yu was [compared to rotten wood that] cannot be carved,425 [Zhong] You (i.e., Zilu) was ﬁerce and obstinate,426 [Ran] Qiu imposed heavy taxes [on the people] and was incompetent in his ofﬁcial post,427 and although Zhong Gong was [as good as] a red[-horned] cow, he was born from [a man who was nothing more than] a brindled oxen.428 Nevertheless, the whole world praises their virtues, which became the foun- dation for the principles of human relationships; and respects their lofty

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tracks, which became examples for the gentry. The people admire their foot- steps for a hundred generations, and revere their great conduct for a thousand years.

“With regard to śramaṇas, they torture themselves [until it is] as if their muscles were to drop off, and cruelly treat themselves like worthless things. Would this be the way widely practiced and a well-intentioned argument for gentlemen? This is compared to the case where a deluded man goes into the workshop of Gongshu Ban [of Lu state] and does not praise [Gongshu Ban’s] skillful guidance, yet jeers that a worker of poor skill has injured his hand. It can truly be said that such a person stoops to vulgar thought and has a base frame of mind.

“Formerly a prime minister asked a guest, ‘It is commonly said that an owl eats its mother. Could such a thing occur?’ The guest replied, ‘I have heard only that a benevolent crow repays [its parents for their kindness in] raising it.’ The prime minister felt sorry and ashamed of his improper question. Isn’t your present state of mind similar to that of the prime minister who asked the question? Gentlemen refrain from [talking about anothe person’s] evildoing but [instead] cite his good points. On the contrary, what have you said? “Furthermore, you said, ‘[Śramaṇas] sit easily stretching out their legs.’ Since the forest and countryside are deserted, they often have to worry about insurgents. [But if they live near] a bustling city, they are often inﬂicted with the carping criticism of companionship [with secular people]. If they stay in an inappropriate place, they invite the nuisances of the secular world. If they hover around a rural community, they risk a [disparaging] comment from the people of the world. Anyway, there is nothing good [in this]. They are just driven to the wall. Even though the universe is vast, they do not know

where to stay.

“Again, you said, ‘[Śramaṇas must content themselves with] a vegetarian diet.’ Well, there is deﬁciency of supply in this world; there are indeed no accumulated stores [of food] in hills and valleys. When they take just a nec- essary amount of food, they once again use it in accordance with the Dharma. What they face is complicated. On what basis can they support themselves? “Even at the digniﬁed time of sages, there were people (i.e., Boyi and Shuqi) who starved to death at [the foot of] Mount Shouyang. When the world was peaceful and brilliant people were promoted, there was a man

(i.e., Lu Zhonglian) who went to the sea and died there.429 What do you think [about these incidents]?

“Furthermore, since śramaṇas have no feathers on their bodies, they cannot live being naked without clothes, and since their bellies are not gourds, they cannot let them hang down [like gourds], without eating. As long as [their desire for food and clothes] does not reach the extreme, they must have support. When the harvest is good, they can take enough [as offerings] from the common people. When it is bad, they do their best to support themselves [by secular ways]. This is really not proper, but it cannot be helped. Consequently, if a viper bites one’s hand, [the hand] is cut off in order to save the body. This is because we ponder what is more important and maintain the more important thing.

“Even though one may make a living for himself, if he does not seek anything, he has nothing to obtain; and if he seeks something, it is not nec- essarily that he uses only one method [to seek]. When he gives relief to him- self, if [his purpose] is reasonable, why does he have to reject many methods? [Śramaṇas] consider that everything within the boundary of desires is trou- blesome and vile, and cause [their desires] to not move recklessly. Why [is it said that] they exceedingly attach [to things]?

“Long ago, Bocheng [Zigao] reclaimed land and cultivated it by him- self,430 [Chang] Ju and [Jie] Ni ploughed side by side and practiced agri- culture,431 Tao Zhu[gong] engaged in trade and made a living,432 Yuling irri- gated a vegetable garden in order to support himself,433 Cui Wen[zi] sold medicines and led a life of poverty,434 [Yan] Junping used to practice divination to augment his insufﬁcent income,435 Zhang Heng won fame for the art of divination,436 and Ma Jun gave full display to his achievement (i.e., making a compass chariot, which shows the correct direction) of marvelous skills. These are simply people who went against the secular world and led the life of recluses. However, it has not been positively observed that they cut off all relationships to the secular world and stayed far away from people of the world, and yet [the people of the world] all sigh in admiration and do not stop praising them.

“Nevertheless, it often happens that among śramaṇas, those whose conduct surpasses that of many people and who feel shame at associating with fellows of a sort are numerous. As for [śramaṇas] who master the Way, who enter nirvana, or who transcend the secular domain, their numbers are incalculable.

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You, however, have not mentioned anything [about these śramaṇas]. Why do you have a partial view? You should view [śramaṇas] based on inspecting the facts. You cannot make a discussion separating the present from the past, and you cannot make an expression dividing a small number from the larger number. The rare and the simple are noble, while the numerous and the lewd are humble. This is, I am afraid, not a discussion intended to seek the essence and examine a theorem.

“You said, ‘[Śramaṇas] should abolish these [behaviors] by themselves and standardize their customs.’ What do you mean by this? The sage (i.e., Confucius) did not deceive us [regarding the fact that there was one sincere person in a hamlet of] ten families.437 If you do something with two others, they must serve you as your teachers.438 When fragrant orchids are completely luxuriant, if you were to collect, pile up, and burn them, wouldn’t this too be atrocious? Among [śramaṇas], there are spontaneously those whose virtue is profound and whose capacity is expected by the times. Some are outstand- ingly pure and live uprightly; some contemplate, enter into subtlety, and pacify their spirits in the absolute state [of mind]; some expound subtle words, clarify obscurity, and explain problematic points; and some diligently devote themselves to meritorious deeds, exhort for the ediﬁcation [of others], and esteem wholesomeness.

“Generally, the foundation of the Buddhist monastic life lies in the day of tonsure, when they all individually make an oath, in mind and in words, with genuine feelings and the highest sincerity. Even though life and death are completely associated and the profound path is long and far, [the monks] must urge themselves [to proceed]. Then, they will certainly be on the way leading to [the goal]; the glory of the golden wheel-turning king [who rules the four continents of the world] will be disregarded as if it were dust and dirt; and the importance of Śakra-devendra, [lord god of Trāyastriṃśa Heaven,] will be slighted as if it were rice bran. Everyone is earnest and sincere at the beginning and has reasons of his own. Naturally [the Way] is, [however,] neither suddenly attained at a stroke nor perfectly mastered. How could there not be a minor fault in the course of time?

“Moreover, when you take up the true element and brieﬂy mention [the reality of] the universe, why do you unite everything together without examining and distinguishng them? We cannot execute the entire Ji clan [of

the Zhou dynasty] because of the fault made by Guan[shu] and Cai[shu],439 and we cannot exile all the men of the court [of Emperor Shun] because of the four villains (i.e., Gonggong, Huandou, Sanmiao, and Gunyu) who com- mitted cruel conduct.440 This is no different from the case where a man who suffers from head lice wants to burn his own head along with the lice, or the case of a man who is troubled by irritation on his legs consequently wants to remove all the parts of his body below the hips. Isn’t this also excessive? “You said, ‘[Their present conduct] is futile for the political affairs of the times, and harmful to the study of the Way.’ When those who propagate the Way beneﬁt the world, common people act daily according to it, yet have no knowledge of it. Therefore, regarding the ediﬁcation of wuwei, Laozi says, ‘The people all said, “We are as we are, of ourselves!”’441 This statement is appropriate. Hence, [Duan]gan Mu slept peacefully and yet Wei state was well governed.442 Gengsang [Chu] was good at instructing and [the people in the area of] Mount Weilei [of Lu state] submitted themselves to his virtue.443 “Presently in their lifetimes śramaṇas really have no achievements for which the government could assess value, but they do in fact confer an invis- ible beneﬁt in the sphere beyond Confucianism. Taking a familiar [example], to instruct the people through the ﬁve precepts is not on the same [low] level of [giving instructions through] the Six Classics [of Confucianism]. Taking profound [examples], the hidden severity of the eight difﬁculties is not equal to [the sternness of] the criminal code; to engage in evaluating sins according to the Buddhist canon is not the same as [evaluating according to] the laws and regulations [of the secular world]; to speak of delusions with transcen- dental wisdom is not the same sense as do Laozi and Zhuangzi. Regarding the cause and condition of purity (Skt. anāsrava) and uprooting suffering in the [thirty-seven] elements to attain enlightenment (daopin), ‘we occupy our

thoughts, but do not discuss anything.’444

“In the teaching of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, the doctrine is put to the best use in appearance, while in the highest level of the ultimate Dharma (i.e., Buddhism) the issue about the spirit is simultaneously managed in detail. Regarding quality and ranking, [these two teachings] cannot be spoken of in the same breath in terms of which is superior and which is inferior. “In ancient times [in India,] Bei helped with the ediﬁcation and assisted in governing the state by means of the [Buddhist] Way.445 [Consequently,] the

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border regions of the state were peaceful, the people knew righteousness [that they had to follow], the harvest was rich and preserved, and there was no disaster. What do you mean by saying that [Buddhism] does not beneﬁt [the world]? “You said, ‘There are ﬁve kinds of perversions in the world and śramaṇas account for one of them.’ Generally, what perversion means is to have no will to work, to be unspeakably self-indulgent; to gamble, dissipating one’s fortune and ruining one’s family property; to register one’s name in the house- hold register and yet wander around at all times of the year; to neglect the duties of ofﬁce while receiving pay and not be willing to apply one’s mind to anything; to hold the reins of government and be in power, and yet exploit the common people; to compete for promotion and incur both public and private losses; or to indulge in violence, vice, and cruelty and engage in con- spiracy. All of these damage the teaching, disturb order, and greatly harm the customs of the world. As a result of this, Xun Yue wielded his pen and his discourse on the chivalrous (i.e., the Shenjian) came into existence. Han Fei took up a brush and the composition on the “Five Kinds of Vermin” was completed. It is, therefore, suitable to consider these to be perversions, but

isn’t it a false accusation to apply this to śramaṇas?

“Our nation is just now competing with the times of Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun for lofty virtue as the primary goal, and trying to equal the Yin and Zhou dynasties in elegant education as the secondary goal. They do not allow Mount Ji and the Ying River, [where Xu You and Chaofu lived in seclusion,] to be occupied exclusively by guests who look down upon the world (i.e., recluses), or for Mount Shang [where the four old men lived in seclusion] and the Luo River to be designated only for honored recluse- guests. [Our nation] intends to greatly encourage the style of hermits, and to honor and respect [all of] those who transcend the secular world.

“When I examine what you think, [I ﬁnd that] as regards managing and operating the government of the time, you want to follow mean and crafty methods, like those of the tiger and the wolf, which were employed by the ruined Qin dynasty; and you want to inherit the cruel and harmful pattern that Shangjun (i.e., Shang Yang) carried out. They burned the books on the Chinese classics and buried Confucian scholars alive; they did not have the discipline to rule the country. By establishing very heavy taxation, each household had no unbudgeted extra money, and by setting up prohibitions

for miscellaneous minor matters, they treated the people as if they were ban- dits. [Consequently,] the world became unhappy, and the people felt no interest in their lives. [This] caused the Ying family (i.e., the royal family of the Qin dynasty) to come to an end in three generations. The disaster caused by the two men (i.e., Shang Yang and Han Fei) was ended during their life- times. On the very day they were being punished, they repented for the ﬁrst time that the law they had established was wrong. Originally they wanted to pacify the country and make the people harmonious. They did not expect that the bank they had built was too high and harsh, and did not hold living space for themselves, to the contrary of [their initial plan]. The incident had already happened. What did they attain by their grief?

“You said, ‘The basis to clarify this is that śramaṇas skillfully devise expedients and instigate ignorant secular people; one way [they do this] is to give parables to induce the people, and the other is to coerce them.’ In sentient beings’ relation to [the Buddha,] there are strength and weakness, and also in their abilities, there are sharpness and dullness. In understanding, there are difﬁculty and ease. In practices, there are shallowness and depth. Hence, the way to explain and teach varies. The causes to inspire beings to awaken differ. They melodiously try to cause them to follow wholesomeness. This is precisely a key phrase in the use of schemes and power, and a bridge for a marvelous salvation. It really does not mean to induce and coerce the people.

“You said, ‘[They (i.e., śramaṇas) say that] those who are sinful will be investigated in Hell, and those who have merit will be helped by deities.’ All wholesomeness belongs to those who possess virtue and who are the most sincere. The Book of Changes states, ‘Those who tread [the path of] sincerity and admire docility will be given help from Heaven. There will be good for- tune, advantage in every respect.’446 Furthermore, it is said [in the Zhuangzi] that if those who do what is not good in darkness and secrecy, spirits will inﬂict the punishment.447 Wouldn’t this mean ‘to be investigated in Hell and helped by deities’? Regarding reward or retribution for good or evil, there are indeed [many] testimonies [found] in Buddhist scriptures. I will not enu- merate them here.

“You said, ‘At a gathering of [śramaṇas] they have the best feast. Buddhist temples run the gamut of splendor.’ This is due to families who make good deeds [in order to win blessings]; they merely expend their wealth in order

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to prepare for future help, and they use up [their wealth] simply because they are making long-range plans for themselves. It does not seem that deities are delighted with the splendor [of temple buildings] and that all monks wish for delicious food. This is compared to when a farmer sows seed: he is keen in selecting [good] seeds in order to reap good-quality grain; or when a car- penter makes a building, he hopes to choose good timber when seeking the adornments of the building. Therefore, in agricultural operations it is necessary to plant in fertile soil, and in selecting a site for a residence it is important to choose high and dry ground. Hence, we know that the three revered ones are ﬁelds of merit for sentient beings,448 and it is said that making offerings to them simply results in merit in the course of cultivating oneself.

“You said, ‘[Śramaṇas] make off with people’s valuable items; they waste more money on useless things.’ To extensively confer beneﬁts [to others] and love without distinction are great virtues of benevolent people. To respect and adorn the ancestral temple is [the manifestation of] the most sincere heart showing ﬁlial piety and respect [for one’s ancestors]. Since in the worldly teaching (i.e., Confucianism) things are like this, in the [Buddhist] Way things are like this as well. ‘Things are increased by being diminished.’449 If we do something, we must obtain [a result]. Moreover, the wealth of this transitory [world] is just like impure soil, but to give it graciously [to others] is a marvelous faculty. It is compared to the case that even a boat made of decayed wood is essential for ferrying people over [to the yonder shore]. Why is this seen as a waste of money? To intend to sit upright viewing nature [without doing anything], or to hope for comfort in silence with one’s arms folded, is similar to wishing to cut wood without an ax or hoping to feel full without eating. How could this be possible?

“If one does not lead a virtuous life, that is his own problem. Why is it necessary to cover the common people’s ears and eyes and conceal the great virtue of the world? You have already drunk poison and now you want to poison others. Why are you so cruel? It can be said that you ruin yourself, entrap others, and cause everyone to suffer from disasters. Therefore, for the blind, the deaf, and the dumb there is the disaster of being in a place without sight or sound for the completion of one whole kalpa, and as retribution to Devadatta, there is the experience of suffering in Avīci Hell.

“You said, ‘They (i.e., śramaṇas) use up others’ personal annual savings; and they cause a deﬁciency of funds for the state and military.’ If a sage king manages the world, if simple and sincere customs spread far, if the whole wide world is united through shaking the rope of morality, and if many talented people are caught up by the spreading of a net of virtue, there will be no one who [laments] the striking waves of a river, there will be no scholar who grieves in a valley, all the four classes of people (i.e., scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants) will be content with their occupations, each and every ofﬁcial of all ranks and descriptions will do his duty, [everyone in] the land within the [four] seas will be brought together and understood thoroughly, and the nine provinces (i.e., China) will be linked equally together. Then the war vehicles will cease to be dispatched, armed soldiers will run back [to their homes] and fertilize [the land], good grains will be piled up in the ﬁelds, food will be stored up even to the extent of some going rotten, the youth will improve in virtue day after day, the old will enjoy a long life, the people will all live together in peace and comfort and praise the great peace, and they will drum their bellies [signifying that they have had enough to eat,] and see the prosperous ediﬁcation. Why are you unreasonably weak, worrying about the world even though you think deeply of various things? Isn’t this also a gross fault? There is a saying that when a ranking ofﬁcial who is quite stingy and whose mouth is swollen faces the blue sea, [since he cannot drink the seawater because of his swollen mouth,] he just holds his stomach. This truly refers to you.

“You said, ‘It is truly as it is said: “Even though one tries to keep his

shadow tied up, he catches [only] the wind.” I have no clue to [understanding them].’ To disorder truth by using sophistry is something that the great sages lament. [When Bian He obtained unpolished jade in the mountains of Chu,] since the people did not recognize it is a precious stone [and thought that he was trying to deceive them], Bian He wept bitterly.450 Nevertheless, the subtle purpose [of Buddhism] is delicate, and those who master it reach the Way. [The doctrine] is lofty and simple, and those who comprehend it attain [enlight- enment. Buddhism] employs deep competence and functions as a bridge for ruined or drowned people to cross over to [the yonder shore]. It pulls [people] out from darkness and saves them from hindrance. The excellence of [the

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teaching] is always on a level to that of the time [when the Buddha resided in this world], and the ediﬁcation has spread boundlessly. Therefore, when a mysterious light ﬂashes once, it moves the trichiliocosm. When benevolence is sprinkled even for a short time, the whole land of China receives the favor. Hence, Śakra-devendra and the king of the Brahmā Heaven realized the deep purpose [of the teaching] and reverted to sincerity. Emperors and kings hope for the profound belief and consign themselves [to Buddhism]. The eight kinds of gods and demigods [who protect Buddhism] take the spiritual edi- ﬁcation and reform themselves. The common people come in a hurry to observe the real deportment.

“Since [the Buddhist teaching] is lofty, it is not the same as Confucianism, the teaching for the secular world; and since it is so solemn, it is the profound path to transcend the secular world. Nevertheless, since the fence is steep and high, it is seldom that one can pass through the gate, and since the house is dark and deep, it is rare for people to enter its rooms. Therefore, the [Buddhist] Way saves those who are completely sunk in [delusion], but the doctrine is at variance with this. The virtue envelops all endlessly, but the fact is at a distance from this. Probably there is a reason why you obstinately hold on to wrong beliefs for your whole life and do not awaken until the end of your life.

“Even though the sun and moon ride in the sky, a blind man is not able to see the brightness. Even if thunder shakes the earth, a deaf man is unable to hear the rumbling. Whose fault is this? To just now wish to comment on the notes gong and shang or to stain the appearance of a composition is really the worst fault.

“In ancient times, King Mucalinda recovered his eyesight as the [Buddha’s] ﬁrst disciple [at the Buddha’s ﬁrst sermon].451 Subhadra listened to [the Buddha’s sermon] as his last disciple.452 What sin causes you to be so unfortunate as to harbor only suspicion throughout your life? Compared to what many people feel sad about, your case is the biggest problem.” Hereupon, [the guest] withdrew in a hesitant manner. He was in low spirits and disoriented. After a while he said, “I have just heard the doctrine of the Great Way, which completely follows in a continuous line from ancient times to the present, which greatly establishes the law of cause and condition, and which probes into the very point of principles and completely understands

every nature. The establishment of the doctrine is not intended only for a spe- ciﬁc period of time, nor is the propagation of the teaching expected [to occur] for only one generation. It can be said that one traces things to their beginning, understands them to their end, and returns to life. I have really been asleep, at a standstill, for the long night [of spiritual darkness]. Since I had not mastered the purpose [of Buddhism], I always cause hindrances. Now, fortunately, I have heard your discussion. My deﬁlements have been dispersed and my doubts have been scattered. I have awakened all of a sudden, as if I had opened the layers of clouds and seen the bright sun, or as if I had taken off something that had covered me and realized true wisdom. I am truly not intelligent, but I will respectfully follow the excellent teaching.”

The Discourse to Rectify [the Argument on] the Two Teachings (Zheng erjiaolun)

by Ming Zhengjun

There is a Daoist monk who composed the Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese. Therefore, I composed this in order to correct [his argu- ment].

Ming Zhengjun, Sengshao

I came to know that this outstanding discourse of sharp words had an estab- lished reputation. Since I am afraid that the Sage (i.e., the Buddha) will be falsely accused and I would like to clarify the goals [of Buddhism and Daoism], I will ﬁrst explain the phrases from two scriptures that [the Daoist monk] cited [in his discussion] and correct [his interpretation]. I earnestly hope that everyone can understand both [of these] profound teachings.

The Discourse states: “It is said in a Daoist scripture that Laozi arrived at Guanzhong (present-day Shensi province) and left for Kapilavastu in India, where the king’s wife is called Māyā (Qingmiao). As [Māyā] was napping, Laozi availed of the essence of the sun and entered into Māyā’s mouth. At midnight on the eighth day of the fourth month of the next year, he cut [Māyā’s] right armpit open and was born. He landed on the earth and took seven steps forward. Then, he raised his [right] hand and pointed to the sky, saying, ‘Holy am I alone throughout Heaven and Earth. The three realms of

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existence are full of suffering. How could we be happy?’ Thereupon, the Buddhist Way arose. This event is found in the Inner Section of the Mysterious and Sublime (Xuanmiao neipian), which is an authentic scripture composed during the Han dynasty, not a far-fetched book.”

I corrected this, saying, “The Daoist purpose of this is based on Laozi’s scripture of two [chapters] (i.e., the Laozi Daodejing). The explanation about the mysterious and sublime is provided in seven chapters of [the Inner Chap- ters of the] Zhuangzi, and [the Daoist fundamental tenet is] to attain the One and master [the law of] the void thoroughly. There is nothing to hear regarding the wonders of the transformation of a body. [In the Zhuangzi,] Peng[zu] (a legendary ofﬁcial who was said to have lived eight hundred years) is equal in life span to a child who dies prematurely.453 I have never seen that [this text] advocates immortality.

“Therefore, those who are in harmony with Heaven do not engage in changing normal ways, and they are content with their time and place them- selves in order. Why would they seek a long life? If [Laozi] availed of the essence of the sun, entered into [Māyā’s] mouth, cut [Māyā’s] right armpit open, [and was born,] there is discrepancy between the time and the event. This is [a story] that combines various different tales under the pretense of a miracle. [The Daoist scripture composed during the Han dynasty] tells an imaginary story and preposterously speaks of deiﬁcation. Absurd [statements made] during the Qin and Han dynasties extend to Wei and Jin times. The statement [of this Daoist scripture] does not follow [the law of] sages. How can you say that it is an authentic scripture?”

The Discourse states: “It is said in Buddhist scriptures that it has already been an immeasurably long time since the time the Buddha attained buddha- hood, or that [the Buddha was] once the leader of the circle of Confucian scholars, the most reverend priest of the country, or a monk.454 These are all derived from actual Buddhist scriptures, not expedient talks.”

I corrected this, saying, “The foundation of Buddhism takes root in clar- ifying the ultimate teaching, and regarding the issue of three periods (past, present, and future) there is nothing that can testify to it in secular ways. The way to enlightenment is not something that can manifest evidence. Nevertheless, at the point where the exquisite and the profound meet, there are internally signs of meditation and wisdom. When there is a reaction between condition

and sensation, the law of causation has nothing wrong externally. Śākyamuni gave the very fundamental cry of truth, and clariﬁed the goal to which the Way of the Spirit leads. Consequently, to train one’s essential [mind] and to examine the function of one’s intelligence are not [equal to] the merit of pre- serving one’s righteousness. In completing the way to the goal through minor virtue, [Buddhism] is different from [the teaching] that comes close to haugh- tiness. Salvation in the [Buddhist] Way lies in neglecting the physical body and what is valued is not to complete life. Since living life [for its own sake] is not valued, what merit is there in keeping existing things? In neglecting merit, merit manifests. In the tranquil state of complete extinction (i.e., nirvana), there is the regular course of the [Buddhist] Way. [Everything] comes out of non-beginning and enters into non-ending. All responses go to one [who has made causes]. Even an immeasurably long time is not that long. This is the teaching that [the Buddha] regards as [the Buddhist Way].”

The Discourse states: “The tenets of the two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism) are as if [two pieces of] a tally are matched.”

I corrected this, saying, “Since the Buddha explains [the teaching for] the three periods, [the teaching] completely complies with all things boundlessly. Laozi only nourishes our physical body and his teaching dampens enthusiasm to the utmost. Therefore, in the teaching that is conﬁned to issues about the physical body, [Laozi] does not discuss life in the other world. In the ediﬁcation [of Buddhism] that completely complies with everything, it accordingly covers all things entirely. The Duke of Zhou, Confucius, Laozi, and Zhuangzi are truly teachers of emperors and kings, but they cannot provide testimony for the opinion we formerly read. [Buddhism and Daoism] are teachings that have different [strategic positions]. In addition, the testimony [that the tenets of the two teachings are as if two pieces of] a tally are matched is disregarded.”

The Discourse states: “Daoism is precisely Buddhism; Buddhism is none other than Daoism.”

I corrected this, saying, “Since there is a difference between the [two] teach- ings, just as there is between a square and a circle, how could we see them as the same? Those who follow Buddhism can ﬁrmly weigh [the teaching of] Laozi, but how can those who learn [the teaching of] Laozi take it to be the same as [that of] the Buddha? If [the compiler of the Discourse] presumes to compete with [Buddhism], trying to cling to the supremacy [of the teaching

of Daoism], recklessly mixing up [the two teachings] through selecting and collecting [materials], and intends to establish the unorthodox and remove the orthodox based on the similarity [of the two teachings], then this is pre- cisely that what should be learned is not what he has learned. He reveals himself to be a vermin of the Way. He seriously fails to know himself. He must be ashamed to face those who maintain their proper province.”

The Discourse states: “[Since the Way is helpful to all in the world, it penetrates all areas, and since its knowledge embraces all things,455 it governs all things. Since the areas] penetrated vary, the ways to govern [the areas] must differ. [The Way] causes each [of all things] to accomplish its nature and does not change its task.”

Moreover, it states: “Some [sages] clarify the Five Classics and some spread [the teaching of] the three vehicles” and “They teach Chinese people in the Chinese language and edify non-Chinese in their native languages.” In addition, it states: “Buddhism and Daoism are equal in universally edifying, but there is a difference between the Chinese and the non-Chinese

[in their objects of ediﬁcation].”

I corrected these, saying, “He who is quietly inspired and attains thorough understanding must do everything smoothly. By a single voice, the Buddha lets [sentient beings] receive awakening, complying with each of their species. Would the teaching of the three vehicles be necessary to edify [only] the non-Chinese? Why does the Chinese way require strict adherence to the teaching of the Five Classics? In emptying one’s mind and exerting oneself in accordance with affections of his mind, there is no difference between Chinese people and non-Chinese. How could differences in customs contradict [the teaching of] the Sage (i.e., the Buddha)? Although the areas penetrated [by the teachings] are not the same, the teachings are naturally equal.” The Discourse states: “[The full formal dress of] the black garment called xuanduan together with the cap called weimao and the formal dress for government ofﬁcials are the garb of many Chinese people; while the trimmed hair and black garment [of a Buddhist monk] are the manner of

dress of many non-Chinese people.”

I corrected this, saying, “When we seek the valuable point of a principle, we should ﬁrst base it on the manners and customs of the people. There are

differences in the way to follow a tradition. It is simply an issue of the times. Therefore, the gentleman makes achievements beautifully, just as the leopard’s spots become more beautiful [in autumn],456 and the people’s culture is ﬁrst reformed. Zhuan Sun (i.e., Zichang) received an instruction [from Confucius], and lost his determination to learn about the Yin dynasty.457 Regarding the virtue of Emperor Shun and Emperor Wu [of the Zhou dynasty], Yao abdicated the throne [for Shun], and [Wu] expelled [Emperor Yang] from the throne by force of arms and made a different statute. Sages of later generations had achievements. Could there be a boundary between Chinese people and the non-Chinese?

“Moreover, is it necessary to adhere to the national dress in thinking through the ultimate teaching? Therefore, when we link [the manner of dress] to unchangeable sorts of things, our delusion becomes deep and our actions are stymied. Since water and land differ from each other, there are [different] methods of sending things to a distant place. The example of the boat and the carriage [found in the Discourse] cannot be considered well done. More- over, [śramaṇas, like] the one who carved a mark on the side of his boat [to indicate the place where he dropped his sword into water],458 and [Daoist monks, like] the one who waited by the stump [where he previously had caught a hare], in the hope that other hares would come by that spot,459 assuredly show two points to which we are led.”

The Discourse says, “[Buddhist monks] abandon their wives and children in token of a minor degree and discontinue their ancestor worship in token of a major degree. They fulﬁll all things they desire with the politeness [of Con- fucianism], but they completely warp the rule of showing ﬁlial piety and respect for one’s parents with the [Buddhist] Dharma. [Buddhists] go against virtue and offend the [right] order, and yet they have been unaware of this.”

Moreover, it states: “To maintain completely one’s body and to abide by ancestor worship are in the teaching to continue wholesomeness. To dam- age one’s physical form and change one’s family name are in the learning to cut off evil. What should be valued in the ultimate principle of the universe is the Way, and what should be despised in phenomena is secularity.” I corrected this, saying, “Now [the Discourse] takes rejecting ancestor worship as offending [the social] order. [In Confucianism, however,] they

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retain desires and expand politeness. This means exactly that the rule of showing ﬁlial piety and respect for one’s parents exists for one’s own beneﬁt. Secularity is not necessarily despised. To damage one’s physical form [and change one’s family name] to cut off evil are despicable [acts] from [the Confucian] viewpoint, but their way is not necessarily noble. [The compiler of the Discourse] is fond of the secular [world], adheres to former times, honors China, and esteems politeness. He turns the noble and the humble upside down and falsely makes self-satisﬁed talk. He vainly wishes to be a vermin and drowns in ordinary views. How could he expect the fundamental principle in the words of the Sage (i.e., the Buddha)?”

The Discourse states: “Either nirvana or the transformation of becoming a Transcendent is a method [to unite with the Way]. In Buddhism it is called right and true (zhengzhen), while in Daoism it is called right and One (zhengyi). The term ‘One’ means to return to non-death and the term ‘true’ means to meet nonarising.”

I corrected this, “[Laozi says:] ‘Princes and kings attain the One and become the head of the world.’460 He does not talk about the transformation of becoming a Transcendent. Since [Laozi says] ‘The one who does not lose [even a part of his body] when he dies is of longevity,’461 he does not discuss the issue of non-death. [The compiler of the Discourse] makes a personal assumption and a false accusation. His words are smooth, but they are wrong. The Great Way has already been obscured and small comprehensions [of the mind] have risen one after another.462 How true this saying is! All those who make false accusations and deceptions and who are too arrogant intend to look for sages’ words in order to illicitly make up for their faults. We indeed do not tolerate to examine it. The Daoist teaching today merely takes long life to be a belief and immortality to be the main goal. Alchemy, golden elixir, eating clouds, taking jade as food, mysteriously ﬂying up, sprouting wings or exuviating to ascend to Heaven, deliverance through the corpse, and transformation are the methods with which they entrust themselves. [Yet] when we try to verify these things, [we ﬁnd that] no such things can be seen after all.

“Furthermore, [the Daoist teaching] claims that if one does not ascend to [the realm of] immortals he will become a ghost after he dies, or he will be summoned and appointed an ofﬁcer of Heaven, according to his original merit. Even though these [notions] are greatly against the worthy writings

left by Laozi and Zhuangzi, in the fundamental principles they still have nothing wrong in the worldly teaching. If one loses desires, directs his course to wholesomeness, avails himself of ediﬁcation, goes at will, and forgets the purpose of multiplying endlessly, [the search for] truth results in absurdity, but does not throw a normal [condition] into disorder.

“Regarding [Daoists] like Zhang [Ling] and Ge [Xuan], all of them addi- tionally concocted supernatural transformation to educate the common people; they concocted weird accounts and misled the people of the world. By means of talismans and spells, they appeal to [the Heavenly Thearch] in written and verbal form, and as a pretext they say that these are all what Laozi transmitted to them. Moreover, they have gradually expanded [their teaching]. Then they quote Buddhism, which is far away [from their teaching], and try to testify that [Buddhism] consists of forgeries. Their argument is confused, and there is no model of scholarship on which they base [their argument]. When we examine [their teaching] against the meanings of [orthodox] texts, we cannot ﬁnd anything similar. They cause the true and the absurd to be mixed up, people who wish for awakening to be deluded eternally, and no one to be able to dispute it. It is a serious false accusation and severe disorder.

“You are already fully aware that [the teachings of] the Buddha and Laozi are right, but you have not yet encountered a ferry [to the teachings]. Now I would like to brieﬂy explain a corner [of the teachings] and cause you to have self-introspection.

“The two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism) possess both the study of the truth and the examination of the mind. Therefore, [the teachings] can avail themselves of all states of things whenever they encounter them. “The teaching of Laozi consists of moral training, statecraft, cutting off

and abandoning the honor of high rank, and things to rectify their nature. It takes the absolute vacancy as the foundation and softness and meekness as the function. It encourages self-examination without blaming others, striking one’s root deeply in oneself and being perfectly still,463 regarding the move- ment of the primordial vapor of Heaven as an integral whole, going peacefully beyond the human world, cultivating harmoniously the great primordial vapor,464 having equanimity toward loss and gain, not scheming to go with obstruction even when one is driven to the wall, waiting [for good fortune and] submitting to fate, not planning [to proﬁt oneself] even though one rises

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in the world, and taking public opinion as a measure of his worth. This is why scholars truly admire even the branch stream [of the original teaching] and why the teaching exists. Why do they take up the issues that deiﬁcation has no set pattern, of beneﬁting the world, and of immortality?

“As for collecting clouds, sprouting wings or exuviating [to ascend as a Transcendent], changing the spirit, and tracing to the very source of the numinous being, these are [practices] from a teaching of a different vapor which was created through mending and accumulating [teachings] that were formerly completed. Therefore, although there are records of strange matters, what are called the principles do not follow them. When we investigate super- natural accomplishments we reach all things accordingly; the large are extraor- dinary auspicious cases, such as a female kylin or a male phoenix; and the small is the transformation of sparrows or pheasants. Once we have received a physical body, we wish for learning. Can we achieve it?

“So Yan [Hui] and Confucius are contiguous to each other in their ways, and they are close to the apex of natural endowments and learnedness. If we indeed admire the mysterious trace and yet stop it, or if we desire to follow and yet there is nothing to follow, to be contented with our fate is not reckless deﬁlement. When we infer from this, [everything] can be clear. Therefore, Confucius esteemed to know the decrees [of Heaven] and he certainly had something he did not say. Boyang (i.e., Laozi) left behind strangeness and honor, and he ﬁrmly abided by wuwei. All these are attempts to restrain the causes of deception. Then, in tracing to the very source of the spirit and devoting oneself to the teaching, there is assuredly the ultimate law of Nature that we follow. In accomplishing the Way and attaining things, there is the origin that we realize in each of them.

“Actions manifest in one’s previous existence, but you seek merit through forcing yourself to learn. A deep-rooted practice is accomplished habitually, but you perversely long for absurd desires and change them to the highest priority. If [one faces toward] Yan state [in the north] yet desires [to go to] Yue state [in the south], what could make his desire come true? Therefore, in learning we ﬁrst ﬁnd what [should be] learned and then learn it in order to accomplish it. To do what can be done is to do what can be achieved. In order to study and clarify about the people, the teaching was established in

the middle of Heaven. Regarding the observation of phenomena and the survey of changes, [the sages] occupy their thoughts with them but do not discuss them. This is the profundity in managing the affairs of the secular world, and the ultimate [teaching] of Confucius and Laozi.

“To do what has not happened, to complete the function of intelligence, to trace to the very source of causality, to share reason among living creatures who are different from each other, to have a thorough [knowledge] of falsehood and return to truth, and the authentic supernatural accomplishments all [indicate] the greatness of Buddhism. Hereupon, the Buddha precisely clariﬁes the ulti- mate law of Nature. Laozi [teaches] how to complete one’s life. Those who stick to life are blocked [from the way to truth] and those who clarify the ulti- mate law of Nature reach it. Nevertheless, if one quietly rests in the right path, even if he is blocked, he is not deluded. If he actively follows the ultimate law of Nature, he will reach reason and illuminate the ultimate Way.

“Therefore, people of virtue certainly esteem to complete the pure nature given by Heaven and seek the Way by themselves. They respect the foun- dation, help [people] understand [the teaching] thoroughly, and return the merit to the four great elements. If one does not try to do things that are not so, abides by the teaching, and maintains the constant Way, he can learn the purity of the teachings of Confucius and Laozi. He goes beyond the ultimate law of Nature and sees as far as the horizon. He searches the stream [of the teaching], looks into the origin, and considers life to be dust and poison. Therefore, he stops extending respect to monarchs and parents, he does not talk about changes and extraordinary things with surprise, he does not hold stubbornly to one side, he is not frightened by mysterious things, and he develops his thoughts through pacifying his mind and contemplation. “When accumulated merits are revealed and the important [time] comes,

the essence of Buddhism is clear in our actions. Consequently, if in learning we ﬁnd what [should be] learned, it is possible to support all the people and the teaching is revered in the world. If actions become clear in the doing [of them], we will exterminate deﬁlements, return to the stream [of the teaching], and go far away from heavenly and human beings. Anything beyond this point has probably not been known. What we attain through clearing our thoughts lies just in this.”

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Family Law (Menlü) by Zhang Rong (444–497) and the Criticism by Zhou [Yong,

Director of] Shan

Generation after generation, my family has revered Buddhism and the family on my mother’s side respects Daoism. Daoism and Buddhism are not dual in the ﬁnal consequence; [both teachings] aim toward tranquility and stability and they are the same at the foundation. When one is inspired, he is successful in understanding [the teaching] thoroughly. When we come across traces [of the teachings, we may ﬁnd that] they become different from each other. This is comparable to the case where although the music was not handed down, we are not far from the mystery of the Five Thearchs; or the case where although the ceremony was not transmitted, the holiness of the Three Augusts is not suspended.465 The times of the Three Augusts and the Five Thearchs were different. Therefore their customs were not the same. They belonged to different ages. Hence their righteousness varied. Why can we arbitrarily exercise common or dull [intelligence] and falsely accuse the ultimate Way of the Spirit?

I see that Daoist monks ﬁght Buddhist monks [just as] Confucianists [ﬁght] Mohists, and that Buddhist monks judge the rights or wrongs of Daoist monks, and vice versa. Once upon a time there was a wild goose that ﬂew in the Way of Heaven. Since it was far [from the earth] it was difﬁcult to see [the goose] clearly. The people of Yue thought the goose was a wild duck, while the people of Chu thought it was a swallow. [The difference] is simply due to [the fact that] people lived in either Yue or Chu. The wild goose was always just a wild goose, wasn’t it? [In the same way,] only the pure foun- dation is one, and we all believe in the foundation. The traces of the wild goose have already dissipated. I will soar in the essence gathered [from all the traces]. You may wholeheartedly follow in the footprints of the Buddha without disgracing the foundation of Daoism.

A Letter Given to He [Dian], He [Yin], Kong [Zhigui], Kong [Zhongzhi], and Zhou [Yong, Director of] Shan, Shanci466

I, Shaozi, will send a letter and make a statement to all those who roam about in life. I, Zhang Rong, state:

A bird cries mournfully when it is going to die. A man speaks good words when he is approaching the end of his life.467 Recently my disease has worsened and my vitality has weakened. In this condition, I [wonder] how many times I can breathe while my spirit stays [in this world]. Moreover, I am afraid that my boat lost the rudder in a deserted narrow ravine, and there is nothing to fasten a hill to a marsh.468 Therefore, the time I can view the moon (i.e., his remaining lifetime) is very short. Every moment I am busy. If I do not stitch [everything together], it drifts away. I would like to make my lingering intention of the afterlife the rules of conduct for my brothers and nieces. Therefore, I created the Family Law, and I recite this writing often. I try to reach the origin of the two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism). Now I am reporting this to you, gentlemen. What do you think about this?

Response to Zhang’s Letter Together with Questions to Zhang

I, Zhou [Yong, Director of] Shan, Shanci, wrote back to you, Shaozi, and stated: I, Zhou Yong, bow to you with my head to the ground. A great composition came to me. I read that you are making your family code more severe. We, those who visit your family, have nothing with which to involve ourselves in this, and you really do not expect any help from us. When I respectfully exam- ine the same foundation, [I ﬁnd that] there is something to measure your lofty mind. Even though I know the primary to which the Way of the Spirit returns, in addition to Buddhism, the principle of Confucianism is magnanimous. Beside these, as to what can equal [the teaching of] Confucius, [the teaching of] the Yellow Emperor and Laozi is truly majestic. This teaching has gradually spread [as time goes by]. It is not that there is not anything perverse [in the teaching]. In its basic principle, simplicity, there is something respectable. I select traditional thoughts, brieﬂy differentiate the pure from the murky, and do not mix them up in the process of selection. I just have held these thoughts in mind and have not yet expressed them. In any system there is order and disorder, and we cannot make a mistake in distinguishing the similarities from

the differences. We should make a conclusion in written form.

Discerning the intention of your writing, you said that [the three teachings] are fundamentally the same. It appears that [your intended meaning of “same”] is not [the same as what] I think. [Your idea of “difference,”] as you mentioned

39a

that customs differ according to the time, is not [the same as what] I think, either. It has been my long-cherished desire to put in order some of my thoughts on this point. Fortunately, in the light of your opinion, I would like to try to articulate my view together with you. It is brief, as you see below. I look forward to hearing your profound instruction.

In the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings] you say, “Daoism and Buddhism are not dual in the ﬁnal consequence; [both teachings] aim toward tranquility and stability and they are the same in their foundation. When one is inspired, he is successful in understanding [the teaching] thoroughly. When we come across traces [of the teachings, we may ﬁnd that] they become different from each other.”

Zhou says, “You mention in your discussion that they are the same in their foundation. Please let me ask you: What is the meaning of the foundation to which you refer here? Wouldn’t it be that those who speak of Daoism con- sider the two-chapter text (i.e., the Daodejing) to be primary, and those who speak of Buddhism should take prajñā to be the ultimate law of Nature? The reason why the two-chapter text is esteemed is that the signiﬁcance reaches the absolute vacancy at the extreme point. With prajñā one observes that the extremity of the spiritual function is the Dharma-nature. Even though the absolute vacancy and the Dharma-nature are the same in respect to tranquility, they differ from each other in the purport of the way to position tranquility. As for your statement in the discussion, ‘[Daoism and Buddhism] are not dual in the ﬁnal consequence,’ do you mean that [the two teachings] settle in the absolute vacancy or that they are not dual in the Dharma-nature? Is there another foundation in addition to those of the two paths, or are the absolute vacancy and the Dharma-nature not different from each other in purport? If there is another foundation, please tell me about it in detail. If [the absolute vacancy and the Dharma-nature] are not different from each other, I wish to hear your explanation of why they are not.”

In the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings] you say that “The times [of the Three Augusts and the Five Thearchs] were different. Therefore their customs were not the same. They belonged to dif- ferent ages. Hence their righteousness varied.” [And you say,] “I see that Daoist monks ﬁght Buddhist monks [just as] Confucianists [ﬁght] Mohists,

and that Buddhist monks judge the rights or wrongs of Daoist monks and vice versa. Once upon a time there was a wild goose that ﬂew in the Way of Heaven. Since it was far [from the earth] it was difﬁcult to see [the goose] clearly. The people of Yue thought the goose was a wild duck, while the people of Chu thought it was a swallow. [The difference] is simply due to [the fact that] people lived in either Yue or Chu. The wild goose was always just a wild goose, wasn’t it? [In the same way,] only the pure foundation is one, and we all believe in the foundation. The traces of the wild goose have already dissipated. I will soar in the essence gathered [from all the traces].”

Zhou says, “You say in the discussion, ‘The times [of the Three Augusts and the Five Thearchs] were different. Therefore their customs were not the same.’ This means that Buddhism is different from Daoism. Your statement, ‘They belonged to different ages. Hence their righteousness varied,’ refers to the Daoist teaching being separate from the Buddhist [teaching]. Daoism and Buddhism are different from each other. If it is not a wild duck, it is a swallow. This means only that the foundation in which you believe is just one: a wild goose. If you run about busily [advocating both] Buddhism and Daoism, you will have neither of them. In your lofty examination, you have not been aware of what you are following in order to discern the foundation. You easily revere [both teachings]. Is there any purpose in doing so?

“If you still take hold of the two teachings and position their foundations, I am afraid that ﬁghting and judging [between the two different teachings] will just begin and you will not be able to pass good judgment on anything. If we survey equally the origin of teaching on the basis of the two teachings, the origin of each teaching always reveals itself along with the teaching itself. We should put on a deerskin cap and hold a staff with rings [just as a hermit does], and see [the world] in a leisurely manner. Then, Confucianists and Mohists will calmly discuss. [They may wonder] why they formerly competed. If the origin in which [the two teachings] are well matched is correct and the traces that separated [from the origin] are wrong, the functions of the two traces should be all removed. Why do you go in the direction to soar in the essence [gathered from many sources], while diligently engaged only in Buddhism, concentrate your vapor, hold the One fast in your embrace, and yet have no respect for Daoism? Your words are deep and your purpose is profound. I hope to hear your later account.”

39b

In the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings] you say, “You may wholeheartedly follow in the footprints of the Buddha without disgracing the foundation of Daoism.”

Zhou says, “You wholeheartedly follow in the footprints of the Buddha without disgracing the foundation of Daoism. I hold Śākyamuni’s instruction in my mind and am attached to the Confucian statements in my daily conduct. I have not yet understood your intention. How are Buddhism and Confu- cianism positioned? Do you think that they are one in the foundation and differ in their later development, or are they different both in the foundation and in later development? Since I wish to thoroughly inquire about this or that and investigate exhaustively issues related to the principles, I cannot help but to ask you [these questions].”

The Second Letter Given to Zhou with Answers to His Questions

I, Zhang Rong, say, “Since I have still been unable to forget myself, I have attachment to my family. My body has already weakened and my gray-haired head has come to an extreme point. I stay in this world for my young dependents. I do not want to cause my mind to be deserted day and night, like the former capitol, and what I have troubled with throughout my life to run wild. For that reason, I created this Family Law in order to regulate the family. If Buddhism and Daoism are not employed, by what means would my family be regulated? Therefore, I try to postpone my last day depending on my vital breath and to extend my life span relying on animation. I am often moved and wish for divine response. I [hope to] reach the origin [of Buddhism and Daoism] and to settle the foundation. I truly wanted you to give me a won- derful opinion. Sure enough, you wrote back in this way and gave me your thoughts, clever views, and correct analysis. Since you have given me your thoughts, I now speak for you.”

Zhou says, “You mention in your discussion that they are the same in their foundation. Please let me ask you: What is the meaning of the foundation to which you refer here?”

I respond to Zhou, “The nature of the mind is the capability to know. The way of morality is what can be known. If one has the capability to know and yet he does not know what can be known, this does not mean that he has

the capability to know. If there is what can be known and yet it is not known by one who has the capability to know, it is not what can be known. Hence, we see that one who has the capability to know must go to the way [of moral- ity] and what can be known must know what it goes to.

“Nevertheless, an ordinary person trembles with feeling, disturbs the function of intelligence, stirs up desires, agitates the spirit, drives his sharpness out, and clouds the function of recognition. Therefore, the mind goes in the wrong direction and ﬂows downward, and the function of intelligence sep- arates from the way [of morality]. As to [the teaching of] Boyang (i.e., Laozi), giving undivided attention to the [vital] breath and bringing it to the utmost degree of pliancy, staying in the void to let the animation act at will, putting the restless at ease, and holding all together in one embrace,469 one stays put as if frozen and understands tranquility thoroughly. When one is solely pro- ﬁcient in tranquility, the function of intelligence has no chance to disappear and the animation halts in the void. Hence, he directs himself joyfully. If you want to have Boyang not be tranquil, how could this be possible? If you would have him be tranquil and not anchored in the Way, how could this be possible, either? Now that it is tranquil and has two spirits, the spirits are tranquil and there are two ways. I have never heard this.

“Consequently, at the ﬁnal point it is one. [Nevertheless, an ordinary person whose] nature is restless and too hasty and whose appearance is wild is unable to widely practice further. [This is comparable to the case where] a man thinks to assume hegemony in the world in the next battle and yet just exhorts the people to respect his determination. I hope you may become free from all thoughts and hold the [dark-colored] pearl (i.e., the foundation).470 Hence, although there are ﬁve people who are categorized as a ‘Thearch,’ the spirit is always one. There are three people who have the title ‘August,’ but the Way is not more than one. Even though a wild duck and a swallow are mistaken for one another, in the end it is a wild goose, isn’t it? This is why I straighten [your] rope.”

Zhou says, “Wouldn’t it be that those who speak of Daoism consider the two-chapter text (i.e., the Daodejing) to be primary, and those who speak of Buddhism should take prajñā to be the ultimate law of Nature? The reason why the two-chapter text is esteemed is that the signiﬁcance reaches the absolute vacancy at the extreme point. With prajñā one observes that the extremity of

39c

the spiritual function is the Dharma-nature. Even though the absolute vacancy and the Dharma-nature are the same in respect to tranquility, they differ from each other in the purport of the way to position tranquility.”

I respond to Zhou, “Even though the Dharma-nature seeks emptiness by means of [the doctrine that emptiness] is precisely form [in the phenomenal world], the absolute vacancy [in Daoism] actually extends the meaning beyond the phenomenal world. As to the point that they (i.e., Dharma-nature and absolute vacancy) are linked together, however, you must think about this more closely. In regard to roaming around without distraction in the mind, brushing off the dust of the mind by oneself, thinking without distur- bance, and being antecedent to the material form by one’s effort, in respect to forgetting existence, Lao’s [teaching] appears to go against Śākyamuni’s, but from the viewpoint that [the concept of] forgetting is included [in Lao’s teaching], Śākyamuni’s [teaching] does not take the place of Lao’s [teaching]. One has a leisurely state of mind, he is pure and peaceful, he sits and abandons [all things], he is quiet in order to calm the spirit, and he successfully under- stands [everything] thoroughly in order to empty the functions of them. When I ascend to this state [of mind], I do not see [any difference between] a Buddhist and a Daoist. When I give rise to this inclination, how do I know what is Buddhist or Daoist? There is only one in the ﬁnal consequence. The real state of things is originally subtle and we realize [that the two teachings derive from] the One. Since what people sense varies, it is hard to come to an agreement in responding to things.

“All things in the universe and visual and auditory senses interlock; visual and auditory senses mutually cross all things in the universe. When they adhere to each other, they are already profound. When they separate from each other, certainly they are superﬁcial. Hence the old man in Ku [county in Chu] (i.e., Laozi) concealed [the doctrine of ‘emptiness is] precisely form’ for the time being; he followed what exists without agitating the feeling, and he respected what does not exist and imbued the mind with what it follows. Things having been hidden away, the people then wish for nonexistence. Since it is possible that the wind from the west (i.e., Śākyamuni) rose in the daytime and reached the essence of the south (i.e., Laozi), wouldn’t it be possible to dream of the spirit of China (i.e., Confucius) while asleep at night?471

“If you think that Laozi did not accomplish anything about nonexistence, I do not expect you to grasp the meaning. If you think that [Laozi] accom- plished something about nonexistence and yet did not accomplish anything about existence, what you understand differs from what I expect. If you have doubt because Laozi accomplished something about existence and yet did not clarify it in his teaching, why do Buddhists who accomplished something [about existence] make the traces high? At such a time, if you think that Buddhists had better make the traces high sometimes, this is comparable to the case where Laozi made the traces high occasionally. [The two teachings are] the same in the ﬁnal consequence. This is my intention.”

Zhou says, “You say in the discussion, ‘The times [of the Three Augusts and the Five Thearchs] were different. Therefore their customs were not the same.’ This means that Buddhism is different from Daoism. Your statement ‘They belonged to different ages. Hence their righteousness varied’ refers to the Daoist teaching being separate from the Buddhist [teaching]. Daoism and Buddhism are different from each other. If it is not a wild duck, it is a swallow.” I respond to Zhou, “If it is not a wild duck, it is a swallow. The trace is assuredly so. About the trace that is assuredly so, I will not give an answer. However, even though it is possible that there are differences in time and age, we should not create a difference just for the sake of making differences.”

Zhou says, “In your lofty examination, you have not been aware of what you are following in order to discern the foundation.”

I respond to Zhou, “I have already explained about recognizing overall the foundation in my previous letter. My recognition about [the teachings of] Laozi and Śākyamuni is exactly like this. This is precisely ‘When I see with my own eyes, the Way exists there.’472 If you want to make unjustiﬁable investigation into the words, I do not know how I can discuss the issue.” Zhou says, “If you still take hold of the two teachings and position their foundations, I am afraid that ﬁghting and judging [between the two different teachings] will just begin and you will not be able to pass good judgment

on anything.”

I respond to Zhou, “In grasping the meaning, there is the foundation. Why do you extend your effort to take the teaching [if you have attained the foundation]?”

40a

40b

Zhou says, “If we survey equally the origin of teaching on the basis of the two teachings, the origin of each teaching always reveals itself along with the teaching itself.”

I respond to Zhou, “You are correct, indeed. This is why I see the deri- vation of Daoism as the same as that of Buddhism, but for the reason why I agree with these words, there is just separately a wonderful base.”

Zhou says, “We should put on a deerskin cap and hold a staff with rings [just as a hermit does], and see [the world] in a leisurely manner. Then, Con- fucianists and Mohists will calm down. [They may wonder] why they formerly competed.”

I respond to Zhou, “The two states of Yu and Rui had legal struggles over farmland, but this is something with which King Wen did not have to be concerned.473 Even if the natural jade is broken into pieces in order to put an end to a ﬁght over the jade, is this particularly respectful? Moreover, we are ﬁghting for a wild goose at night, but you recklessly have a wild duck and swallow ﬁght each other. This means to put a deerskin cap on the head in vain and to hold a staff with rings in the hand to fabricate oneself. How could I understand this?”

Zhou says, “If the origin in which [the two teachings] are well matched is correct and the traces that separated [from the origin] are wrong, the func- tions of the two traces should be equally removed. Why do you go in the direction to soar in the essence [gathered from many sources], while diligently engaged only in Buddhism, concentrate your vapor, hold the One fast in your embrace, and yet have no respect for Daoism?”

I respond to Zhou, “The movements of the mind responding to eternal objects are diverse and one’s feelings are various. Although I do not ﬂy with a ﬂap of the wings up to the four fruits [of sainthood in the Hinayana], you have no doubt that I abide in Buddhism. Even though I do not ﬂy with a ﬂap of the wings up to the ﬁve supernatural powers [of the immortals], what regret would I have in abiding in Daoism? Moreover, the honorable sacredness should be the foundation; I do not worry about the traces. Furthermore, I already have what I have abided in. Would I now change [the destination] to which I am ﬂying? Since you can understand that there is only one [foun- dation] in the two parallel pillars, I will not rigorously press you to remove [the wrong view].”

Zhou says, “I hold Śākyamuni’s instruction in my mind and am attached to the Confucian statements in my daily conduct. I have not yet understood your intention. How are Buddhism and Confucianism positioned? Do you think that they are one in the foundation and differ in their later development, or are they different both in the foundation and in later development?” I respond to Zhou, “I originally blend a hundred sages together and throw them equally into the One, the ultimate. Recently I discussed this in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], but Confucianism was not included in the discussion. Now you carry Confu- cianism to an extreme, and you precisely want to arrange Confucianism in a line and encircle Daoism. Therefore, you act as if you ﬁrst prick up your ears, think of causing a war, and then plan to mount a surprise attack on the heavenly city at night, but I am afraid that it is difﬁcult to ascend there; it is too precipitous for you to ascend there. Even if I see the troops going out, I will not see them return. I have already said that a hundred sages are thrown into the same place. Why would I allow that [Buddhism and Confucianism] differ both in the foundation and in later development? Moreover, you oppose me with all your force displaying your intelligence and bravery willfully.

My bravery and intelligence spontaneously come together and ﬂow out with great ease.”

The Second Response and Further Questions by Zhou Yong

I, Zhou Yong, bow to you with my head to the ground. As for what can move the mind and to what we consign our mind, what other than truth can be our teacher? Ediﬁcations in China and foreign countries are what the practitioners dedicate, but if we distinguish between these (i.e., ediﬁcations in China and foreign countries) and make our choice clear, this causes me to become dis- contented and lost. Why would it be difﬁcult for me? You virtuously wish to say it, and I have not stopped speaking, either. That is to say, I will send [this letter] to examine [the issue] furthermore. I will await your explanation to me. You say in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], “Even though the Dharma-nature seeks emptiness by means of [the doctrine that emptiness] is precisely form [in the phenomenal world], the absolute vacancy [in Daoism] actually extends the meaning beyond the

40c

phenomenal world” and “Hence the old man in Ku [county in Chu] concealed [the doctrine of ‘emptiness is] precisely form’ for the time being; he followed what exists without agitating the feeling; and he respected what does not exist and imbued the mind with what it follows.”

Zhou says, “It is true that [the old man] in Ku [county in Chu] concealed [the doctrine of ‘emptiness is] precisely form,’ but I am afraid that in this statement you have not reached [the doctrine of ‘emptiness is] precisely form.’ If you make a pretext of being able to conceal [the doctrine], those who can conceal it are many, and probably there is not only the man from Li village (i.e., Laozi) [who can do so].

“When existence is existence, people perceive existence. When non- existence is nonexistence, people recognize nonexistence. Laozi dealt with existence and wrote on nonexistence, but he did not go beyond this boundary. This is what I stated in my shallow discussion, the Discourse on Three Sects (Sanzonglun): ‘If we select and run about busily, no one has been able to go beyond that level.’ In Buddhism, the reason why worldly-mindedness is left behind in theory and why the rules governing the rhythm of words go against the norm is probably because [‘emptiness is] precisely form’ means [that form in the phenomenal world] is not existence. Therefore, [Buddhism] is absolutely outstanding among many schools. What merits are there in Laozi, who did not clarify this point?

“Being confused, perverse, or unrestful is entirely due to attachment to existence. In going against the Way or being drowned in secular [customs], here is the trouble. Since the trouble is due to adhering to existence and the nature of existence has not been clariﬁed, the school that rectiﬁes existence follows and respects the art of nonexistence. If the nature of existence is not clear, even though this is a big problem, whom do we go against in esteeming tranquility? Those who experience nuisances are really few. This is why the Daoist teaching is added to the propagation of the [Buddhist] teaching and why I said in my previous letter that ‘the teaching of] the Yellow Emperor and Laozi is truly majestic.’

“All the former opinions by Wang [Bi] and He [Yan] indicate that Laozi is no match for the sage (i.e., Confucius). If [Laozi] was just as he is presented in this view, [his teaching] could not inﬂuence Śākyamuni’s teaching. When I position Laozi, I do not think this. When a bodhisattva manifests in the

world, the manifestation has no ﬁxed form; he manifests at times as the leader of the circle of Confucian scholars, the most reverent priest of the country, or a monk. This is the established dogma found in Buddhist scripture.474 Sometimes he appears even in the guise of a prime minister or a wealthy man. Why wouldn’t Laozi’s life be only one track [of his]? It is only because we have not known the depth of observation and the level of nobility. This is all because the great brightness has not been opened and for the time being we have received only one side [of the truth].

“When the sun or moon comes out, the torch should be put out.475 Since [the teaching of] no remaining is expounded, many interim [teachings] will spontaneously cease. You still want to resist in order to save the brightness [of the torch] even under the [light of the] sun and moon, and to clarify that this [torchlight] and [the light of] the sun and moon are of common origin. “You already worship the sun and moon in your mind and you have no intention of disgracing the foundation of the torch, but you have not been aware of what the foundation of this torch is. Is it a name, or reality? If it is only a name, where does the fundamental Way exist? If you say you want it to be reality, the sun and moon are reality. This means that the issue comes to an end with a buddha, and you do not understand the [Buddhist] Way. In the purport of the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two

Teachings], whom does the origin reach?

“You say in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], ‘One has a leisurely state of mind; he is pure and peaceful; he sits and abandons [all things]’ and ‘When I ascend to this state [of mind], I do not see [any difference between] a Buddhist and a Daoist. When I give rise to this inclination, how do I know what is Buddhism or Daoism?’ “Again, you say, ‘Now that it is tranquil and has two spirits, the spirits

are tranquil and there are two ways. I have never heard this.’ “Furthermore, you say, ‘As to [the teaching of] Boyang, giving undivided

attention to the [vital] breath and bringing it to the utmost degree of pliancy, staying in the void to let the animation act at will . . . the animation halts in the void. Hence, he directs himself joyfully.’

In addition, you say, ‘[In regard to] brushing off the dust of the mind by oneself, . . . and being antecedent to the material form by one’s effort, . . .’

41a

Zhou says, “You state that ‘Even though the Dharma-nature seeks empti- ness by means of [the doctrine that emptiness] is precisely form [in the phe- nomenal world], the absolute vacancy [in Daoism] actually extends the mean- ing beyond the phenomenal world.’ I think personally that Laozi and Śākyamuni came [to the world] about the same time and took charge of their own ﬁelds, and about their spheres there is nothing better than [your] statement of this. In that case, that the state of Laozi’s mind was leisurely indicates spontaneously that it was leisurely [in the world] outside existence, and that Buddhists are pure and peaceful and sit and abandon [all things] means that they sit and abandon [all things in the world where] form is precisely empty. If we ascend to the state of Laozi’s mind, [we will know that] Laozi differs from Śākyamuni; if we experience Śākyamuni’s intentions, [we will know that] Śākyamuni differs from Laozi. Since the spirits are in tranquility, they are two,476 and there are two ways. Even though you had not heard this before, I have previously heard it. If this is so, the animation that halts in the void is spontaneously void; it is in the void that you mentioned, and to direct oneself joyfully is not the way I mean, either. Regarding the statement, ‘[In regard to] brushing off the dust of the mind by oneself, . . . and being antecedent to the material form by one’s effort,’ you have not entirely gotten involved in the grand law, so I do not dare agree with your Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings].

“You say in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], ‘If you want to have Boyang not be tranquil, how could this be possible? If you would have him be tranquil and not anchored in the Way, how could this be possible, either?’”

Zhou says, “Your statement is very apt, but I am still worried that [you] have not yet reached the utmost mastery. In what you say here, you hit the mark in regard to the tranquility of the spirit, but you miss the point as to the void of things. If you think that tranquility is [temporary] tranquility and you do not mean that it is the ultimate tranquility, and if you think that the animation is [temporary] animation and you do not say it is the complete animation, I approve of this. It is faultless.

“You say in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], ‘If you think that Laozi did not accomplish anything about nonex- istence, I do not expect you to grasp the meaning. If you think that [Laozi]

accomplished something about nonexistence and yet did not accomplish any- thing about existence, what you understand differs from what I expect.’ Zhou says, “As for the accomplishments about existence and non- existence, if we do not [understand] the apex, we are not ready [to know them]. In knowing nonexistence and knowing existence, I approve of the Daoist [standpoint]. Daoist words, however, simply do not reach the state of neither existence nor nonexistence. Neither existence nor nonexistence is what [the Discourse on] Three Sects has in store. If you reverence additional thought, you may just take a look at [this discourse]. I only think that in order not to cause your understanding to be erroneous, I remove mistakes and settle

the issue.

“You say in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], ‘If it is not a wild duck, it is a swallow. The trace is assuredly so. About the trace that is assuredly so, I will not give an answer.’

“Moreover, you say, ‘My recognition about [the teachings of] Laozi and Śākyamuni is exactly like this. This is precisely ‘When I see with my own eyes, the Way exists there.’

“In addition you say, ‘In grasping the meaning, there is the foundation. Why do you extend your effort to take the teaching [if you have attained the foundation]?’

“Again, you say, ‘You are correct, indeed. This is why I see the derivation of Daoism as the same as that of Buddhism.’”

Zhou says, “Regarding your statement: ‘When I see with my own eyes, the Way exists there’ and ‘In grasping the meaning, there is the foundation,’ I think that the true meaning of the Dharma-nature is precisely this state [of mind]. Buddhism has it, but what you obtained does not have the reason. Why do you extend your effort to take the teaching? The foundation of what you see with your own eyes exists in the traces of the teaching. If we think [these traces are] a wild duck and a swallow, where has the wild goose gone? “As for the true nature of all dharmas, Laozi’s [teaching] does not have

the purpose. Even if you try to see the lofty nature (i.e., the Way) with your own eyes, there is no such thing in Laozi’s traces. Since both the purpose and the traces are missing, there is no means by which to search for the ulti- mate law of Nature.

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“Your discussion says, ‘[You may wholeheartedly follow in the footprints of the Buddha] without disgracing the foundation of Daoism.’ On what point [in the foundation of Daoism] must we bring no disgrace? If when you search the traces of Daoists you think you ﬁnd that its derivation is the same as that of Buddhism, the real meaning of the ultimate truth can be found in writings. Do we ascertain [the real meaning of the ultimate truth] in the Dao chapter [in the Daodejing] or do we encounter it in the De chapter? If both chapters [of the Daodejing] are not what you follow and you attain the profound [meaning of the ultimate truth] in your mind, this is naturally your subjective point of view and it is simply the third [standpoint], following [those of] Laozi and Śākyamuni. Probably you can establish another school independ- ently. This is not what I dare to bring up here.”

“You say in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], ‘The two states of Yu and Rui had legal struggles over farmland, but this is something with which King Wen did not have to be concerned. . . .

This means to put a deerskin cap on the head in vain and to hold a staff with rings in the hand to fabricate oneself. How could I understand this?’” Zhou says, “You said that ‘[the old man] in Ku [county in Chu] concealed [the doctrine of “emptiness is] precisely form” for the time being.’ If that is the case, the nothingness (xukong) [advocated by Laozi] is insufﬁcient. You said that ‘The Dharma-nature seeks emptiness by means of [the doctrine that emptiness] is precisely form.’ If this is so, the Dharma-nature is perfect. Now here is a man who talks about the Dharma-nature holding a staff with rings. A scholar wearing a deerskin cap arrives, and grasping the absolute vacancy, says with censure, ‘Your [view] is not the same as mine. I will ﬁght against you.’ You serenely lean against a thorny tree (in ancient times, a place where lawsuits would be heard) and pass judgment after hearing the argument between them. You say that neither of them is good, and you comment that one of them wears a deerskin cap on his head in vain and the other holds a staff with rings in his hand in order to fabricate himself. If you, a sharp and outstanding person, cast such judgments, the people of Yu and Rui will be

very sad.

“You say in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], ‘Although I do not ﬂy with a ﬂap of the wings up to the four

fruits [of sainthood in the Hinayana], you have no doubt that I abide in Buddhism. Even though I do not ﬂy with a ﬂap of the wings up to the ﬁve supernatural powers, what regret would I have in abiding in Daoism?’” Zhou says, “You said, ‘I do not ﬂy with a ﬂap of the wings up to the four fruits’ but still you diligently abide in Buddhism. You said, ‘I do not ﬂy with a ﬂap of the wings up to the ﬁve supernatural powers.’ Why do you cast aside

only the Daoist trace?

“Since this is illogical, I have just made such a complaint.

“You say in the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings], ‘You precisely want to arrange Confucianism in a line and encircle Daoism. Therefore, you act as if you ﬁrst prick up your ears.’”

Zhou says, “Your Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings consists of] only the origin of Daoism and does not refer to that of Confucianism. Since I have doubts about this lack, I inquired about it to you. I have not known about directing oneself joyfully. Can one [direct him- self] joyfully only by Daoism? Is it possible that he directs himself joyfully while cultivating in Confucianism? Even though this is not the main point of our discussion, if I speak freely, I must come to [this point]. I will be for- tunate if you give me extra instruction in your spare time, apart from explain- ing about the foundation.”

I (i.e., Sengyou) have researched the criticisms and questions between Zhou and Zhang. Although the correspondence between them is numerous, the standpoints, intentions, and grounds of their arguments can be found in their earliest correspondence. Therefore I omitted their later writings. My purpose is to keep to the main point of the discussion.

Letter to the Daoist Gu [Huan] (420–483) by Xie Zhenzhi

I, Xie Zhenzhi, say, I respectfully read the Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese. You argue and discuss the origin [of Buddhism and Daoism] in detail on the basis of the scriptures of these two teachings. The expression [of the Discourse] is clear; it is a brilliant composition. [The writing style] is as sonorous as the harmony of the notes gong and shang. It is full of stren- uous endeavors in the profound principle. It is enjoyable!

41c

Regardless of my narrow view and ignorance, I put forth my efforts to steal a glance at the profound ultimate law of Nature. I painstakingly explore what is profound, but I have nothing at all on which to rely. I, however, have tried to take a lesson [from the Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese] and read it more than three times, but my humble doubts have not yet been resolved. I would like to slightly express my doubts, hoping to hear your explanations later.

At the beginning of the Discourse you state that the Buddha is precisely Laozi and Laozi is none other than the Buddha.477 Moreover, you compare the transformation of becoming a Transcendent [in Daoism] with nirvana [in Buddhism] and see that longevity [in Daoism] is equal to no death [in Buddhism]. Accordingly, you refer to the worldly instructions in order to tally them with the profound teaching (i.e., Buddhism). When I collect exam- ples of these words, they probably appear equal to [those of Buddhism]. In the last [section of the Discourse, however], you ridicule [Buddhism] and say that [Buddhist monks] annihilate Chinese [traditional customs] and reject [ancestor] worship. In addition, you say that [the foreign language used by Buddhists] is similar to the noisy chirps of insects or birds, and that it is not something we should follow. Please let me try to speak about these issues.

The Duke of Zhou and Confucius took Confucianism and Mozi’s teaching as a model to be followed. Laozi and Zhuangzi spoke about the teaching and clariﬁed a method to lead to [the Way]. These [efforts] all open [the Way] little by little and cause [people] to approach the Way, [but the people] have not yet been ready for the great development [to the Way] with these. More- over, insects and birds are different species [from human beings]. The edi- ﬁcation originally separates from the Way. When we want to say something about this, we must ﬁrst investigate the reasons.

Originally, when a person participates in the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth), this is called the three powers (sancai). How could the foreign country (i.e., India) and China be divided in a place governed by the three powers? Then, we know that a person must be part of the human species and an animal must belong to groups of animals. Let us seek [an example of this] in familiar matters. The seven treasures are what people love. Consequently, Chinese and non-Chinese people equally value them. Since being respectful is what people honor, people of the world are sincerely concerned with this.

Hence, perfect marital relations were practiced in the four states,478 not to mention the inﬂuences of the great ediﬁcation. Wouldn’t it then be diffused throughout the trichiliocosm?

Speaking on the basis of Buddhist scriptures, you perhaps have heard that the Buddha appeared in the world. He united all traditional teachings into one; the world was placed in one orbit. At the time Śākyamuni was ﬁrst cultivating as a bodhisattva, he extensively ediﬁed people. Those who lived in that land when he attained buddhahood were granted special benevolences and favors; and they were all reborn in our domain. Our [domain] means Jambudvīpa (i.e., the continent situated to the south of Mount Sumeru). [Peo- ple,] however, have been deluded for a long time in [the transmigration of] birth and death; they have followed and been imbued with secular customs; they temporarily lose the right path; and they simply have not been aware of the present enlightenment.

I think that the Sage looks down upon all with the wisdom of the three transcendental knowledges, observes the faculties of each person, and under- stands that [faculties] vary from person to person. Therefore, he expounded [the teaching of] the three vehicles and spread it.

First of all, the true Way is only one and the Dharma is nondual, too. Now, for the time being [the teaching of] the three vehicles is expounded and there are different ways to guide [people], but the place to which all return is one. Hence, when [the Buddha] traveled about, gathered people, and expounded the teaching, those who attained awakening were as numerous as grains of sand. In saving [people] from drowning [in extreme misery] and delivering them from delusions, there is nothing to surpass this teaching. Therefore, the boundless world, including the present, the future, and the past, is collectively here. We know that the ninety-ﬁve [non-Buddhist] schools are clearly not branches [of Buddhism]. At the beginning they said that their teaching is the same [as Buddhism], but in the end they said that it is different [from Buddhism]. Consequently, we know that what [they thought] is the same at the beginning is [in fact] not the same, and what [they thought] is different is, in the end, no different either. Isn’t this like absurdly beating an earthen pot and recklessly trying to harmonize with the basic sound huang- zhong?479 Wouldn’t this be a deception?

42a

As for matters such as that [Chinese people] keep their bodies complete [at death], maintain sacriﬁces, wear a crown and a big sash tied behind with the ends hanging, while [non-Chinese people] throw on a felt garment, put on adornments made of shells, bury themselves in dust and dirt, and cremate the body [at death]; or, as for things such as the sound of the Zhengshi era [of the Wei kingdom] (i.e., the authentic Chinese sound) and the barbarian sound, these [indicate] only minor differences in secular manners and customs [between Chinese and non-Chinese people]. Now we see that a bird sings in the world of birds, and an animal roars in the world of beasts. If we truly hold one of many sounds and feel that it is different from all other sounds, we respond to it in a different manner. In this case, if the foreign country differs from China in the way to edify [the people], why do you mix everything up? [Your statement in the Discourse that] if a boat [moves on land] it will be dried out, and if a carriage [sails in a river] it will be submerged, can be compared to this case.

Propriety of the secular customs is the attenuated form of loyalty and good faith;480 it is not the purity of the Way. Those who cultivate the purity of the Way strive to go against secular customs. When secular customs can be deﬁed, the Way can be pure. It is difﬁcult to defy secular customs. Hence, we ought to leave behind extremes. In order to leave behind extremes, you must ﬁrst take off the crown, shave your head, put on a Buddhist monk’s robe, and abstain from a [meat] diet. If we take off the crown, we need no expense for worldly ornamentation. When we shave the head, we need not trouble with hairpins and combs. When we put on a Buddhist monk’s robe, we do not bother tailors to make our clothes. When we abstain from a [meat] diet, we stop thinking about our favorite foods. This is precisely [Laozi’s saying] “Those who devote themselves to the Way [seek] from day to day to diminish [their doings].”481 How could this be what the secular customs of the foreign country established? Regarding [Buddhist] writings and subtle books such as the Tripiṭaka and the four Āgama sutras, they are exactly [what Laozi said:] “Those who devote themselves to learning [seek] from day to day to increase [their knowledge].”482 How could this be what Chinese customs could create?

Moreover, you say, “Buddhist scriptures are complicated and illustrious, while Daoist scriptures are concise and profound.” Inferring from this, this

means that if [the scriptures] are profound, it is difﬁcult to hope to study them intensively and to rely on them; if they are illustrious, it is easy to hope to seek them carefully; if they are concise, they must be insufﬁcient in indi- cating the reasons; and if they are complicated, they are a collection of inter- esting points and there are many keys to the way [to awakening]. In the Buddhist teaching, anything that has a form is considered to be illusory. Therefore [Buddhists] forget themselves in order to save sentient beings. In the Daoist teaching, [on the contrary,] one’s self is considered to be true. Hence [Daoists] take medicine and food in order to preserve their lives. Fur- thermore, if life can be preserved, could a rose of Sharon (or an althea) com- pete with a thousand-year-old pine tree for longevity, or could an ephemeral organism be equal to a ten thousand-year-old chun tree in life span? This is certainly impossible.

If we deeply realize that the three realms of existence are abodes for the long night of spiritual darkness, and life is a master of the great dream,483 we long for the Way to awakening. Why would we treasure our body? Even if our body could be reﬁned and we could live without death, this originally differs from Laozi’s fundamental way, and it is not the same as the Buddhist principle. Why do you make such a statement?

The spirit dwells in a body, similar to [how one stays] at an inn. If we go to an inn, why should we feel a persistent attachment to the eaves? The perception of the sensory perception and the form of what can be formed are not the substance of sacredness. Even the life spans of Yao and Confucius were less than a hundred years. [The period between Śākyamuni’s attainment of buddhahood and] his entering nirvana is as long as the time it took [Con- fucius] to recognize the ordinances of Heaven (i.e., ﬁfty years). Hence, from an eternal kalpa ago, the spiritual intelligence has been puriﬁed and reﬁned. As the spiritual intelligence has been puriﬁed [and reﬁned], its function severs [the confrontation between] existence and nonexistence; it brilliantly tran- scends [the boundary between existence and nonexistence] with the wisdom of the four phrases (i.e., existence, emptiness, existence and emptiness, and neither existence nor emptiness). This is exactly genuine and the unalterable Way from beginning to end.

Furthermore, those who “carve a mark on the side of a boat” (i.e., Buddhist monks) pray to a golden [buddha image], while those who “wait by the stump”

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(i.e., Daoist monks) harbor the hope to ascend to Heaven as a Transcendent sprouting wings.484 Consequently [Buddhist monks] practice the six pāramitās in the phenomenal world, while [Daoist monks] are hindered by delusion and eat numinous mushrooms [that are believed to possess supernatural powers]. Even though being stuck in the phenomenal world is theoretically against the six pāramitās, practicing them can probably save people; but if one is hindered by delusion, he assuredly does not ascend to Heaven as a Transcendent sprout- ing wings. How then can he have more energy than his own share [to help others] in close touch with the realities [of life]?

When we seek some traces of the origins of two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism), there are different views, the broad and the narrow, and there is an apparent difference between superior and inferior. You cannot question closely fellows like these. They have entirely an intimate feeling of self; it is not the universal great knowledge. Then, it is known that they can discern differences in the secular customs [of China and the foreign country] by the teachings. It is sad! The profound Sage (i.e., the Buddha) is already far away. [Various schools] brilliantly have arisen competing with each other. It can be said that [to respect such teachings is like] pointing to the trails made by an insect and considering them to be the Chinese written language invented by Cang [Jie], or like drinking the milk of a poisonous insect and thinking that it is clariﬁed butter. This is very sad!

The Buddhist Way is vast and extensive. The capacity of wisdom cannot be completely expressed. It is difﬁcult to survey the traces of responses by form. While we argue about existence, myriad aspects are luxuriantly dis- played as if a thousand mountains stand in a row. When we analyze non- existence, even Mount Tai is exhausted in vain; it scatters along with an autumn down.485 We make use of the ten powers [attributed to a buddha] in order to destroy devils (Skt. māras), and promote the four immeasurable minds in order to deliver secular people. When we raise the Dharma torch of prajñā, what dark place would we be unable to illuminate? If we concentrate with the Dharma might of samādhi, what distant place would we be unable to subdue? Why should we doubt that [the Buddhist teaching] is not effective in both the foreign country and in China?

The Second Letter Given to the Daoist Gu

I, Xie Zhenzhi, address myself to you. Thank you very much for your response and explanation! I exhaustively examined the profound situation. You already have harmonized smoothly Daoism and Buddhism and yet [separated] Śākya- muni from Li (i.e., Laozi) just as separating [the muddy water of] the Jing River from [the clear water of] the Wei River. “If we prolonged each by the addition of the proper lines, [then all events possible under the sky might have their representation.]”486 They will accordingly become games or gam- bles, [which are better than doing nothing].487 The more you explain about the Buddha, the more obscure the exquisite purpose becomes. When we dec- orate a shop counter in order to trade valuables, we do not sell them on a bright night. [What you do] is like, as [the Zhuangzi] says, trying to erase your footprints by running around, or trying to stop casting a shadow by jumping.488 How could you avoid [such criticism]? According to on what your discourse is grounded, you think that insects and birds are different species [from human beings] and that the non-Chinese and the Chinese differ from each other in manners and customs. I think that the three powers equally unite, the human reason is one, there are [only] minor differences in secular teachings, and the teaching of the Dharma is almost the same [for non-Chinese and Chinese]. You respond, “It is found in the Book of Changes; it is not what foreign books imitate.” Then you say “A white ﬂag has already been hoisted, but you do not inspect it closely and take a black ﬂag to be white. [Your case] is different from [the historical fact in which] Cao [Gui] saw a ﬂag [and became aware of enemy troops].489 You arbitrarily omit all familiar essential points in order to indicate the great conclusion.” If so, even though a pearl is hidden in the topknot [of the wheel-turning noble king],490 the deception of the inconsistency is easily discovered.491 I speak somewhat in jest, but I do not intend to defy you at all.

The Grand Terminus is divided into the two polarities (i.e., yin and

yang),492 which are intertwined in vain. When the ﬁve skandhas get together, the body and consciousness unreasonably manifest. Consciousness is formed on the basis of deﬁlements, while the body arises from the condition of attach- ment and hindrance. Before the time of Fuxi, many people were basically

42c

foolish. Since they were basically foolish, they lived in trees or dwelled in caves, and [ate the ﬂesh of birds and beasts,] drinking their blood, and swal- lowing [also] the hair and feathers.493 Sovereign and subject, father and son, saw each other just as people of the northern tribes and those of Yue state [of the south] saw each other. They were still like beasts. Moreover, they could be compared with ignorant children. It was not the world into which Daoism was introduced and where [the teaching of] love and justice had inﬂuenced the people. When the people became bogged down in desires and lost themselves in waves, they thought to deliver themselves by clinging to a precipice. When we deliver ourselves, we pray for wholesomeness. When we pray for wholesomeness, sacredness responds to us.

What is sacredness? It is what we communicate with through our recep- tivity to things. Communicating is not self-communication and receptivity is not self-receptivity, either. Receptivity is constantly on this side, while communication comes always from that side. Speaking from that side, [it is like] a mirror hung in a lofty hall. Speaking of this side, [it is like] all images coming back to this side. Therefore, we know that India is located in the central region of this world (Skt. sahā); since it is placed in the excellent assemblage of purity and wholesomeness, it is possible to communicate through receptivity with the ultimate sacredness, and the land is situated in the center of the trichiliocosm. Since the sacredness responded to that land (India), the voice [of the teaching] spreads in this land (China). When we see the brightness of the sun and moon, why do we have to borrow the obser- vation of Li Zhu, [who has the excellent faculty of sight]? When we hear wrathful thunder, why do we have to have Ziye (i.e., music master Kuang, a blind musician of the Spring and Autumn period) hear it?

Consequently, it does not matter that different things, such as the humble and the noble, go with each other in the same way, and in the difference between the two polarities of left and right there is no harm in natural relations. Since there is no harm in natural relations, [the people gather like] clouds and practice the Dharma teaching. Since it does not matter that [different things] go with each other, [the Dharma teaching] bestows [mercy], just like the rain falls on both the foreign country and China.

The Way is one, while form is dual. The Way is truth, and form is world- liness. Since truth is still one, worldliness is still dual. We make a thorough

investigation of duality to attain unity; we ought to unify the law. If we elim- inate worldliness and return to truth, we will certainly go against worldliness. For this reason, the Tathāgata established the model and made various teach- ings the same in the eternal past. If Confucius and Laozi were the Buddha, they would dim the light, secretly lead [the people], rectify their prejudice to deliver them, establish benevolence, create righteousness, and conform to secular people’s feelings. Hence, [people] maintain their bodies [at death] to be complete, continue [ancestor] worship, extend their kindness to their family members of the six relations, attend to their health, nourish their natures, [establish] themselves, and [do not adhere to] other things. However while these are considered to be very good, they are not considered to be perfect. Probably this is for a limited system; [neither of them] “whip up their lagging [sheep] (i.e., neglecting one of two aspects).”494 How is it possible to compare the Way with supreme enlightenment (Skt. bodhi), and to compare the sages (i.e., Confucius and Laozi) with Śākyamuni?

When Buddhism is expounded clearly, it has essential points and it is competent and extensive. Since it has essential points and is competent and extensive, [people of] exquisite [faculties] and those of coarse [faculties] fathom it. Since [people of] exquisite [faculties] and those of coarse [faculties] fathom it, strongness and weakness agree with each other. Therefore, the pure ferry [to truth] reaches profound points; it is really a pair of accurate compasses. It is easy to draw a circle by using a pair of compasses, but difﬁcult to do this only by hand. Why wouldn’t we follow the easy way and abandon the difﬁcult way?

Daoist scriptures are simple and crude. Many are composed in a far- fetched manner. Regarding scriptures such as the Wonderful Scripture of the Truth of the Numinous Jewel (Lingbao miaozhenjing), [the Daoists] adopted the Lotus Sutra (Fahuajing) for it. Their manner of composition is particularly poor. As for scriptures such as the Scripture of the Yellow Court (Huangting- jing) of the Shangqing (Supreme Purity) school, what it upholds is ingesting drugs: to chew rocks and eat clouds. It is not simply that their law cannot be followed, it is also difﬁcult to consider that their way is the same [as that of Buddhists]. Among [such texts], the good point is found only in the teaching of the Five Thousand Words (i.e., Daodejing), which completely employs wuwei. Yet to completely employ wuwei has not been able to remove existence. If to

43a

remove existence is their purpose, what then do they nourish with numinous mushrooms?

The nine philosophical schools [of China] are even closer to what [the teaching of] the three vehicles of the Buddhist school leads to. Since the nine philosophical schools are even closer to [what the Buddhist teaching of the three vehicles leads to], we attain [the movements of] motion and rest here. The noumenal principle of meditative power is merely part of [the teaching of] the three [vehicles]; it is not the culmination. Meditation sutras are subtle. The characteristics of the objective world are exquisite and pro- found. Even if we try to become united in truth with these, it is still impossible to accomplish it.

Now you say, “The Way lies in wuwei and is simply to attain the One.” “It lies in wuwei and is simply to attain the One” means to commune with what is profound for a thousand years. If you would like to commune with what is profound for a thousand years,495 I need not wait for your lofty talk. [Buddhism] is the brilliant ultimate law that leads people to reach the reﬁned state. If one were to reject studying and reﬁning his thought, would this not be negligence? How could it be a tentative method to lead to Daoism? Examining respectfully what you said, [I come to know that] not only do you not understand Buddhism, you do not understand Daoism either. I send

a poem to you to offer a little laugh.

The poem says:

[Heaven and Earth] go on. The light becomes dim.

The profound Sage (i.e., the Buddha) concealed himself (i.e., entered nirvana).

The long night drifts slowly. Many stars shine brightly.

When the sun luminously rises and shines, the lunar mansions rapidly disappear.

Round and square [pieces of wood] should be uniform for use as construction materials,

Even though they are different from each other as raw materials. If one is solely deluded, he is not awakened.

The big-headed fellows are surprised that [the Buddha] departs [and goes] far away.

Bian He [of Chu state] wept bitterly at the foot of Mount Jing.496 How could we onesidedly blame King Li of Chu state?

Even if a good grasscutter slights prajñā,

How could we censure transcendental wisdom?

End of Fascicle Six of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Seven

Critique of the Daoist Gu’s Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese by Zhu Zhaozhi, Attendant-in-Ordinary

I read your lofty talk on the non-Chinese and the Chinese. You discuss the two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism) and present the purposes of each of the scriptures. [Your opinion] deeply accords with what is profound, and your wonderful words are virtuous and pleasant. It is not a meaningless state- ment. Formerly Ying Jifu (i.e., Ying Zheng of the Jin dynasty, ?–269) saw that [the teachings of] Confucius and Laozi are equal, and now in a later gen- eration you, our wise man, consider that [the teachings of] Li (i.e., Laozi) and Śākyamuni are also equal. The distinct paths for all ages are united into one path in the present dynasty. Questions and disputes for successive gen- erations are happily [satisﬁed] today. You appreciate [the teachings] deeply and understand them profoundly. There are many people who are cleansed and comforted. There is no discussion more beneﬁcial to the world than this. Regarding statements of the favorable aspects of each (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism), however, there are points as close together as the liver and the gall bladder, and points as far apart as Chu state and Yue state. This is because it is not understood that although there are two different tastes, sweet and bitter, they must be the same in nature in order to make a body. Therefore, [Buddhists and Daoists] attack each other and then strange doctrines arise. [Disputes] are repeated and become complicated. This causes quite a lot of harm. It is pitiful! [Your discourse] is at the beginning, just as [when the sun] rises in the sky and the light covers the outside of this world; and yet in the end, just as [the sun]

sets in an abyss, the light is obscured and the brightness is lost.

If a spiritual guide loses himself, many others are also lost. Therefore, I forget that I am shallow and ignorant, and then lead and deliver [others]. Now, I will ﬁrst express my thoughts [about your Discourse] and later I will speak of what I ﬁnd regrettable. I think that since “it is right to follow the good [way smoothly,] as on the course of a stream,”497 it is not regrettable merely to go against traditional [notions]. I live far away from you, [beyond]

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the mountain and rivers where you live, and I cannot expect to have a good conversation [with you in person]. So, I send this to you for the time being in order to temporarily substitute it for a [face-to-face] meeting. Once the ﬂags of our feelings meet each other, what we have explained is not shallow.

I, Zhu Zhaozhi, speak.

Since the sacred Way is void and tranquil, it perfectly responds to anything with no set pattern; because of its response with no set pattern, it responds to everything. Therefore, if we inspect the mind from the point of sacredness, originally there is no name in a myriad of understandings. When things are spontaneously understood and named, with the names they are considered to be evident. Hence, those who have complete intelligence are called ones of right, perfect enlightenment (Skt. samyaksaṃbodhi); those who smoothly and thoroughly understand are called sages; and what opens up [the knowledge of the issues of] things and accomplishes the undertakings [of men] is called the Way.498 In this case, a sage is merely the one of right, perfect enlightenment and the one of right, perfect enlightenment is nothing other than the Way. You should understand this. Why is it necessary to seek it in a distant place? The Chinese and the non-Chinese differ from each other in manners and customs, and also, in terms of their affections, they are different. Since sages usually take action in accordance with [all things], there is probably a dif- ference in the establishment of each teaching. Nevertheless, [Chinese] rules of propriety and the [Buddhist] pure precepts have three hundred rules, they are equal in number, and there are equally three thousand [rules of] deportment or formal manners [in both China and the non-Chinese country]. What may differ between [China and the non-Chinese country] lies only in the names “Buddhism” and “Daoism” and in their appearances. A mastermind still con- siders the physical body to be like an inn (i.e., a temporary abode). How would it be worthwhile for him to discuss the Chinese formal dress called gunmian?499 What may be questioned lies only in the beginning of establishing teachings, in which China and the non-Chinese country differ from each other in their function. It is proper to argue the point that present manners and customs are managed concurrently and will change according to the cur-

rent of the times. Now I will speak about this point.

In a sage’s instruction, action is certainly based on the right order. In the eastern country (i.e., China), where splendor is valued, there is the Chinese

formal dress called gunmian; the formal manners of ceremonies and music; rules for deportment; and decorations such as full court dress, a formal gown, a crown, and hairpins, in order to propagate the [sages’] way; it is probably [intended] to lead [the people] to become close to [the sages’ way]. Since simplicity is valued in non-Chinese manners and customs, the people are instructed with extreme plainness; a shaved head is [considered] a beautiful appearance; clothing is made without cutting to shape; emotions are calmed; the intellectual function is opened; and the spirit is expected to be free [from anxiety and agitation] for kalpas, in order to develop the minds; it is [intended] to recommend [people] to keep away from [extravagance].

The Daoist teaching is to take transcendent elixirs called zhiying, to eat clouds, to take [golden] elixir, to breathe in the Grand One (taiyi), to exhale the old, and to inhale the new. The great [achievement] is that the spirit ﬂies [out of the body], sprouting wings [as a Transcendent]. The minor [achieve- ment] is that the body becomes light and strong and has no illness; that is to say, maintaining the body, one can expect the efﬁcacies.

All three teachings (i.e., Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism) have one function of being moved by something and responding to it, but this is not what I think is the culmination [of the Way].

The culmination of the Way is neither splendid nor simple, neither fol- lowing nor leaving, neither close nor distant, neither abandoned nor sustained by anyone, neither partisan nor nonpartisan, and neither slandered nor praised; it completely ﬂows without obstruction and it is tranquil and vast. This is tentatively called nonexistence. The subtle state [of the mind] is like this. How is it different from this?

Nevertheless, since the time of the [Three] Augusts and [Fu]xi, each [of the sages] propagated his own way, which has been transmitted in a lineage, and there was no interaction [between different lineages]. This is really due to the fact that they were all satisﬁed with [their own way] and never sought [any teaching] other than their own. Therefore, from the time of the Han dynasty on, simple customs have degenerated, benevolence and righteousness have gradually declined, the rules of the Great Way have not been transmitted, studies of the Five Classics have declined even more, great justice has already become perversely bad, and sublime and profound words have vanished as well. No one roams at “the gate of many wonders” [that Laozi asserts];500

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deportment based on the golden mean is not observed, the art of courtesy is already ruined, Chinese ceremonial music falls as well, [Chinese traditional] manners and customs come to an end, there is no division between sovereign and subject, the authentic teaching has deteriorated, and human ethics have become disordered.

Thereupon, the sacred way (i.e., Buddhism) completely governs [all things] and reaches distant lands as time goes by. The profound ediﬁcation was transmitted to the eastern land (i.e., China) and granted benevolence to this world and kindness to sentient beings. The people despise what they learned previously and were delighted with what they newly heard. They showed their obedience and followed [the teaching] harmoniously. The essen- tial signiﬁcance has been revived. Consequently, houses of sublime and pro- found words (i.e., Buddhist temples) were built here and there, and there are guests (i.e., Buddhist monks) who chant the profound words all around. This can be observed in reality; it is not merely empty talk, a series of vain words. Isn’t this just that everything cannot end with the pi hexagram (i.e., Confu- cianism), which is received by the tongren hexagram (i.e., Buddhism) [in the Book of Changes]?501

I think that the sages nurturing common people is like an affectionate mother raising a baby. When [the baby] begins to eat, she feeds the baby tasty meat; when [the baby] becomes bored of the tasty meat, she changes [his food] to tallow and honey; and when [the baby] is tired of tallow and honey, she lets the [baby’s] whole body rest peacefully. It is extremely ben- eﬁcial to the baby to be peaceful and comfortable both on the inside and on the outside, isn’t it? Reason is just like this. Nevertheless, if one unrestrainedly slanders [Buddhism] and recklessly separates it from [Confucianism and Daoism], he has not realized the center of the ring [of thought] (i.e., the absolute state beyond the judgment of right or wrong).502 I cannot discuss [with such a person]. Correspondence exchanged between you two wise men (i.e., Gu Huan and Xie Zhenzhi) pushes and swings me; it is as powerful as breaking timber. Even if it could break timber, it is not a reasonable labor. If we analyze it with reason, would it be necessary to push and swing [people with such powerful correspondence]?

You began [the Discourse] with the clear [statement] that Confucius and Laozi are the Buddha, but at the conclusion of the writing, your discussion is

desultory. Why [do you say that] Chinese government ofﬁcials’ ceremonial robes and the manner of raising [a ceremonial tablet] and kneeling on the ground are all types of Chinese deportment, and slanderingly say that the wor- ship of putting one’s head on the Buddha’s feet is just like when a fox squats down? Why [do you say that] Chinese ceremonial dress and bowing by com- pletely bending the [upper] body are respectful manners in the region near the imperial capital, and increase humiliation by saying that the practice of kneeling with one’s right knee on the ground is just like a crouching dog? Let me ask you a question. If [you say that] Confucius is one of right, perfect enlightenment and Śākyamuni is one of wrong views, I cannot tolerate to hear this talk. If you approve of [Śākyamuni] as one of rightness and truth, for what reason do you despise and reproach him? You have already lost the intention to stand in awe of the admonitions of sages. Moreover, you have forgotten the courtesy of not having one’s own way. This is the ﬁrst thing I

ﬁnd regrettable.

Futhermore, you say, “To maintain completely one’s body and to abide by ancestor worship are in the teaching to continue wholesomeness. To damage one’s physical form and change one’s family name are in the learning to cut off evil.” This means that [King Zhuang,] son of Shangchen (King Mu of Chu state, who killed his father and usurped the throne)503 would have had the achievement of carrying on wholesomeness [from his murderous father], and that [Śākyamuni’s son] Rāhula, who became a Buddhist monk, would have had the determination to cut off evils. Analyzing your discourse together with reality, I consider this to be the second point I ﬁnd regrettable.

Again, you say, “[Buddhist monks] abandon their wives and children in token of a minor degree, and discontinue their ancestor worship in token of a major degree.” The law of spiritall beings is obscure and vast; it is difﬁcult to clarify. Therefore, when Zilu asked a question [about spirits], Confucius did not explain.504 It must be because life and death belong to different paths, and the condition of spirits are hard to understand. Would it be because the sage was unable to explain it? In fact, [Confucius] was afraid that the wise (i.e., Zilu) would not be able to understand this. If we reﬂect with the mirror of the three transcendental knowledges, we will know that [spirits] exist. You already accept that the spiritual ediﬁcation (i.e., Buddhism) was transmitted

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to the east, and yet you also say that [Buddhism] took the tide with funeral services. This is incoherent. This is the third point I ﬁnd regrettable.

Moreover, you say, “The direct teaching (i.e., Daoism) can promote modesty and suppleness [of human nature], while the indirect teaching (i.e., Buddhism) can restrain arrogance and toughness.” I read this statement three times, and [I am afraid that] it is egregiously disordered. Since modesty and suppleness are easily contravened, we should promote them harmoniously with the indirect [teaching]. Since arrogance and toughness are difﬁcult to edify, we need to restrain them diligently with the direct [teaching]. When we examine the mind and inspect these matters, isn’t this indeed the case? If rice bran gets in your eye, you cannot tell east from west. If you are attached to your biased view, you are confused about the meaning of an expression. Your statement misses the mark. This is the fourth point I ﬁnd regrettable. In addition, you say, “Since [the words of the Daoist teaching cause peo-

ple to] humble themselves, only the intelligent advance; and since [the words of the Buddhist teaching] promote [people to feel better], the ignorant vie with each other in moving forward.” Your statement about the words of the Daoist teaching is true. I respectfully agree with you and sing it loudly. It covers and carries all things. It raises and educates all things that have a form. Your statement, “Only the intelligent advance,” however, seems to be your own discretion.

Once the Buddha’s voice sounds, those who practice the four immeas- urable minds are equally in line, the three vehicles equally follow him obe- diently, and heavenly beings and dragons altogether submit themselves to him. Your statement “The ignorant vie with each other in moving forward” appears to be a false accusation as well. This is a discussion to explore what is complex and profound, but you recklessly form a boil and a papule (i.e., create problems) and freely make unfounded remarks. This is the ﬁfth point I ﬁnd regrettable.

Furthermore, you say, “Buddhism is the way to destroy evils, while Daoism is the way to give rise to wholesomeness.” Regarding the way to destroy evils, I can ﬁnd no fault. Stopping evils and performing good deeds are the reasons why [all] teachings arise. I have not understood about the way to give rise to wholesomeness. Who has the way [to give rise to wholesomeness]?

If wholesomeness is already wholesomeness, why is it necessary to give rise to it? If wholesomeness is not wholesomeness, it does not mean to give rise to wholesomeness. Then the outward reason for giving rise to wholesomeness has no entrustment. The Way is wholesomeness. If you take to give rise to wholesomeness as the outward reason, this is to excessively add to the wealth of the rich (i.e., it is too wasteful). If it cannot shake off evils, it is distorted as a teaching. The Great Way is equally broad for all, but you want to limit it [to Daoism]. This is the sixth point I ﬁnd regrettable.

Moreover you say, “For those who are brutal and stubborn, it is the best to be taught by the Buddha. For those who are kind and gentle and who keep their minds free from preoccupation and open to receive [others’ inﬂuences], it is the utmost to follow the [Daoist] way.”505 To beat and bring a man who is brave and ﬁerce to submission and to have a man who is brutal and tyrannical become peaceful are really Śākyamuni’s great achievements. I am not against your bright purpose [in this point]. Nevertheless, the power of the Way is strong and brilliant and the merit of its ediﬁcation reaches far-distant places. [The Way] “makes the nature [of humans] complete and preserves what exists continually.”506 There is nothing that is not placed under its favor. Even owls and the venomous birds called zhen reform themselves. There is nothing that is not controlled by the might [of the Way]. Your saying that only those who keep their minds free from preoccupation and open to receive [others’ inﬂuences] are all right is too shallow and harsh. You unconsciously fall into a persistent biased view. Don’t you realize that being narrow-minded and inferior impedes the Way? When I open and examine the heading [of your Discourse, I see that] you ﬁrst admonish one’s personal assumption, but while making a statement and presenting a discussion you unconsciously change your mind, and you have difﬁculty in maintaining both your claim

and nominal deﬁnition. This is the seventh point I ﬁnd regrettable.

You say, furthermore, “The eight [diagrams] represent all foreign scrip- tures of the western region and describe both extensive things and small things.” The Diamond Sutra (Skt. Vajracchedikāprajñapāramitā-sūtra; Jin- gang borejing) consists of less than a thousand sentences. Even the teachings propagated by four-line verses (Skt. catuṣpādikā gāthā) encompass all existing things. [Scriptures of Buddhism and Daoism] explain both coarse and sublime

[things], and contain both complicated and simple [matters]. There are minute teachings and detailed precepts [in Buddhism], and ritual codes go into par- ticulars [in Daoism] as well. [Nevertheless,] you say that exquisite and coarse [things] arise in total disregard of law [in Buddhism]. This statement goes against reality. This is the eighth point I ﬁnd regrettable.

Moreover, you say, “Observing [the nature of] each country, the non- Chinese country is of a cruel nature, while China is of a mild nature.” Let me ask you a question. Would the torture called paoluo (forcing a person to walk on a slippery metal beam placed above ﬁre) be a punishment carried out in Samarkand or India?507 The sad [son who was whipped by his parents and who] shed blood was a boy in China.508 The miserable destruction of scraping [a fetus from a pregnant woman] was not in the minds of the non- Chinese.509 [To moisten all things] with dew in fall and [to grant favors] enduring disgrace are not done by a person who lives on the seacoast [and who enjoys himself in forgetting the world].510 Examining the natures [of the non-Chinese country and of China], the Chinese and the non-Chinese have the same principles. You unfoundedly think that [the nature of the Chi- nese] is mild while [the nature of the non-Chinese] is harsh. This is the ninth point I ﬁnd regrettable.

Moreover, you say, “One who plays the go game is wiser than one who travels around. One who expounds and chants [Buddhist scriptures] is better than one who makes quips and jokes.” Thinking this over, the reasons why the reﬁned taste [of Buddhism] could be transmitted and why the scriptures and writings were not abandoned are really due to [efforts] to make people understand by expounding and chanting [Buddhist scriptures] and to attain enlightenment through inquiring and seeking. Therefore, [Confucius] said, “Not thoroughly discussing what is learned is the thing that occasions me solicitude.”511 You, however, compare [expounding and chanting Buddhist scriptures] with making quips and jokes. You are very rude in treating the virtue [of the Sage]. Let me ask you a question. Where do you place a ﬁsh trap (i.e., the tool) to lead [people] to wholesomeness? First of all, you want to forget the words [of Buddhist scriptures] before you apprehend the ideas. This is the tenth point I ﬁnd regrettable.

[Your Discourse] has these ten points that I ﬁnd regrettable. I cannot resolve them myself. I hope that you, a gentleman, will explain them further

for me. Mr. Xie [Zhenzhi] had a criticism and a different view [on your Dis- course] as well. You refuted [his criticism] with detailed explanations. I focus here only on what I want to ask, and will not take further risks.512

Doubts about the Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese and Inquiries to the Daoist Gu

by Zhu Guangzhi

I, Zhu Guangzhi, bow with my head to the ground.

I have had a look at the correspondence between you and Xie [Zhenzhi], Attendant-in-Ordinary, regarding the Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese, in which you clarify the meaning that [Buddhism and Daoism] are united into one. It can be said that they are concise, detailed, and reﬁne dis- cussions. With regard to deeply honoring the decorations of Chinese cere- monial robes and crowns, rejecting the simplicity of taking the tonsure, stating that the manner of raising [a ceremonial tablet] and kneeling on the ground is respectful, and disgracing the manner of sitting like a squatting fox, they conﬁne the Chinese people and cut off their adoption of foreign methods. Even though the metaphor of a boat and a carriage is skillful, the feeling of impartiality and benevolence is not enough. You already leveled the origin [that Buddhism and Daoism] reach and meet, but the way with which the tool entrusts itself [in order to lead people to the origin] is blocked. In this case, we only get a distant view of the awakening of the three vehicles in this land, and the ferry of the six pāramitas is a long way off from us at the present point. Those who open Buddhist scriptures and play with the doctrines are greatly disappointed and discontented.

Mr. Xie looks down on the Way of [Divine] Transcendents (i.e., Daoism) and praises Buddhism; he considers the art of sprouting wings [and ascending to Heaven as a Transcendent] to be a groundless doctrine and takes the asser- tion of becoming a Buddhist monk as following the authentic text. It is as if one knows his ﬁngers are ﬁngers and does not know there is no difference from other people’s ﬁngers. Is this the reason to reach all aspects to grasp the meaning, or the thought that [Buddhism and Daoism] are virtuously the same?

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I was gradually educated in the Dharma early in my life and later enjoyed the taste of Daoism. I always think that respecting the emptiness [of Buddhism] and valuing the nothingness [of Daoism] are the same in the ultimate purport. Both a snare and a net are laid; in principle there is no prejudice. Each person should follow whichever teaching he can best understand and enter that way. It is [important] that it be the place where the mind can be peaceful. Why is it necessary to be able to inherit the emperor’s upper robe with the dragon ﬁgures and yet be unable to ride on [a carriage decorated with] precious stones? I have to work a lot because of my poverty. I am behind in my studies.

It has been more than ten years since I covered the boxes of my books and writings. What I learned in my childhood and what I heard previously are now all forgotten. I have spent years in idleness, having a willful mind. [Even though] I wish to start studying, I have no means [to do so]. Every day I lament by myself through the long night. Then I try to prompt myself until daybreak, without sparing myself, but even though I try to purify my mind, I am still far away from faith and increasingly suffer from deﬁlements. If faith does not go along with the doctrine, it will be ﬁckle and have no sub- jectivity. Because of this, it causes guests who censure me to arise. Hence, I am writing down my humble opinion, exhausting my poor ability. I hope you will again give instruction for me and give guidance on the points about which I am doubtful. I, Guangzhi, bow with my head to the ground.

The Discourse [on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese] says, “Raising [a ceremonial tablet], kneeling on the ground, and bowing by completely bending the [upper] body are respectful manners in the region near the imperial capital, while squatting like a fox and crouching like a dog are reverential manners in uncivilized places.”

My question is this: Each country has its own manners. Since it has been this way for a long time, it is difﬁcult to equalize them. Regarding the point that each person attains what he is content with, there is originally nothing with which to argue [on this point]. As for the deportment in the regions near the imperial capital, your statement is correct. Regarding the expression of [squatting like] a fox and [crouching like] a dog, isn’t this said merely to hurt [people’s feelings]?

The Discourse says, “Even if it is said that since the united point of the teachings is equal, and that the teachings are interchangeable, is it possible

to wade across the river by carriage or travel on land by boat? It is certainly impossible.”

My question is this: Teaching is intended to follow human feelings, but human feelings are not a teaching. Teaching has no ﬁxed pattern because human feelings are not uniﬁed. What human feelings, which are not uniﬁed, proceed to varies. They become strong as well as soft. If [strong and soft feelings] are exercised together, the Chinese and the non-Chinese are assuredly the same. Therefore, in [crossing over] a large river that ﬂows grandly, it is not appropriate to use this (i.e., a carriage). In [traveling over] a prairie to a remote land, why would we take that (i.e., a boat)? Why is it impossible to use both forms of transportation, both boat and carriage?

The Discourse says, “[Everything] is neither completely the same nor completely different. [Buddhist monks] abandon their wives and children in token of a minor degree and discontinue their ancestor worship in token of a major degree.”

My question is this: If one discontinues [ancestor] worship in token of a major degree and yet is not able to abandon his family in token of a minor degree, this means to intend the difference and yet enter the same. It is not a fault of being the same. Would an ox used to plough a ﬁeld rather be forever released from sacriﬁcial use since it is useless for an ancestral temple?

The Discourse says, “They fulﬁll all things they desire with the politeness [of Confucianism], but they completely warp the rule of showing ﬁlial piety and respect for one’s parents with the [Buddhist] Dharma. [Buddhists] go against virtue and offend the [right] order and yet they have been unaware of it.” My question is this: If [Buddhists] go against virtue and offend the [right] order, they should make no action. Being benevolent, devoted, gentle, and harmonious is the mind to keep one’s feet on the ground and holds true. Therefore, having a simple meal and practicing the [Buddhist] Way are not unfortunate signs, and being in full [ceremonial] dress and eating the bread of idleness are not the ways to cultivate the right [mind]. Your opinion that “They fulﬁll [all things they desire with the politeness of Confucianism, but they completely] warp [the rule of showing ﬁlial piety and respect for one’s

parents with the Buddhist] Dharma” can be cut off here.

The Discourse says, “What should be valued in the ultimate principle of the universe is the Way, and what should be despised in phenomena is

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secularity. Now if we reject Chinese [teachings] and devote ourselves to the foreign [teaching], what does this mean? If it is because of the Way, the Way is originally one. If it is because of secular [customs], the secular [customs of Chinese and non-Chinese] are completely different [from each other].” My question is this: Since the ultimate Way is void and comprehended,

it is honorable even without having a rank of nobility. Since secular [customs] have nothing that is not stagnant, they are humble even if they are not rejected. The humble is unable to have no trouble. The honored is naturally content with itself. The state of being content with itself is already one. The sphere of secular troubles is also equal. If the Way is one and [the sphere of secular] troubles is equal, what is good and what is bad? (I.e., there is no distinction between good and bad.) Therefore, they are all [the subject of] ediﬁcation by sages. Only in the mental functions is there delusion. When delusion is exhausted and intelligence arises, [the distinction between] oneself and others is spontaneously forgotten. What are you worried about? Why do you hes- itantly stay on the border between rejection of [the Chinese teachings] and devotion to [the foreign teaching], and the righteousness of China and the foreign [country]?

The Discourse says, “The teaching of nonarising (i.e., Buddhism) is indirect, while the teaching of immortality (i.e., Daoism) is direct. The direct teaching can promote modesty and suppleness [of human nature], while the indirect teaching can restrain arrogance and toughness.”

My question is this: Nonarising is precisely immortality, and immortality is nothing other than nonarising. The names differ but the contents are the same. Is it possible to hold the distinction between the direct and the indirect? If we separate the superior from the inferior because of the difference of their later development, we should restrain toughness by the direct [teaching] and promote suppleness by the indirect [teaching]. Therefore, Confucius said, “Since [Ran] Qiu withdraws, I urge him forward. [Zhong] You (i.e., Zilu) is busy with other people’s affairs. Therefore, I keep You back.”513 As for the way to instruct people, isn’t this right?

The Discourse says, “Buddhism is elegant and extensive, while Daoism is simple and exquisite. What is exquisite is not something in which clumsy people believe, and what is extensive is not something that exquisite people can handle.”

My question is this: One who acquires extensive information and a reten- tive memory must go along with the mental function that is profound and broad. If he sincerely cultivates good conduct, he must follow the principles and reach the subtle [state of mind]. If his mental function is clear, he has nothing that is not exquisite in principle. If his principles are exquisite, he has nothing that is not exhausted in intelligence. In that case, what is exquisite and what is extensive are equally meritorious and mutually make use of each other. If the extensive means the exquisite, would [the extensive] still be believed by clumsy people? If the exquisite means the extensive, would [the exquisite] be wanted only by those who are broadly proﬁcient in [Buddhism]?

The Discourse says, “The words of the Buddhist teaching are splendid and they promote [people to feel better], while the words of the Daoist teaching are sincere and cause [people] to humble themselves. Since [the words of the Daoist teaching] cause [people] to humble themselves, only the intelligent advance; and since [the words of the Buddhist teaching promote people to feel better,] the ignorant vie with each other in moving forward.”

My question is this: [The words of the Buddhist teaching] are splendid, but they are not apart from the principles. They were molded by the One of Transcendent Wisdom. [The words of the Daoist teaching] are sincere, but they have not reached the void. Therefore, they were crafted by one who had gained a good reputation. There is order in the relation between being molded and crafted. Is it because [the teachings] are aimed at those whose natural disposition is ignorant, or those who possess intelligence? If the teachings are aimed at those whose natural disposition is ignorant, then not only the intelligent advance. If [the teachings are] certainly aimed at those who possess intelligence, the ignorant are unable to go forward. If both the intelligent and the ignorant can [advance], why is it necessary to promote them [to feel better] or [to cause them] to humble themselves? Your wonderful comparison is not in a position to make clear the point. This is something about which you ought to make a further argument.

The Discourse says, “Buddhist scriptures are complicated and illustrious, while Daoist scriptures are concise and profound. Since [Daoist scriptures] are profound, it is hard to discern the gate to the subtle [Way]. Since [Buddhist scriptures] are apparent, it is easy to follow the road to true [awakening]. If we follow [the road to] true [awakening], we will not get lost on our way

45a

home (i.e., the ultimate state of mind). If we discern [the gate to] the subtle [Way], we will completely attain all thoughts.”

My question is this: Since [Daoist scriptures] are concise, it is easy to follow them. Why do you say it is hard to discern [the gate to the subtle Way]? If [Buddhist scriptures] are complicated, it would be difﬁcult to follow them logically. How [then] could you easily follow [the road to true awakening]? If we follow [the road to] true [awakening], we will not get lost on our way home. We will be able to be led to the culmination of the [Buddhist] Way. Even though [the Buddhist scriptures] are not profound and concise, we will spontaneously reach there deeply. Why do you borrow a method that is difﬁcult to clarify and replace it with this path that is easy to understand?

The Discourse says, “For those who are brutal and stubborn, it is the best to be taught by the Buddha. For those who are kind and gentle and who keep their minds free from preoccupation and open to receive [others’ inﬂu- ences], it is the utmost to follow Daoism.”

My question is this: Wrong views and the distortion of truth are what the Dharma does not allow. Giving pleasure and happiness, relieving pain and suffering, making other people happy, and giving up all attachments (i.e., the four immeasurable minds) are little by little recorded [in Buddhist scrip- tures]. Making other people happy means to be able to accept anything. Giving up all attachments means that one must efface oneself. The meaning of [the Daoist assertion] to keep one’s mind free from preoccupation and open to receive [the inﬂuences of others] mysteriously matches [the meaning of the Buddhist tenet to make other people happy and give up all attachments]. I do not know on what teaching brutal and stubborn people rely. If you say that [the teaching that people] receive varies, you are rather like the one who carved a mark on the side of his boat [to indicate the place where he dropped his sword into the water]. How could there be a case in which [Buddhism and Daoism] tally with each other?

The Discourse says, “Buddhism is the way to destroy evils, while Daoism is the way to give rise to wholesomeness. Moreover, we should not imitate the teaching of the western tribes with the nature of the Chinese people.”

My question is this: Your saying that [Daoism] is the way to give rise to wholesomeness is very good, but your statement “We should not imitate [the teaching of the western tribes with the nature of the Chinese people]”

is disgraceful [to Buddhism]. I am unconvinced. Let me ask you a question about the nature of the Chinese people and the nature of the western tribesmen. You consider the nature of the Chinese people to be purely good, and that of the western tribesmen to be fundamentally evil. If [the nature of the western tribesmen] was fundamentally evil, how could it be broken by reason? If [the nature of the Chinese people] was purely good, what signiﬁcance would there be in giving rise to wholesomeness? Therefore, we know that if [people] have evil, which can be broken, they have not left behind wholesomeness; and if [people] have wholesomeness, which can arise, they have not escaped from evil. In that case, wholesomeness and evil go together and mutually align as deep or shallow.

Accordingly, the fact that Rāhula was benevolent and gentle is not the inﬂuence of the light from the east (i.e., Chinese inﬂuence). King Jie and [the robber] Zhi were ﬁerce and cruel; was this caused by a concentration of the vapors of the west? Why do you evaluate highly only the Chinese tradition and despise the teaching of the western tribes? If the wholesomeness of this [land of China] is different from the wholesomeness of that [land of the western tribes], and if the evil of that [land of the western tribes] differs from the evil of this [land of China], in wholesomeness and evil [the Chinese people and the western tribesmen] would be essentially against each other. [If this is so,] could there then be a case where they reach the same point?

The Discourse says, “Regarding the manner of squatting and the incom- prehensible foreign language that can be compared to the noisy chirping of insects and birds, why is it worthy to imitate them?”

My question is this: Rites are to develop respect [in the mind], and music is to perceive [the world of] harmony. Even though the respectful mind is developed through rites, rites are not the same as the respectful mind. Although the harmony [of sounds] is perceived through music, music is not the same as harmony. Consequently, when a ruler sets[the people] at ease and the people obey him, the gems and silk [used for rites] are kept in a bamboo chest [because the rites are no longer necessary]. When manners and customs are simple, sincere, and peaceful, bells and drums [for music] are no longer sounded. Moreover, the use of bells and drums is not on the same level of that of the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth), probably because [bells and drums] are used as tentative expedients from necessity in order to rescue

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[the disordered world]. In that case, as long as moral principles exist, [super- ﬁcial] form does not matter. If we return [to the foundation], we do not mind whether [Chinese manners and customs] are the same as or different from [those of the western tribes].

Now, as for squatting like a fox and crouching like a dog, who says [these behaviors] are not respectful? With respect one straightens his mind. Who says [such behaviors] are impolite? Politeness and respect profoundly tally. Why do you reject [the manners and customs of the western tribes] in vain? Among groups of those who bear consciousness, [only] human beings show their nobility. The nobility [of human beings] does not consist in lan- guage. [The value of] language lies in treasuring principles. Therefore, since the kylin and the male phoenix harbor benevolence in mind, they are valued in sages’ books. The chimpanzee (xingxing) can speak [but he does not know principles]. [Therefore,] he is laughed at in the Book of Rites.514 I do not understand on what you rely for the meaning in your discourse. If one sticks to language and removes principles, this is not what the wise depend on. He who relies upon principles and goes beyond language breaks superﬁcial phe- nomena and clariﬁes the ultimate law of Nature. Accordingly even the unchanging [way advocated by] the elder Li (i.e., Laozi) is beyond the desire for fame.515 Vimalakīrti’s silence is not superceded by [all bodhisattvas’] skillful speeches.516 If we inspect the words [of Buddhist and Daoist scriptures], both his (i.e., Daoism) and mine (i.e., Buddhism) have aspects to be driven away. If we examine their purposes, there is no boundary between those of Laozi and those of Śākyamuni. When the aspects of both [Buddhism and Daoism] are driven away, [struggling in vain, like] trying to moisten something with tiny bubbles, should be rejected. If there is no boundary [between Laozi’s purpose and that of Śākyamuni], neither goes against nobility. Why do you view prajñā from a distance and say that it is not wisdom? Why do you humiliate [the foreigners] and rigorously compare them to insects and birds? I carefully examined your discussion repeatedly, day after day. I have not yet been satisﬁed.

Moreover, according to regional custom there are different languages.

How then would [such a difference] be exclusively between the foreign coun- try and China? Taking only China as a familiar example, Qi state and Lu

state are not the same [in terms of dialect]. The use of the terms that mean “to begin,” quanyu and chuluo, has also changed from ancient times to the present. Since there is no harm in recording, both terms have been transmitted in the world in practice. If that (i.e., Buddhism) is wrong, this (i.e., Daoism) is not right either. If this is right, that alone cannot be wrong. Since both cannot be right, they are equally wrong.

Imagine a case in which our Chinese spoken language ﬂows into that [foreign] country. It will incur blame and be reproached [as “the] noisy chirp- ing of insects and birds.” It can be seen that [the people of that country will say that Chinese] is an incomprehensible foreign language. When we solely clarify this point, beams and pillars become equal [in value].517 If [the biased views of] both sides are concurrently removed, wouldn’t they then understand each other? Principles are inmost, deep, and subtle; they are not what we ought to take part in. I sincerely wish to discern the right profound teaching, and for the time being I simply express [my thoughts] in a straightforward manner. Standing far from you, I admire you wholeheartedly. I will await your further instructions.

The Disputation on the Daoist Gu’s Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese

by Huitong at Yecheng [Temple]

I was at leisure at the beginning of the summer, with nothing particular to do, and I forgot the time passing by, when I opened Mr. Gu’s discourse, which is so bright to inspire the ignorant. I saw that it discusses the origin of the differ- ences and similarities [between the non-Chinese and the Chinese] and clariﬁes the purport of right and wrong. The expressions are rich, the principles are evi- dent, the writing is splendid, and [the content] is truly profound. Every time I closely read it, I forget my fatigue. It comforts me just as the daylily does. It is really the so-called reﬁned work by a distinguished literary person.

Nevertheless, when I examine the ultimate purpose, there are many points that make me doubt and laugh. It is like the story of the blind man who went to collect pearls and returned home with red beans, thinking that he had obtained treasures, or the story of the deaf man who wanted to listen to music—he hears a donkey braying, is delighted by it, and thinks that he

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understands music. Here, it is probably a major fallacy that you have discussed the non-Chinese and the Chinese and consider that you have attained the principles.

When I saw that you refer to Daoist scriptures in your discussion, I became more confused. What Laozi composed in ancient times is only the Five Thousand Words. Everything else is miscellaneous and they are dis- solutely fallacious doctrines, yet you distinguish and call them Daoist scrip- tures. On what basis does this happen? Since they are not what Laozi com- posed, how can they be authentic statute books? I hope you will examine this point thrice and remove the delusion soon.

The Discourse says, “If Confucius and Laozi were not the Buddha, who else would this be applicable to? Daoism is precisely Buddhism; Buddhism is none other than Daoism.”

Speaking about this statement, I am afraid that you are completely con- fused. [Buddhist] scriptures state, “Mahākāśyapa is called Laozi and Kumāra Guangjing is called Confucius over there.”518 We know that Laozi is not the Buddha. That is clear. In fact, your views about principles have not yet been great. Therefore, you have an opinionated viewpoint—in this case, that Laozi and Confucius were sent [to China] by the Buddha. They, moreover, prop- agated the virtue [of the Buddha], and showed [the law of] merit and demerit of beings. Later Buddhism was transmitted.

Nevertheless, it is difﬁcult to observe the Great Way, while it is easy to follow small comprehensions [of the mind]. This is a lamentation from ancient times and not a lamentation with signs originated today. Laozi composed the Five Thousand Words, but many people offer dubious explanations. Some people set forth fallacies to confuse people’s minds, and some pass on licen- tious and cruel stories to arouse people’s nature. Hence those who perform good deeds are few, while those who are steeped in vice are many. I think that the decorative adornments of the ofﬁcial class, the respectful manner of bowing by completely bending the [upper] body, the funeral rite—these were probably [established] when the Great Way declined. Benevolence and righteousness consequently arose, and ﬁlial piety and showing respect for one’s parents emerged. Knowledge and desires arose and dishonest prac- tices increased day after day. Sages accordingly prohibited these by ethical education and controlled them through laws and institutions. Therefore,

“propriety was established when faith and honesty became weak; it was the commencement of disorder.”519

We have already lost wuwei and esteem phenomena ( youwei; Skt. saṃskṛta). Could there be more to add to this? Regarding the appearance of shaving one’s head, bowing down to squat like a fox, and the custom of [water] burial, I think that these are insufﬁcient in splendor; they are parsimonious. [But] it is already true that wealth cannot be maintained. Laozi said that the ﬁve colors (i.e., blue, yellow, red, white, and black) consequently cause people to become blind,520 and that even if one amasses a lot of wealth he will certainly lose it later.521 Accordingly, it is the highest degree of modesty to take the ton- sure, put on a black robe, abandon one’s wealth, and leave behind the secular world. For this reason, Confucius praised Taibo, whose virtue the people did not [praise].522 This is but one of many examples.

The tribal custom of kneeling down with one’s right knee on the ground began in India and people of the four regions followed it. India is the center of the world where Buddhism originated. This [custom] indicates the good order and solemnity of the Great Dharma and the gravity and reverence of the highest teaching. You, [however,] compare it to a fox’s squatting. How do you justify this? Hence, evil spirits assist vice and violent devils destroy what is right. This refers to you. [Your action] is similar to using a ladle to attempt to reduce [the volume of water in] a large river or the sea, or raising a hand to block the light of the sun and moon. [Although you may do these things,] you can neither reduce the water in a large river or the sea, nor shield [your eyes from] the brightness of the sun and moon.

In early antiquity the nature of the people was still pure. People could be bright without availing themselves of ethical education, and they were spon- taneously well governed, without being inﬂicted with punishment. When a man died [his body] was laid in an open ﬁeld. No mound was raised over it, nor were trees planted around it, nor was there any ﬁxed period of mourning;523 whenever the people grieved, they cried. This is the pure practice of ancient times. It is good enough to follow, yet you wish to deny it. What do you mean [by this]?

Furthermore, you compare the two teachings of Daoism and Buddhism to a boat and carriage. If knowledgeable people hear this, there is no one [among them] who would not smile [ironically]. I think that the Way of

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Heaven keeps silent and sages have no attachment. Therefore, the Way is enlarged by people; it is not that the Way enlarges people.524 In that case, the Sage’s spiritual mirror (i.e., the mind) is proﬁcient in everything. How could there be a case where their intellectual function does not embrace anything? Nevertheless, referring exclusively to one [teaching], you say that it is impos- sible to practice both [teachings] for salvation.

It is just as when the wonderful sunshine appears in the morning it offers illumination according to each thing, and when timely wind blows unceasingly in the evening, things produce various sounds according to their shapes. Accordingly, just as there are differences in shapes, the sounds are not the same, and since things differ from each other, the way [the sun] illuminates them also varies. The sun does not illuminate differently in accordance with each thing. The wind does not cause things of various shapes to produce sound differently in accordance with each shape. It is simply known that the sun is one and the wind is one, but the things that receive them vary. You take up the metaphor of a boat and carriage. How appropriate is your connotation?

The great teaching is impartial and the highest virtue is unbiased. There is a common purport in educating sentient beings and the same destination toward which to lead people. [Sages] make the sound [of teaching] equally in the land of the western tribes as well as that of the northern tribes. They have the same voice in the foreign land and in China. How could there be a case where sages give a different teaching in each of the different lands and a different ediﬁcation in each of the different regions? Would there be [a teaching and an ediﬁcation] only for the non-Chinese? Could there be [a teaching and an ediﬁcation] only for the Chinese?

In the past, when Gongming Yi [of Lu state] played the musical piece Cao in the note qingjue for a cow, [the cow] just lowered her head and ate [grass] as before. This does not mean that she did not listen to [the music], but [the music] did not meet her ears. On the other hand, if there were the buzz of a mosquito or gadﬂy or the lowing of an orphaned calf, she would promptly prick up her ears, swish her tail, and stamp on the ground, listening [intently] to it. What you hear now is probably something like the buzz of a mosquito or a gadﬂy. What is your intention regarding the difference between the foreign country and China?

Furthermore, you say, “[Buddhist monks] abandon their wives and chil- dren in token of a minor degree and discontinue their ancestor worship in token of a major degree. They fulﬁll all things they desire with the politeness [of Confucianism], but they completely warp the rule of showing ﬁlial piety and respect for one’s parents with the [Buddhist] Dharma.”

There is as much difference between the [Buddhist] Way and the secular [way] as there is between night and day. The inner [way] is different from the outer [way], just as speech differs from silence.

As for offering worship at the ancestral temple, one’s deceased father is jointly worshiped [with all his ancestors].525 In that case, it is the highest degree of showing ﬁlial piety and respect to one’s parent. People of the world have nothing to add to this. If one burns incense at the altar in the evening, intones a Buddhist scripture at the temple in the morning, worships, repents, and entreats unceasingly, [the merit] will reach his relatives in successive kalpas as a token of the great degree, and [will reach] all people of the world as a token of the minor degree. The immensity of ﬁlial piety and benevolence like this cannot be surmised by the ignorant. The nation avails of the people and takes them as the foundation, and the ruler establishes [his power] depend- ing on the people. The reason why the nation is peaceful is due to the power of the people. I infer that your discussion seems to be an empty scheme. In addition, you say that śramaṇas, [just like the one who] carved [a mark on the side of] the boat [to indicate the place where he dropped his sword into the water], and Daoists, [like the one who] waited by the stump [hoping that other hares would come to the place where he had previously caught a hare], ﬁght each other in vain for supremacy; they impeach each other. I opened and read your discourse, which deeply relieved the hindrances I had had for a long time. I pondered the sentences and looked for the mean-

ings. What is your sincere conclusion?

People of the heretical way have been wanton for a very long time. They have been submerged in darkness and do not move from there. They have been engulfed in delusion. How could they return [from delusion]? They roam around small villages and insincerely go beyond the border villages. In public they follow the sacred practice but in private they conduct debauchery. If attainment of the Way is like this, how shameful it would be!

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In former times a man of Qi state was fond of hunting, but he did not have a dog or a deer at home. Even though he rushed around for many years, he could not catch even a single animal. Thereafter he withdrew [from hunting] and returned to tilling the land. Now that you are intelligent, if you go back to tilling the land, you will attain good wisdom.

Moreover, you say, “The Great Way has already been obscured and small comprehensions [of the mind] have risen one after another. Both eloquent and awkward speakers exert themselves mutually in debate. Who can correct them?”

The right path is difﬁcult to destroy, while wrong principles are easy to reject. For instance, it is just as when light feathers meet with wind high above, they are blown away; or when ﬁne stones enter the ﬂow of water from a moun- tain stream, they roll down [the stream]; yet Mount Tai remains unmoved in a whirlwind and massive rocks are not swept away even by a rapid current. Hence, it is true that when plum trees are nipped by the frost they become leaf- less, but pines and cypresses are hardly withered even in the coldest season of the year. When a wicked method contacts a right [method], it is defeated. If you have the Great Way, then who would have small comprehensions [of the mind]? I think I will talk about this more and later I will make a judgment.

A fellow like Yan Hui observed Dongye Bi’s way of handling the horses and he predicted [that the horses] would break down.526 Zigong witnessed the manners of [Prince Yin of] Zhu state and [Prince Ding of] Lu state, and discerned that [the two men] would certainly die.527 Why are you as ignorant as this? Therefore, I will indicate the difference between the ignorant and the intelligent, make clear that the wise differs from the mean, and show you by presenting one corner of the subject for the time being. I hope you will be able to reply to me about the other three [corners].528

Moreover, you say, “Either nirvana or the transformation of becoming a Transcendent is a method [to unite with the Way]. In Buddhism it is called right and true (zhengzhen), while in Daoism it is called right and one (zhengyi). The term ‘one’ means to return to non-death and the term ‘true’ means to meet nonarising” and “The teaching of nonarising (i.e., Buddhism) is indirect, while the teaching of immortality (i.e., Daoism) is direct.” These [statements] were probably made because you are astute, skillful in debate, and eloquent. That a mean man is disdained is just like this. In that case, the doctrine of

nirvana, extinguishing and crossing over [to the yonder shore], is written in authentic Buddhist scriptures. As for the assertion of the transformation of becoming a Transcendent and entering the [Daoist] way, however, on what doctrine is it based?

Laozi said that those who endeavor excessively to perpetuate life must nonetheless enter the jaws of death.529 He also said, “The reason why Heaven and Earth endure and continue thus long is because they do not live of, or for, themselves.”530 Those who forget life survive, while those who try to sustain life must die. Since you are approaching death, you think that [the teaching of non-death] is urgent.531 It is indeed urgent. As the saying goes, “Pointing to the south which is in fact the north, one says to himself that he is not confused. Pointing to the west which is in fact east, he says to himself that he is not stupid.” You take mortality as going to be [re]born. Why do you have such contrary thoughts? Therefore, you live in seclusion and abstain from food in order to cultivate the art of the [Divine] Transcendents. I have heard that Laozi has the admonition against the ﬁve ﬂavors (i.e., sweet, sour, bitter, pungent, and salty),532 but gives no instruction about abstaining from grain. For this reason, even though a cicada and a moth do not eat, who among gentlemen values them? Although a frog and a python live in burrows, why would sages attach importance to them?

Moreover, since ancient times, there is no one among the sages and wise people who has not died in the end. Only you speak of “immortality.” Why are you so reckless? Consequently, Emperor Shun’s tomb is in Cangwu;533 Emperor Yu’s mausoleum is in Guiji;534 there is a chapter in the record regard- ing the reburial of the Duke of Zhou;535 Confucius had a dream [before his death, in which he sat between] two pillars;536 there is the expression “Uncover my feet!” for Zeng Shen;537 and there are the records for Yan Yuan that [Con- fucius] said, “Unfortunately, he was short-lived.”538 Haven’t you heard of these? Do they sound absurd to you?

Formerly a person who had not seen a kylin asked a person who had seen one, “What kind [of animal] is a kylin?” The one [who had seen it] answered, “A kylin is just like a kylin.” The man who had asked then said, “If I had seen a kylin, then I would not have asked you the question. Never- theless, you said that a kylin is just like a kylin. How can I understand this?” [The one who had seen a kylin said,] “A kylin has a body like a roe deer, a

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tail like a cow, hooves like a deer, and a back like a horse.” The man who had asked the question then clearly understood. Now, do you want to see a kylin? Are you telling me [about a kylin] without ever having seen one? In addition, you say, “Daoist scriptures are concise and profound. Since [Daoist scriptures] are profound, it is hard to discern the gate to the subtle

[Way].”

I think Laozi’s teaching is contained in the Five Thousand Words and anything other than this is not an authentic scripture. The more Daoist scrip- tures appear, the deeper my suspicions. Most [of these so-called Daoist scrip- tures] falsely consign beautiful expressions and vainly marshal [all sorts of] ﬂowery words. This is similar to the story that a man of Zhou held out a [dried-up] mouse in order to sell it as uncarved jade, but a man of Zheng saw it and just withdrew.539 This is what it means. Speaking from this viewpoint, how can [your statement] be appropriate?

Again, you say, “For those who are brutal and stubborn, it is the best to be taught by the Buddha. For those who are kind and gentle and who keep their minds free from preoccupation and open to receive [others’ inﬂuences], it is the utmost to follow the [Daoist] way.”

Formerly, Laozi said, “Violent and strong men do not die a natural death. I will make this the basis of my teaching.”540 Therefore, the reason people widely circulate books of admonitions and make culture and education known is for the sake of the ignorant; they do not do such things for those of outstanding virtue and learning. When people go against [these statutes] there must be misfortune, and when they follow them there must be [good] fortune. People who are violent, strong, and stubborn are a group of the low and the stupid. The great teaching (i.e., Buddhism) shows benevolence and compassion and saves such people with expedients. Isn’t this the selﬂess learning? Regarding [the statement] “Those who are kind and gentle and who keep their minds free from preoccupation and open to receive [others’ inﬂuences],” I think that this should be considered empty talk. People who learn Daoism today are against [the teaching]. [Daoists] make the Yellow Books (Huangshu), which they consider to be authentic, public;541 they carry a purple talisman, which they take as an efﬁcacious means; there is no dis- tinction of sex [among them]; and there is discord in the family. Some Daoists pray for longevity by ingesting drugs; some try to cure diseases by licentious

means. How does your statement “Those who are kind and gentle [and who keep their minds free from preoccupation and open to receive others’ inﬂu- ences]” hold water?

Moreover, [you say,] “The trace of Daoist teaching is esoteric and sub- lime. The proper implements for use of [the Daoist teaching] lies in oneself.” Formerly Laozi said, “What makes me liable to great calamity is my having the body [that I call myself]; if I did not have a body, what great calamity could come to me?”542 Laozi took [having] a body as great calamity, but you consider the body as something to maintain for a long time. What a major contradiction this is! “[The sage] places himself behind everyone, and yet he is always in the foremost position; he treats his body as if it were foreign to him, and yet it is preserved.”543 You merely say, “[The proper implements for use of the Daoist teaching] lie in oneself.” I do not know on what basis you make this statement.

Furthermore, you say, “The incomprehensible foreign language entirely derives from their customs. They understand it, but [to the Chinese people] it sounds similar to the noisy chirping of insects and birds. Why is it worthy of imitation?”

I think that those who eat bitter food do not know that bitter is bitter, and they do not covet sweet and fragrant food; those who are delighted with malodorous things are not aware that [such things are] stinky and they are not addicted to [the fragrance of] pepper and orchids. It is as if you were to indulge yourself in failing to follow the right path. How could you have a thought about the Great Dharma?

The sacred teaching is subtle and unobstructed, and the ultimate Way is profound and extensive. It can be said that they are neither existence nor nonexistence. [In the sacred teaching of the ultimate Way] there is neither the meaning of a confrontation between self and other, nor a view between dissimilarity and similarity.

Speaking is similar to shooting. Once an arrow leaves the bow, even if you feel sorry about [having shot it], it is too late. Why don’t you use prudence in your speech? You say that “[the incomprehensible foreign language sounds similar to] the noisy chirping of insects and birds.” What do you mean? Recently Sun [En (?–402) of the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain] went mad and openly acted outrageously. [His teaching] is weird and licentious and

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destroys proprieties. His cruel and disordered [behavior] rejects righteousness. Only when people of high moral standing are united in common determination will ignorant people stop [producing] falsehoods and reform themselves. Vicious fellows ﬁlled a room and evil people overran the gates. There were grievous sorrows in the towns and grudges about disastrous sufferings on the streets. The Way of Heaven brings disaster to those who are arrrogant, and spiritual beings bless those who are humble. Later [Sun En] brought ruin down upon himself.

The Discourse on the Western Tribe and China (Rong hualun), Breaking the Daoist Gu’s Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese, by Shi Sengmin at Guangling

Formerly Vimalakīrti availed himself of the lofty path in this world and dis- played his merits outside of the phenomenal world. He lived in the secular world, hiding his great talent; he exposed his aspiration only in the deep sea (i.e., the Buddhist world); he sprinkled spiritual intelligence over the ten direc- tions; and he regulated and corrected the world. Therefore his trace appeared in the western land (i.e., India) where he joined others in the profound teaching. If we speak of his mysterious supernatural powers, he was able to make Heaven and Earth turn upside down or expand or contract things as he pleased. If we speak of his natural disposition, beyond discretion, he profoundly concentrated on the state of maintaining silence. People like this person can be called a Buddhist layperson ( jushi; Skt. gṛhapati). I have not understood the intention behind your calling yourself a Buddhist layman.

You have not destroyed the high mountain of the seven kinds of self- conceit, you have not ﬁlled in the gorge of the ﬁve desires, the sunlight of wisdom has not shone [within you], you have not cleared up the clouds of ignorance, you have not stopped the winds of eternal darkness, and you have not returned from the delusion of nocturnal roaming. Your understanding [of Buddhism] is still on the ordinary level. Yet you still put on airs and call yourself a Buddhist layman? I, one who has poor [knowledge of the Buddhist] Way and who appreciates your ability from afar, have come to know that you are not yet qualiﬁed to take possession of [the title of jushi]. Even though this is the entry level in the Great Dharma, it cannot be easily assumed.

I examined the intention of your Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese, which completely illuminated your mind. I tried to fulﬁll my learning at the altar to Heaven, hoping you would instruct on this issue. Regarding your discussion, however, there is no natural ability to enjoy the elegance of the writing, there is no knowledge to examine the efﬁcacy of profound issues, there is not even a very small light in intellectual function, and the amount of beneﬁt is less than the moisture in a dewdrop. It is deﬁcient in myriads of ways. What signiﬁcance would there be?

Moreover, holding vague ideas within [the discussion] and an obscure plot in mind, you play lightly with brush and ink and rely on and surmise the sages’ purposes, or you mix up Daoism and Buddhism and say they are the same; you discuss the depth of the teachings and say there are differences between them; you speak of the spiritual lands and put one above the other; and you slander in saying that there is falsehood in the clean, honest, and just state (i.e., enlightenment).

A bitter plum tree is overburdened with fruit and its branches break. Luan Da [of the Han dynasty] talked wildly and was decapitated. These are entirely the established system of the prehistoric times and the beacon of the Yin dynasty for the wise of later generations. I will now tell you the differences between Daoism and Buddhism in both names and meanings.

The Buddha is the other name for the numinous being of right, perfect enlightenment; the Way is a general term for a hundred paths. Laozi is a sage who expounded one aspect [of phenomena], while the Buddha depended on the foundation of myriad deities. In Daoism [the transformation of becoming] a Transcendent is considered to be noble, but in Buddhism the exhaustion of deﬁlement is taken as good. In the Way of [Divine] Transcendents there is a thousand-year life span. In the exhaustion of deﬁlement, on the other hand, there is a numinous eternal being. Because a numinous being is eternal, it is outstanding and profound. Because [a Transcendent] has a thousand-year life span, he rides on a dragon and controls the clouds. To control the clouds and to ride on a dragon is the way of [those who undertake] birth and death. The profound numinous being is permanently happy and eternally pure.

Now that it is like this, the movement of Heaven completely responded and the trace [of the profound numinous being] (i.e., Śākyamuni) descended to the imperial capital. He quietly disliked the palace, surrounded by watchtowers,

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and completely abandoned the palace. Therefore, he let go of his worldly nations and made a vow to go beyond to the three kinds of emptiness. He ﬂew like a dragon to the splendid house [of the Dharma] and readied a vehicle [to go to] the place where he attained enlightenment.

Thereupon, he ﬁrst expounded at the Deer Park (Skt. Mṛgadāva), then he had an assembly at the palace of the [Trāyastriṃśa] Heaven, then he prop- agated [his teaching] at Vulture Peak (Skt. Gṛdhrakūṭa), and later gloriﬁed it near the Hiraṇyavatī (or Ajitavatī) River. Consequently, the great light [of Dharma] illuminated even distant areas; the sun [seemed to] rest from shining; the splendid carriages [of those who heard the teaching] covered the four directions; a vehicle of the king of the Brahmā Heaven descended from heaven; beings of the nine heavens together sang [of the Buddha’s virtue]; many hermits had an opportunity for realization; among those who made bold to have a relationship [with the Buddhist Way], there was none who did not gather together like clouds and take refuge in it.

Nevertheless, the emperor of the Zhou dynasty, a supreme ruler of an outlying region, had not given rise to the aspiration for [the Buddhist] Way. Therefore, the Tathāgata caused Samantabhadra to practice [the Buddha’s] authority at the western road (i.e., India) and all of the three sages (i.e., Con- fucius, Yan Hui, and Laozi) to lead the people in the eastern metropolis (i.e., China). Therefore, a Buddhist scripture states, “Great being [Mahā]kāśyapa is none other than Laozi.”544 Hence [Laozi] assisted and supported the world of the Zhou period by means of the sophisticated teaching of the Five Thou- sand Words, and then returned to India, since his relationship to the ediﬁcation [in China] had been used up. This is why there is [a legend that Laozi] left Guan for the faraway west. Based on [this legend], the Chinese composed the Scripture on Laozi who Ediﬁed the Barbarians (Laozi huahujing), which makes those of little knowledge sigh in admiration for China.

You have not yet known the details of the profound purport. Why then do you insist that Laozi and the Buddha are the same? When people hear that the Great Sage (i.e., the Buddha) has manifested as the leader of the circle of Confucian scholars, they take Zhuangzi, Confucius, the Duke of Zhou, and Laozi to all be the Buddha. If this were the case, is it possible that you are none other than Laozi as well?

[You then say that] among sentient beings who transmigrate in the ﬁve realms of existence there is no one who is not the Buddha. What do you mean by this? [Your statement] is really [as reckless as] when Kuafu chased after the sun and surely died from thirst. You say in the Discourse on the Non- Chinese and the Chinese that there are abominable people of Koguryo and Paekche to the east, tribal people of Qiang and Rong to the west, unkempt people to the north, and people who cut their hair and have tattoos on their bodies to the south; on the other hand, since the Duke of Zhou and Confucius created rules of decorum in China, there is a distinction between the non- Chinese and the Chinese.

[My Discourse on] the Western Tribe and China advocates that the east ends at a place where no one lives, the west ends at a solitary village, the north goes beyond the sea, and the south comes to an end at the gate of a vil- lage with no inhabitants. Since the Tathāgata enhanced the ediﬁcation in China, there is a difference between the western tribespeople and [the people of] China. You condemn those who have the nature of the Chinese for learning the teaching of the western tribes. This is because you have come out of the deep pit of a well and have not yet seen a view of rivers and lakes. As a Buddhist scripture says, “The Buddha occupies the center of the world and leads the people of the ten directions to purity”;545 therefore, we know that the land of India is the central kingdom.

The Duke of Zhou and Confucius have the graceful and upright system [of propriety], while the Tathāgata has the law to transcend the secular world. Since [the Chinese have] the graceful and upright system [of propriety], they are different from the tribal people of the four directions. Since [the Tathāgata has] the law to transcend the secular world, he is not the same as the Duke of Zhou and Confucius. Since the [graceful and upright] system [of propriety] diffuses to the tribal people of the four directions, the tribal people of every direction praise the virtue [of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius]. Since the law [to transcend the secular world] was appended to [the system of] the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, Laozi returned to the west (i.e., India). Since Laozi returned to the west, a large number of tribal people have arisen. Since the tribal people of the four directions praise the virtue [of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius], they (i.e., the Chinese) excessively increase confusion.

47c

The upright decorum is unable to be changed, and the true Dharma does not change. Since the upright decorum cannot be changed, Taibo straightened his clothes even in [the uncivilized land of] Wu and Yue. Since the true Dharma does not change, Buddhism was transmitted to the east without alteration. Since [Taibo] straightened his clothes, he caused the people in the land where they barely clothed themselves to follow the custom of appreciating clothing. Since the Dharma does not change, it causes Chinese people of talent and virtue to take the tonsure. Since [the people of Wu and Yue] had the custom of appreciating clothing, it made their appearance closer to that of the people of the Zhou dynasty. Since [talented and virtuous Chinese people] take the tonsure, it makes them respectfully equal to the western tribal people in cus- toms. Since the appearance [of the people of Wu and Yue] became close to that of the people of the Zhou dynasty, it made them feel that their uncivilized customs were useless and poor. Since [talented and virtuous Chinese people who took tonsure] are equal to the faraway western tribal people in customs, it makes all those who see them at close range believe [in Buddhism]. If you think that there is no ﬁxed rule in the Sage’s path and his response varies according to each locale, then Taibo should have walked naked in the lower reaches of the Yangzi River (i.e., the land of the Wu and Yue), and it is possible that even today you do not wear clothes, either. Hence, even though locality and race differ, the sacred Dharma does not. From where do you take the basis of the meaning of your statement? You might say that you

rely on the right way.

Thus, [I would say that] Daoism depends on attaining the mystery (dong- xuan) to be foremost, and Buddhism takes the emptiness of emptiness (Skt. śūnyatā-śūnyatā) to be the ultimate law of Nature. Laozi considers the Grand Void to be the essence, while the Buddha thinks that conforming to present affairs is profound. Laozi thinks that nature gives rise to [all things], while the Buddha considers that the unity of [cause and] condition gives rise to [all things]. Daoism takes talismans to be effective, while Buddhism takes leading [sentient beings] through explaining [Buddhist scriptures] to be exquisite. Since [in Daoism] the Grand Void is considered to be the essence, there are things to produce all things [in the Grand Void]. Since [in Buddhism] conforming to the present affairs is profound, all things are essential. Since

[in Laozi’s teaching] Nature gives rise to [all things], there is no heavenly hall to which to ascend. Since [in Buddhism] the unity of [cause and] condition gives rise to [all things], there are noble stages to which one can ascend. Since talismans are considered to be effective, there is no efﬁcacious god in Daoism. Since [in Buddhism] leading [sentient beings] through explaining [Buddhist scriptures] is considered to be exquisite, people study the mind of the Sage. Since there are things to produce all things [in the Grand Void], Daoism is not great. Since all things are essential [in Buddhism], the path of the Sage is lofty and vast. Since there is no heavenly hall to which to ascend, it is said that it is fruitless [to practice Laozi’s teaching]. Since [in Buddhism] there are noble stages to which one may ascend, intelligent people throw themselves into [the Buddhist Way]. There is no efﬁcacious god [in Daoism]. Therefore, what are you fascinated by and what do you seek? Ever since people began to study the mind of the Sage [in Buddhism], śramaṇas have arisen like clouds.

Things are like this. Therefore, we know that the Daoist scriptures are minor and shallow, while the Buddhist scriptures are extensive and deep; the Daoist scriptures are few and vile, while the Buddhist scriptures are mag- nanimous and clean; the Daoist scriptures are disordered and lacking, while the Buddhist scriptures are simple and pure; and the Daoist scriptures are approachable and yet obscure, while the Buddhist scriptures are profound and yet clear.

You should change your polluted robe (i.e., the Daoist robe) to a simple one (i.e., the Buddhist robe) and faithfully take part in the lofty teaching [of Buddhism]. Those who wear a yellow turban on the head look depraved. Wearing a cap made of leather is really not a Chinese style. Selling [Daoist] talismans and registers is an evil custom that deceives people of the world. Patting the cheeks with both hands and grinding the teeth are the extremity of confusion. Binding one’s hands behind one’s back and rolling on the ground is a manner of hell. Talismans and the union of [yin and yang] vapors (i.e., the “art of the inner chamber,” sexual practices) are the most cunning craft. In this way, [regarding Buddhism and Daoism,] light and darkness are already evident and truth and falsehood are already obvious. You should lead your friends in an orderly manner and walk across to the pure path (i.e.,

48a

Buddhism). I look after the graceful virtue in my mind, and at the same time I receive with respect the truth of the Sage. Would this be bad? I think that this must truly not be adverse to the distinguished instruction.

End of Fascicle Seven of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Notes

1 Two interpretations for the “six masters” are suggested in Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū (Kyoto: Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo, 1973–1975), vol. 2, p. 3, n. 10. First, the six non- Buddhist masters who were inﬂuential during the same time period as Śākyamuni: Pūraṇa-kāśyapa, Maskarī-gośālīputra, Sañjayī-vairaṭīputra, Ajitakeśakambala, Kabuda- kātyāyana, and Nirgrantha-jñātiputra. Second, the group of six evil bhikṣus among the Buddha’s disciples: Nanda, Upananda, Kālodāyin Udāyin, Chanda, Aśvaka, and Punarvasu.

2 The original source of this phrase is found in the Lunyu, Yang Huo: “[The master] hates for the color purple to overpower vermilion.” Vermilion (or deep red) is a primary color, while purple is a secondary color. Therefore, vermilion represents wholesomeness and purple represents unwholesomeness. For an English translation of the phrase, see James Legge, The Chinese Classics with a Translation, Critical and Exegetical Notes, Prolegomena, and Copious Indexes (Taipei: Wen shih che ch’u pan she, 1972, second revised ed.), vol. 1, p. 326.

3 The bird called jingwei is a legendary small bird that was believed to have the habit of dropping bits of wood and stone into the ocean, in the vain hope of ﬁlling it. This story is found in the Beishanjing of the Shanhaijing. See Hsiao-Chieh Ching, Hui- Chen Pai Cheng, and Kenneth Lawrence Thern, trans., Shan hai ching: Legendary Geography and Wonders of Ancient China (Taibei, Taiwan: Committee for Compilation and Examination of the Series of Chinese Classics, National Institute for Compilation and Translation, 1985), p. 60.

4 Cangwu is one of seven prefectures that belonged to Jiaozhou (present-day Guangdong province, a southern part of Guangxi province, and Vietnam). The prefectural ofﬁce of Cangwu was in present-day Guangxi province.

5 Mencius’ accusation against Yang Zhu and Mo Di is found in the Mengzi, Teng Wen Gong, xia. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 282–284, n. 9–14.

6 See the Laozi, chapter 19. English translation in James Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji (Taibei: Wen xing shu ju, 1963), p. 110, n. 1.

7 The term zhonglü, one of the twelve classical Chinese musical notes, is associated with the fourth month of the year. The twelve classical Chinese musical notes consist of six yang lü notes (huangzhong, dacu, guxi, ruibin, yize, and wuyi) and six yin lü notes (dalü, jiazhong, zhonglü, linzhong, nanlü, and yingzhong). Each note corresponds to one of the twelve months of the year: dacu to the ﬁrst month, jiazhong to the second

289

month, guxi to the third month, zhonglü to the fourth month, ruibin to the ﬁfth month, linzhong to the sixth month, yize to the seventh month, nanlü to the eighth month, wuyi to the ninth month, yingzhong to the tenth month, huangzhong to the eleventh month, and dalü to the twelfth month.

8 The Chinese term wuwei is usually translated as “non-action,” “inactivity,” or “spon- taneity.” In Buddhism wuwei is used, in addition to these meanings, as the Chinese rendering of the Sanskrit term asaṃskṛta (“unconditioned”) and as another term for nirvana. In this instance, the meaning intended here seems to be closest to “nirvana.” However, I did not translate this term consistently as “nirvana” throughout the text, since it is not always clear what the various authors intended.

9 See the Laozi, chapter 21. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 112, translates this phrase as “The grandest forms of active force from [Dao] come, their only source”; this interpretation differs from this context.

10 Gong and shang are the ﬁrst two of the ﬁve fundamental notes (gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu) that correspond to huangzhong, dacu, guxi, linzhong, and nanlü, respectively, of the twelve classical Chinese musical notes. See note 7.

11 See the Laozi, chapter 25. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 115, n. 1–2.

12 According to the Liezi, the “primordial substance” (tianrui) is the stage where “things have not only assumed deﬁnite shapes and forms but have taken on qualities,” and “in the Primal Beginning, yin and yang divide, and their interaction produces limited but identiﬁable shapes and forms.” English translation in Eva Wong, Liezi: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1995), p. 28.

13 See Lunyu, Zizhang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, chapter 22, p. 346, n. 2.

14 Lü Shang is a man for whom Taigong, King Wen’s grandfather, had waited (wang). Therefore he is called Taigong Wang Lü Shang.

15 The meanings of the terms shiwen (the Chinese character for the number 10) and erwu (2 and 5) are not clear. I refer to Sawada Mizuho’s Japanese translation in Ressenden Shinsenden (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1993), p. 142, n. 23, 24. The “Ten Celestial Stems” are combinations of the ﬁve primary elements (i.e., metal, wood, water, ﬁre, and earth) and either one of the two elements the former and the latter: jia (the former wood), yi (the latter wood), bing (the former ﬁre), ding (the latter ﬁre), wu (the former earth), ji (the latter earth), geng (the former metal), xin (the latter metal), ren (the former water), gui (the latter wood). Furthermore, combinations of the ten celestial stems and the twelve animals of the zodiac are used for the Chinese calendar and directions.

16 See the Xiaojing. English translation in Henry Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence: A Philosophical Translation of the Xiaojing (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009), p. 105.

17 See the Lunyu, Taibo. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 208.

18 See the Lunyu, Zi han. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 226.

19 See the Lunyu, Taibo. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 207.

20 See the Lunyu, Xian wen. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 279.

21 See the Laozi, chapter 44. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 135, n. 1.

22 The Marquis of Sui’s pearl (suihou zhi zhu or suizhu) is a pearl presented to the state of the Marquis of Sui by a large serpent that had been cured of a grave injury by him. The reference implies the greatest treasure of the world.

23 See the Lunyu, Shuer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, chapter 14, p. 199, n. 2.

24 The phrase “with his garments hanging down (chui yichang)” derives from the passage, “[Huangdi] (i.e., the Yellow Emperor), Yao, and Shun [simply] wore their upper and lower garments [as patterns to the people], and good order was secured all under heaven,” found in the Yijing, Xici, xia. English translation in James Legge, I ching: Book of Changes (New Hyde Park, NY: University Books, 1964), pp. 383–384, n. 15.

25 See the Shangshu, Hongfan. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 326, n. 6.

26 See the Lunyu, Yao yue. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 353, n. 2.

27 See the Laozi, chapter 38. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 128, n. 1.

28 The zhangfu was originally a formal cap during the Shang (Yin) dynasty. Confucius later wore the cap, and since that time it was considered the Confucian cap.

29 See the Laozi, chapter 13. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 104, n. 2.

30 See the Laozi, chapter 9. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 101, n. 2.

31 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 240–241.

32 See the Xiaojing for both quotations. Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Rev- erence, p. 116.

33 See the Shangshu, Jinteng. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 354, n. 6.

34 See the Laozi, chapter 52. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 143, n. 2.

35 See the Laozi, chapter 52. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 143, n. 5.

36 See the Lunyu, Bayi. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 156.

37 See the Mengzi, Teng Wen Gong, shang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 253–254, n. 12.

38 See the Lunyu, Zi han. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 221, n. 1–2.

39 See the Taizi Xudanajing (Skt. Jinapatra-arthasiddhi-sūtra), T.171.3:418c17–424a22.

40 See the Xiaojing. Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 110.

41 The phrase “a great hypocrisy” (dawei) derives from the Laozi, chapter 18. Legge,

Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 109, n. 1.

42 See the Lunyu, Shuer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 207.

43 See the Zuozhuan, Zhuanggong’s twenty-fourth year. James Legge, The Chinese Classics (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960), vol. 5, p. 107.

44 This expression derives from the Mengzi, Gongsun Wu, xia. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 232, n. 2.

45 The text has only taigong (“grandfather“). Based on the exposition of the Shiji (thirty- second fascicle, Qi taigong shijia), Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 2, p. 35, n. 5, interprets it to be Taigong Wang Lü Shang. I follow this.

46 See the Zuozhuan, Xigong’s twenty-third and twenty-eighth years. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 187 (left column) and p. 208 (right column).

47 See the Zuozhuan, Xuangong’s second year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 290 (right column).

48 See Lunyu, Xueer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 137, n. 3.

49 See the Laozi, chapter 5. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 98, n. 2.

50 See the Laozi, chapter 32. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 123, n. 5.

51 See the Lunyu, Weizheng. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 145.

52 See the Lunyu, Zizhang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 343, n. 2.

53 See the Lunyu, Xiangdang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 232, n. 1.

54 See the Lunyu, Liren. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 166, n. 1.

55 See the Laozi, chapter 12. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 103, n. 1–2. See note 10 for the ﬁve notes of traditional Chinese music.

56 See the Mengzi, Jinxin, xia. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 466.

57 See the Mengzi, Teng Wen Gong, xia. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, chapter 7, p. 276, n. 2.

58 This sentence presents a series of things done contrary to established practice: the sacriﬁcial stand and pot should be placed in a palace hall, while military ﬂags and banners are supposed to be hoisted at a camp gate; wearing a fur robe in hot weather and light linen clothing in cold weather are also contrary actions. So these are all examples of “actions that are perverse in the orientation of time and place.”

59 See the Laozi, chapter 41. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 132, n. 1.

60 See the Laozi, chapter 51. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 148, n. 1.

61 See the Laozi, chapter 45. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 136, n. 1.

62 See the Lunyu, Xian wen. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 286.

63 See the Laozi, chapter 9. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 101, n. 2.

64 See the Lunyu, Wei Linggong. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 296, n. 2, trans- lates the name as Qu Boyu.

65 See the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 180.

66 See the Lunyu, Wei Linggong. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 297.

67 See the Wenxuan (compiled by Prince Zhaoming of the Liang dynasty), fascicle 45,

dui Chu wang wen.

68 See the Lunyu, Weizi. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 332–333, n. 1–2.

69 Bian He, a man of Chu, obtained a jade on Mount Chu and presented it to King Li and King Wu, but both kings thought that it was only a stone and He’s legs were amputated as punishment. Later, King Wen realized that it was a real jade. This story is found in the Han Feizi, Heshi. See Burton Watson, trans., Han Feizi: Basic Writings (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), pp. 81–82.

70 This story implies that even a divine turtle cannot change his fate. See the Zhuangzi, Waiwu. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 576–577.

71 The term tianjing refers to a celestial body. I translate the term here as “high above the earth.”

72 This is not a precise quotation. Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 1. p. 48, n. 4, suggests that a similar expression is found in the Laozi, chapter 44. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 135–136, n. 1–3.

73 This passage is not found in the Laozi.

74 See the Kongzi Jiayu, fascicle 6, Zhipei.

75 See the Laozi, chapter 48. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 138, n. 2.

76 See Lunyu, Weizheng. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 146, n. 4.

77 See the Laozi, chapter 30. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 121, n. 4.

78 Laozi’s view of this is found in the Laozi, chapter 13. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 104, n. 2.

79 See the Shangshu, Jintengpian. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, pp. 351–356.

80 See the Lunyu, Shuer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 206.

81 See the Huainanzi, Xiuwu xun. See Evan Morgan, Tao, The Great Luminant: Essays from Huai nan tzu (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh Ltd., 1934), pp. 220–221.

82 This is based on the description found in the Mengzi, Teng Wen Gong. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 282–284, n. 9–14.

83 This expression derives from a story found in the Huainanzi, Xiuwu xun. Lord Ping of Jin state made a large bell, but the music master Kuang asked the lord to recast the bell because it had a poor tone and it might disgrace his name in later generations. See Morgan, Tao, The Great Luminant, p. 241.

84 This expression also derives from the description found in the Huainanzi, Fanlun xun: “The diamond-cutter may mistake a piece of jade, thinking it to be an imitation stone, the Pi. But I, Tun (Dun), alone, would never miss the luster”; Morgan, Tao, The Great Luminant, p. 170.

85 See the Lunyu, Yang Huo. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 326.

86 In the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang, Confucius criticizes Zang Wen Zhong and Weisheng Gao. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 179 and pp. 181–182, respectively.

87 See the Lunyu, Weizheng. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 149.

88 See the Huainanzi, Qisu xun.

89 See the Zhuangzi, Dasheng. In the Zhuangzi Dongye Bi is called Dongye Ji. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 463, n. 11.

90 See the Zuozhuan, Dinggong’s ﬁfteenth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5,

p. 791 (left column).

91 See the Shiji, fascicle 47, Kongzi shijia. Hsien-yi Yang and Gladys Yang, trans., Selec- tions from Records of the Historian (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1979), pp. 13–14.

92 See the Zuozhuan, Xianggong’s twenty-ninth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 549, right column, to p. 550, left column.

93 See the Xiaojing. Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 110.

94 When Confucius was the Minister of Justice in Lu state, Qi ofﬁcials gave girls, music, and horses to the Duke of Lu (i.e., Ji), who, after receiving them, neglected state affairs. Consequently, Confucius left Lu state. See the Shiji, fascicle 47, Kongzi shijia. Yang and Yang, Selections from Records of the Historian, pp. 8–11.

95 The king of Wu took Pi’s advice and rejected Wuzi Xu’s advice. See the Shiji, fascicle 66, Wuzi Xu liezhuan. Yang and Yang, Selections from Records of the Historian, pp. 41–42.

96 See the Laozi, chapter 23. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 113–114, n. 1.

97 See the Lunyu, Xian wen. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 290, n. 1.

98 See the Lunyu, Yong ye. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 188.

99 See the Lunyu, Taibo. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 208.

100 See the Lunyu, Yong ye and Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 185, and

p. 239, respectively.

101 See the Lunyu, Zi han. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 223.

102 The Huainanzi, Shuoshan xun, states, “Observing ﬂoating driftwood, boats were devised, looking at rolling mugwort, wheels were invented, and seeing bird tracks, [the Chinese] written language was created.”

103 The Sanskrit term for the thirty-seven elements of enlightenment is sapta-triṃśad-bodhi- pakṣa, which was translated into Chinese as sanshiqi daopin, sanshiqi juefen, or sanshiqi puti fenfa. It refers to the practices that lead to the attainment of nirvana: the four bases of mindfulness, the four bases of transcendental knowledge, the four right efforts, the ﬁve roots of wholesomeness, the ﬁve powers obtained through practicing the ﬁve roots of wholesomeness, the seven factors of wisdom, and the eightfold holy path.

104 The Daodejing consists of the Daojing, the ﬁrst thirty-seven chapters, and the Dejing,

the remaining forty-four chapters.

105 The same quotation is found in the Bianwei lu (T.2116.52:760b3–4) compiled by Xiangmai in 1291, and the Fozu lidai tongzai (T.2036.49:717c20–22) compliled in 1341. According to these two sources, the title of this sutra is Laozi xishengjing, which appears to be an indigenous Chinese scripture.

106 The sentence “to use the road [of the other state] in order to carry out an atrocity [against its own enemy]” refers to the story of the Marquis of Jin who dug a tunnel through Yu to attack Guo. See the Zuozhuan, Xigong’s ﬁfth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 145, par. 9.

107 This story is found in the Zuozhuan, Xianggong’s twenty-seventh year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 532 (right column) to p. 533 (left column).

108 Bai Qi’s biography is found in the Shiji, fascicle 73, Bai Qi Wang Jian liezhuan. See William H. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994–2011), vol. VII, pp. 167–173.

109 Dong Zhuo’s biography is found in the Hou Hanshu, fascicle 102, Dong Zhuo liezhuan.

110 The phrase “displace violence with violence” (yi bao yi bao) derives from the Shiji, fascicle 61, Boyi liezhuan. See Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. VII, p. 3: “He replaces tyranny with tyranny.”

111 See the Loutanjing, T.23.1:293b14, for the ﬁrst half of the quotation; the latter half is not found in the Taishō canon.

112 The Chinese term shide (“ten virtuous acts“) is interpreted as the ten wholesome acts (shishan).

113 See the Xiaojing. See note 93.

114 In Liezi, Tianrui, Confucius asked Rong Qiqi why he looked so happy and Rong Qiqi replied, “Among living creatures I have secured the lot of a human being; among human beings I am a man; and I have reached the age of ninety years old.” Wong, Liezi: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living, p. 37.

115 The Wuling xiajing is a Daoist scripture that is no longer extant.

116 See the Zuozhuan, Huangong’s second year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 40 (left column).

117 The Chinese zither qin is smaller than the se; usually the qin has one, ﬁve, or seven strings, while the se has ﬁfteen, twenty-ﬁve, or ﬁfty strings. The expressions in this sentence and the sentence before this derive from the Liji, Yueji: “When the ruler hears the sound of the lute and [zither], he thinks of his ofﬁcers who are bent on right- eousness When the ruler hears the sounds of his drums and tambours, he thinks

of his leaders and commanders.” See Max Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1910), vol. 28, pp. 120–121.

118 See Shiji, fascicle 105, Bian Que Canggong liezhuan.

119 The phrase “an insane person who runs toward the east” is found in the Huainanzi, Shuoshan xun: “An insane person runs toward the east. A pursuer runs toward the east, too. Even though the action, running toward the east, is the same, [each person’s] reason for the action is different from the other’s.”

120 See the Zhuangzi, Dasheng. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 451.

121 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 239.

122 See the Shangshu, Yaodian. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 24.

123 See the Zhuangzi, Dao Shi. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 611.

124 The Yellow Emperor fought against Yandi in the wilds of Banquan. See the Shiji,

fascicle 1, Wudi benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 2.

125 The phrase “there was still something for which he had to wait” (youdai) derives from the Zhuangzi, Xioayao you. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 217, n. 3.

126 This expression is based on the phrase “[The master] hates for the color purple to overpower vermilion” found in the Lunyu. See note 2.

127 See the Laozi, chapter 31. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 121, n. 1.

128 See the Laozi, chapters 10 and 28. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 101–102,

n. 1 and p. 119, n. 1, respectively.

129 See the Shiji, fascicle 3, Yin benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 51.

130 See the Lunyu, Yong ye. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 192.

131 This idea is found in the Zhuangzi, Yangshengzhu. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 249.

132 See the Zhuangzi, Dianzifang. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 483, n. 2.

133 See the Shiji, fascicle 117, Sima Xiangru liezhuan, for the quotation.

134 The ﬁght between Chu state and Man state is described in the Zhuangzi, Zeyang.

Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 559.

135 See the Mengzi, Jinxin, shang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 463, n. 1.

136 See the Yijing, Xici, shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 355, n. 24; p. 357, n. 32.

137 See the Daode zhengjing zhigui, fascicle 8. The phrase “One produces two” is found in the Laozi, chapter 42. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 133, n. 1.

138 This passage is probably the summary of the section in the Taizi ruiying benqi jing,

T.185.3:472c4–6.

139 This episode is found in the Lunyu, Yong ye. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 188.

140 See the Yijing, Xici, xia. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 382.

141 The phrase “the spirit that attained the One” is found in the Laozi, chapter 39. Legge,

Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 130, n. 1.

142 See the Yijing, Shuogua. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 427.

143 See the Zhuangzi, Geyi. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 415.

144 The expressions quoted here derive from the Yijing, Xici, shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 370, n. 63.

145 The phrase buji buxing (“not to hurry, not to go”) derives from the phrase buji er su buxing er zhi (“one goes fast although he does not hurry and arrives although he does not go”) found in the Yijing, Xici, shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 370,

n. 64, translates the phrase as “make speed without hurry, and reached their destination without traveling.”

146 See the Liji, Jiaotesheng. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 448.

147 See the Liji, Tangong, xia. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 193.

148 The phrase “to reach the Way by one change” (yibian zhi yu dao) derives from the

Lunyu, Yong ye. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 192.

149 Using the Chinese term qing (“feeling”), Zong Bing probably intends to explain mental functions such as sense, perception, and impression, which arise out of contact with

external objects, known as the Chinese shou and the Sanskrit vedanā. There is, however, no example of the Chinese qing being used to refer to vedanā, “feeling,” one of the ﬁve skandhas in Buddhist scriptures. The term qing encompasses this meaning. Taking into consideration the fact that this text written in the early ﬁfth century reﬂects con- temporary Chinese Buddhists’ understanding of Buddhism, I would like to be faithful to the original text and so translate qing as “feeling.”

150 The expression “when a male and a female unite their essences, all creatures are incar- nated” (nannü goujing wanwu huasheng) derives from the Yijing, Xici, xia. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 393, n. 43.

151 See the Laozi, chapter 48. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 138, n. 2.

152 See the Yijing, Xici, shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 374, n. 73.

153 In the Shiji, fascicle 2, Xia benji, Emperor Shun bestowed on Yu a jade tablet. Nien- hauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 32, n. 77.

154 See the Shiji, fascicle 3, Yin benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 46.

155 See the Shiji, fascicle 4, Zhou benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. I, p. 60, n. 120.

156 See the Zuozhuan, Xuangong’s third year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5,

p. 293, from the bottom of the left column to the upper right column.

157 In sutras there are a number of instances of the transformed body separate from a buddha or bodhisattva and an auspicious object that springs out from the earth. For instance, in the Lotus Sutra, Śākyamuni Buddha created a myriad of buddhas from his body (T.262.9:41a4), an immeasurable number of bodhisattvas spring out from the earth (T.262.9: 39c29–40a1 and 51c9-10), and a seven-treasure stupa springs out from the earth in front of the Buddha (T.262.9:32b17–18). Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 2, p. 95, interprets fenshen yongchu as “[The Buddha] has an immeasurable number of bodhisattvas, the transformed bodies from his own body, spring out from the earth” but there is no such phrase in the sutra.

158 Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 2, p. 95, interprets this phrase as “moving Merupradīparāja Buddha’s great world in a moment into Vimalakīrti’s ten-foot-square room.” In the Vimalakīr- tinirdeśa-sūtra (Foshuo Weimojiejing, T.474.14:527a25–26, and Weimojie suoshuojing, T.475.14:546b5–6, respectively), there is a passage describing that Merupradīparāja Tathāgata sent Vimalakīrti thirty-two thousand buddha seats. In addition, the Vimalakīr- tinirdeśa-sūtra, T.474.14:529a10–11 and 548b18–19, indicate that one of the eight unprecedented matters is that all the decorated heavenly palaces and all the buddhas’ pure lands are revealed and miraculously contained in Vimalakīrti’s ten-foot-square room.

159 See the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra, T.474.14:527b18–19, 546b29–c1.

160 This expression is found in the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 243, n. 1.

161 See the Zhuangzi, Yangshengzhu, for the good cook. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 246–247.

162 This expression is based on the passage found in the Lunyu, Taibo: “Possessed of much, and yet putting questions to those possessed of little; having, as though he had not; full, and yet counting himself as empty; offended against, and yet entering into no altercation.” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 210.

163 This expression, based on the Huainanzi, Shuoshan xun, means that while each person runs toward the east in the same manner, each has his own reason for doing so. See note 119.

164 See the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 290, n. 6.

165 The expression “the deepest profundity” (xuan zhi you xuan) derives from the Laozi,

chapter 1. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 95, n. 4.

166 See the Zhuangzi, Zhibeiyou. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 511, n. 10.

167 This expression derives from Confucius’s answer to Ran Qiu when Ran Qiu asked for the second time how it was before Heaven and Earth. See note 166.

168 The phrase “[a sage] is simply moved and later responds” (gan er hou ying) is found in the Zhuangzi, Keyi. Legge translates it as “He responds to the inﬂuence acting on him, and moves as he feels the pressure” (Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 413, n. 2).

169 See note 168.

170 Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 64–65.

171 See the Lunyu, Wei Linggong. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 297.

172 See the Laozi, chapter 37. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 127, n. 1.

173 See the Foshuo Chaoriming sanmei jing, T.638.15:543b1.

174 The two quotations regarding the Yellow Emperor are found in the Shiji, fascicle 1,

Wudi benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 1.

175 See the Shiji, fascicle 1, Wudi benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. I, p. 5, n. 13.

176 See the Shiji, fascicle 1, Wudi benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. I, p. 5, n. 11.

177 See the Shiji, fascicle 1, Wudi benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. I, p. 6, n. 15.

178 See the Shiji, fascicle 1, Wudi benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. I, pp. 3–4.

179 See the Shiji, fascicle 1, Wudi benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. I, p. 5, n. 11.

180 See the Shiji, fascicle 1, Wudi benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. I, p. 17, n. 46.

181 See the Zhuangzi, Xuwugui. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 536, n. 3.

182 See the Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 218–219,

n. 5.

183 See the Zhuangzi, Zaiyou, for Guang Chen’s statements. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 346.

184 See the Zhuangzi, Zaiyou. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 347–348.

185 See the Zhuangzi, Xuwugui. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 536–537, n. 3.

186 See the Shanhaijing, Haineijing. Ching, Cheng, and Thern, Shan hai ching, p. 255.

187 See the Shiji, fascicle 63, Laozi Han Fei liezhuan. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. VII, p. 22, n. 2141.

188 See the Gaosengzhuan, T.2059.50:323a19–23.

189 See the Gaosengzhuan, T.2059.50:385b23–24.

190 Bai Qi buried four hundred thousand people and Xiang Ji buried two hundred thousand people. See the Shiji, fascicle 73, Bo Qi Wang Jian liezhuan (Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. VII, p. 171), and the Hanshu, fascicle 3, Xiang Ji zhuan, respectively.

191 See the Huainanzi, Lanming xun. English translation in Charles Le Blanc, Huai-nan tzu. Philosophical Synthesis in Early Han Thought: The Idea of Resonance (kan- ying) with a Translation and Analysis of Chapter Six (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Uni- versity Press, 1985), pp. 105–106, 2a.6.

192 See the Hou Hanshu, fascicle 49.

193 See the Hou Hanshu, fascicle 71.

194 See the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra, T.474.14:527b17, 546b25–26, for the phrase “to put Mount Sumeru into a poppy seed”; the Liudujijing, T.152.3:2b8–26, 1b12–c25, for the stories of the tiger and the dove, respectively.

195 There is no sutra that has this expression in the Taishō canon. The phrase “As [the Buddha’s] toes touch the earth, a trichiliocosm quakes” is found in several sutras, including the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra, T.474.14:520c7–8, 538c20–21, but the fol- lowing passage is not found in any sutra.

196 See the Laozi, chapter 37. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 127, n. 1.

197 See the Lunheng, Dingxian.

198 See the Miaofa lianhuajing, T.262.9:32c12–20.

199 See note 158.

200 The phrase “The gentleman among men is, in fact, the small man of Heaven” derives from the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi: “The small man of Heaven is the superior man among men; the superior man among men is the small man of Heaven!” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 301.

201 See the Yijing, Qian, Xiangzhuan. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 213, n. 4.

202 See the Hanshu, fascicle 71: Through Lord Yu’s virtue, his son Yu Dingguo became the prime minister; and fascicle 74: Emperor Xuan later appointed Bing Ji the Marquis of Boyang.

203 See the Zuozhuan, Xigong’s twenty-ninth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, pp. 214, par. 5.

204 See the Han Feizi, Shuolin, shang.

205 This expression derives from an episode about King Hui of Liang found in the Mengzi, Liang Huiwang, shang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 140–141, n. 8.

206 See the Mengzi, Liang Huiwang, shang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 138, n. 4 to p. 141, n. 8.

207 See the Zengyi Ahanjing, T.125.2:693b11–c9.

208 See the Shiji, fascicle 73, Bai Qi Wang Jian liezhuan. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. VII, pp. 170–171.

209 This expression is based on a passage in the Zhuangzi, Qiwu lun. Legge translates it as “When [the wind ] blows, [the sounds from] the myriad apertures are different, and [its cessation] makes them stop of themselves” (Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 226, n. 1).

210 In the Lunyu, Shuer, Confucius lamented that his aging caused him to not dream of the Duke of Zhou as frequently as he had previously. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 196.

211 See the Shiji, fascicle 3, Yin benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 48.

212 The phrase “robbers and boasters” derives from the Laozi, chapter 53. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 145.

213 This expression derives from the Zhuangzi, Dachongfu. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 275.

214 The quoted passages are not found in any sutra in the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō.

215 In the Lunyu, Zilu, Confucius said that Fan Xu is a mean man. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 265, n. 2.

216 The Sanskrit name of Jiantuole is unknown. His biography is found in the Gaoseng- zhuan, T.2059.50:388c20–389a2.

217 See the Shiji, fascicle 61, Boyi liezhuan. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. VII, p. 4.

218 See the Yijing, Kun, Wenyan. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 419, n. 5.

219 See the Mengzi, Jinxin, shang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 463, n. 1.

220 The Shiji, fascicle 3, Yin benji, states that when Jiandi, the second wife of Emperor Ku, went out to bathe, she saw a black bird lay an egg; Jiandi swallowed it, became pregnant, and gave birth to Xie. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 41.

221 The Shiji, fascicle 4, Zhou benji, states that Jiang Yuan, the primary wife of Emperor Ku, saw a giant footprint in the wilderness ﬁeld, stepped in it, became pregnant, and gave birth to Houji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 55.

222 The phrase “he who is marvelous since he has gotten the One” is found in the Laozi,

chapter 39. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 130, n. 1.

223 See the Shangshu, Shundian. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 49, n. 24.

224 See the Yijing, Shuogua zhuan. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 422, n. 1.

225 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 241.

226 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. The original passage is “While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits?” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 240.

227 See the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 177.

228 See the Dazhidulun, T.1509.25:74c8–75a3.

229 The two passages derive from the Yijing, Jiaren. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes,

p. 137, n. 3.

230 The phrase “a white colt’s passing a crevice” derives from the Zhuangzi, Zhi bei you.

Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 505.

231 This probably refers to Marquis Wen of Jin state who heard the soldiers singing to themselves. See the Zuozhuan, Xigong’s twenty-eighth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 209, right column.

232 This episode is found in the Shiji, fascicle 10, Xiaowen benji. When a director of the Imperial of Granaries of the Han dynasty was punished, his daughter Tiying petitioned

the emperor to try to expiate her father’s crime; the emperor, impressed by her ﬁlial piety, thereafter abolished corporal punishment. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. II, pp. 170–171.

233 This expression is often found in the Laozi Daodejing and the Zhuangzi. For example, see Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 127, n. 1; p. 138, n. 2; p. 528.

234 There are several different kinds of the ﬁve different types of penalties, according to each dynasty. The example shown here is from the Zhou dynasty.

235 See the Shiji, fascicle 56, Chen chengxiang shijia.

236 See the Shiji, fascicle 73, Bai Qi Wang Jian liezhuan. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. VII, p. 176.

237 Wei Ke’s father had a beloved concubine. First Ke’s father told him to have the con- cubine remarry after his death, but when his illness became serious he asked Ke to have her immolated to follow him into the grave. Ke, however, followed his father’s initial request and did not have the concubine immolated. Later, when Ke fought the Qin army, an old man (the ghost of father of the concubine), helped Ke out of diffculty by making a trap to capture the general of Qin state, and consequently Ke could capture the general. See the Zuozhuan, Xuangong’s ﬁfteenth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 328, right column.

238 This story of Bao Zidu is found in the Lieyizhuan (a collection of extraordinary stories), authorship of which was attributed to Cao Pi (187–226). Zidu comforted a man who was dying on a street; after his death the man became a horse and led Zidu to the capital where Zidu was summoned as an ofﬁcial.

239 This story is found in the Shiji, Qi Taigong shijia. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, pp. 52–54.

240 Prince Mu of Qin state gave grain to Jin state when the Jin people were suffering from a famine. Two years later, when the Qin people were starving, Prince Hui of Jin state took advantage of the situation and invaded Qin state. See Zuozhuan, Xigong’s thirteenth and ﬁfteenth years. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 161; p. 169, left column.

241 See the Zuozhuan, Xuangong’s second year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 290, right column.

242 See the Shiji, fascicle 92, Huaiyin hou liezhuan. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. VIII, pp. 70, 95.

243 See the Shiji, fascicle 47, Kongzi shijia. Yang and Yang, Selections from Records of the Historian, p. 8.

244 See the Shiji, fascicle 33, Lu Zhougong shijia. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. V, pt. 1, p. 135.

245 The term “the politeness of providing a way of escape” (sanqu zhi li) derives from the Yijing, Bi, “The king urging his pursuit of the game [only] in three directions, and allowing the escape of all the animals before him.” Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 75.

246 This expression derives from the Lunyu, Shuer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 203.

247 See the Laozi, chapter 10. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 102, n. 3.

248 A similar passage, “The common people, acting daily according to it, yet have no knowledge of it,” is found in Yijing, Xici, shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 356, n. 26.

249 See the Mengzi, Wangzhang, xia. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 363, n. 5.

250 This expression derives from the Lunyu, Xueer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 139.

251 See the Xiaojing. Rosemont’s translation differs slightly from this context; see The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 115.

252 See both the Xiaojing and the Mengzi, Lilou, shang. Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, chapter 11, p. 112; Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, chapter 26, p. 313, n. 1.

253 See the Xiaojing. Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 105.

254 See the Liji, Jiyi. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 228, n. 14.

255 See the Xiaojing. Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 105.

256 This expression derives from the Zhuangzi, Yangshengzhu. The original reads: “To be in accordance with the central element [of our nature] is the regular path to save the body, to complete the life, to nourish our parents, and to complete our term of years.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 246, n. 1.

257 This expression derives from the Laozi, chapter 52. The original is: “The perception of what is small is [the secret of] clear-sightedness; the guarding of what is soft and tender is [the secret of] strength. Who uses well his light/Reverting to its [source so] bright/Will from his body ward all blight/And hides the unchanging from men’s sight.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 143, n. 4.

258 See the Zuozhuan, Yingong’s ﬁrst year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 5, right column, to p. 6, right column.

259 See the Zuozhuan, Yingong’s fourth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 16, right column, to p. 17, right column.

260 See the Zuozhuan, Xigong’s twenty-third year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5,

p. 186, left column.

261 See the Hou Hanshu, fascicle 56, Wei Biao Zhuan.

262 See the Shiji, fascicle 2, Xia benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 21.

263 See the Shiji, fascicle 31, Wu Taibo shijia. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. V, pt. 1, pp. 1–2.

264 See the Lunyu, Taibo. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 207.

265 See the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 181.

266 This expression derives from the Yijing, Kun, Tuanzhuan. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 214, n. 2.

267 The Chinese term datong is originally found in the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi, and Qiushui. According to Ogawa Tamaki, in Rōshi Sōshi (Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha, 1998), pp. 278, 396, it refers to the great way beyond all discriminations. Legge says that it is another denomination of the Dao, and “is also explained as meaning, ‘the great void in which there is no obstruction’” (Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quanji, p. 305, n. 2). Fol- lowing Legge, I translate datong as “Great Pervader.”

268 See the Yijing, Jiqi, xiangci. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 346, n. 5.

269 The expressions “to be disrespectful to great men” and “to disgrace the ordinances of Heaven” derive from passages found in the Lunyu, Jishi. Legge, The Chinese Clas- sics, vol. 1, p. 313, n. 2.

270 The Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou, has: “In the south of Chu there is the [tree] called Ming- ling, whose spring is 500 years, and its autumn the same.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 214.

271 The Chinese term youdi is known as jiadi (“truth of temporariness”), which is one of the triple truths, namely: all existences are temporary manifestations produced by causes and conditions.

272 The term wudi, one of the triple truths, is also called kongdi (“truth of emptiness”), since all existences are empty and nonsubstantial in essence.

273 See the Zhuangzi, Tianxia, in which the two sentences are in reverse order. Legge,

Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 669.

274 See the Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s twentieth year; Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5,

p. 684, right column. When the Marquis of Qi state said how happy he would be if there was no death, Yan Ying, the prime minister, told him that if there was no death, he could not enjoy his present life and the Shuangjiu family that had occupied the Marquis’ territory would enjoy it instead.

275 See the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi, for the story of a man who hid a boat in a ravine for safekeeping, but during the night the boat was carried away by a strong man. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 290, n. 6. See also note 164.

276 See the Zhuangzi, Tian Zifang. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 486, n. 3.

277 Yu Gong, father of Yu Dingguo, was a just and fair warden. His virtue led his family to prosperity. See the Hanshu, chapter 71, Yu Dingguo zhuan.

278 See the Hanshu, chapter 90, Kuli zhuan.

279 Chunyu Sheng (Chunyu Kun) was a man of Qi state in the Warring States period. He loved joking and talking. He once satirized King Wei of Qi state in secret language. See the Shiji, fascicle 126, Huaji liezhuan. Yang and Yang, Selections from Records of the Historian, pp. 403–409.

280 The Chinese character shi (“true”) is added between the characters ke (“possible”) and the ﬁnal particle zai, according to the original sentence found in T.2102.52:18a22.

281 The allegory of the sword called Moye derives from the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 297–298.

282 The allegory of those who retreated ﬁfty steps (in a battleﬁeld) who laughed at those who retreated a hundred steps derives from the Mengzi, Liang Huiwang, shang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 129–130, n. 2.

283 See the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi. Here is a difference in interpretation from the original passage; Legge’s translation of this section reads: “Mang-sun presented in his body the appearance of being agitated, but in his mind he was conscious of no loss. The death was to him like the issuing from one’s dwelling at dawn, and no [more terrible] reality” (Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quanji, p. 302).

284 See the Hanshu, fascicle 48, Jia Yi zhuan.

285 The sounds of metal and stone are two of the eight kinds of musical sounds produced from musical instruments made out of calabash gourd, earthenware, stretched hides, wood, stone, metal, silk strings, and bamboo, respectively.

286 He Chengtian cites Zong Bing: “The sage has no invariable mind of his own; he simply accommodates himself to other people’s minds,” but changes the word “mind” to the word “nature.” Zong Bing’s original statement is at T.2102.52:18c19.

287 See the Shangshu, Zhoushu, Jiugao. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, pp. 399– 412.

288 The phrase, “[The ruler of a state,] during the spring hunting, will not surround a marshy thicket,” derives from the Liji, Qu li, xia. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 106.

289 The laws of the ﬁve offenses in hunting are not to hunt fawns, not to take eggs, not to kill pregnant animals, not to kill young animals, and not to destroy nests.

290 There are several different interpretations for the three numinous beings. For instance, it may refer to Heaven, Earth, and human beings, or the sun, moon, and stars.

291 Zilu asked Confucius about spirits and death in the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 240–241.

292 In the Liji, Jiyi, Confucius says that the energy of all living creatures becomes the fumes that rise as the vapor after death. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 220, translates the phrase “the fume rising as the vapor” as “the vapours and odours which produce a feeling of sadness (and arise from the decay of their sub- stance).”

293 See the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 178.

294 The phrase “to make an exhaustive discrimination of what is right, and effect the complete development of every nature, till they arrive at what is appointed for it [by Heaven]” derives from the Yijing, Shuogua. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 422,

n. 3.

295 See the Gaosengzhuan, T.2059.50:350b26–27.

296 See note 186.

297 See the Shijing, Xiaoya, xiaowan. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 334, n. 3.

298 See the Zuozhuan, Zhuanggong’s the fourth month of the seventh year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 80, VII, 2.

299 See the Sanguozhi, fascicle 11.

300 Both Wang Xiang and Guo Ju are known as ﬁlial sons. See the Jinshu, fascicle 33,

Wang Xiang zhuan, for Wang Xiang, and the Soushenji for Guo Ju.

301 The Shangshu, Jinteng, states that when the Duke of Zhou (the uncle) assisted King Cheng (the nephew) after the death of King Wu, three of the Duke of Zhou’s brothers spread a false rumor to cause difﬁculties for the duke. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 357, n. 12.

302 The expressions “to ascend to the hall” and “to pass into the inner apartments” derive from the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 242, n. 2.

303 See the Lunyu, Zi han, for the difﬁculties faced by Confucius in Kuang and the Wei Linggong for his difﬁculties in Chen. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 217– 218 and p. 294, respectively.

304 This statement is not found in the Shanhaijing. In the Nanshanjing (“Southern Moun- tains”) section of the Shanhaijing, however, it is recorded that there is the lu ﬁsh that dies in winter and lives in summer. Ching, Cheng, and Thern, Shan hai ching, p. 2.

305 See the Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s seventh year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 617, right column.

306 See the Zuozhuan, Xigong’s tenth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 157, left column.

307 See the Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s seventh year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 618, left column.

308 The authorship of the Zuozhuan is attributed to Zuo Qiuming, a former disciple of Confucius.

309 Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 2, p. 192, n. 29, suggests that “a daring soldier of the city of Pu” refers to Zilu, who was the chief magistrate of Pu.

310 This statement is made on the basis of the description found in the Liji, Wangji, “When the otter sacriﬁced its ﬁsh, the foresters entered the meres and dams. When the wolf sacriﬁced its prey, the hunting commenced.” See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 221, n. 25.

311 The song “Rushes” is found in the Shijing, Daya. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, pp. 472–475.

312 See note 289.

313 Emperor Tang stopped the people from praying to be able to catch game by setting a net in all directions, and changed it to praying for the ability to catch game by leaving one side of the net open so that some animals could escape. See the Shiji, fascicle 3, Yin benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 43, n. 95.

314 See the Shijing, Daya, Hanlu. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 446, n. 6.

315 See the Shijing, Daya, Wen Wang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 458, n. 1.

316 The notes of beilü refer to ruibin, linzhong, yize, nanlü, wuyi, and yingzhong. The note of gong is the ﬁrst of the ﬁve notes (gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu) of traditional Chinese music. It is equivalant to huangzhong of the six yang lü notes. See note 7.

317 See note 7 for the lü of yin notes and the lü of yang notes.

318 See the Yijing, Xici, xia. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 381, n. 10.

319 This expression is based on a statement by Mencius, “The trees of the Niu mountain were once beautiful. Being situated, however, in the borders of a large state, they were hewn down with axes and bills, and could they retain their beauty?” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 407, n. 1.

320 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 240–241.

321 See the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 177.

322 See the Hanshu, fascicle 71, Yu Dingguo zhuan.

323 See the Hanshu, fascicle 74, Bing Ji zhuan.

324 Qu Boyu is a wise man of Wei state, whom Confucius respected. In the Lunyu, Xian- wen, there is a conversation between Qu Boyu’s messenger and Confucius. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 285–286.

325 See the Yijing, Qian, jiuer. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 57, n. 2.

326 The phrase “transformation and shaping” (hua er caizhi) derives from the Yijing, Xici shang, “Transformation and shaping is what we call change.” Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 377.

327 See the Hou Hanshu, fascicle 79, Zhong Changtong zhuan, and fascicle 113, Jiao Shen zhuan, respectively. The practice of guiding the breath (daoyin) is one of the Daoist practices to preserve one’s health by controlling the breath.

328 See the Zhuangzi, Zeyang. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 561, n. 6.

329 See the Hanshu, Jingfazhi.

330 The expression “grand submission [to the natural course] (dashun)” is found in the Zhuangzi, Tiandi, and the Laozi, chapter 65. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 157, p. 365, n. 8.

331 This expression is based on the phrase “Zuo Qiuming was ashamed of them. I also am ashamed of them” found in the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Clas- sics, vol. 1, p. 182.

332 See the Yijing, Qian, Wenyan chujiu. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 409, n. 4.

333 See the Yijing, Qian, Wenyan jiusan. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 410, n. 6.

334 As for the Chinese term huncheng zhi wu (“something undeﬁned and complete”), the Laozi, chapter 25, explains that “There was something undeﬁned and complete, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth. How still it was and formless, standing alone, and undergoing no change, reaching everywhere and in no danger [of being exhausted]! It may be regarded as the Mother of all things.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 115, n. 1.

335 See the Zhouli, Chunguan Zong Bo.

336 See Zhuangzi, Yangshengzhu. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 248.

337 The Chinese term santong (“three foundations”) refers to the ﬁrst month of the year in the calendar systems used in the Xia, Yin (Shang), and Zhou dynasties. The ﬁrst month of the year in the Xia dynasty is called rentong (“the foundation of men”); that of the Yin dynasty (equivalent to the twelfth month of the Xia calendar) is called ditong (“the foundation of Earth”); and that of the Zhou dynasty (the eleventh month of the Xia calendar) is called tiantong (“the foundation of Heaven”). Here, this term is used to refer to the three powers instead of the term sancai.

338 See the Zuozhuan, Wengong’s twelfth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 261, right column.

339 The Chinese term sanpin zhi huo (“the threefold use of game in hunting”) derives from the Yijing, Xun. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 190, n. 4.

340 See the Ji Kang ji, fascicle 8.

341 See the Baopuzi, Lunxian.

342 Teng Xiu did not believe that some shrimp have barbels longer than ten feet, but later it was reported to him that a shrimp with barbels over twenty feet long was caught in the eastern sea. See the Taiping yulan, fascicle 943.

343 The Chinese fangshu (“square documents”) refers to local gazettes, texts of divination, texts of medical practice, or texts of prescriptions. Here it probably means scriptures of doctrines and policies.

344 The term yao consists of the yang yao (solid single line) and the yin yao (divided line).

345 See the Yijing, Qian. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, pp. 57–58, n. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7.

346 See Yijing, Wenyan. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 409, n. 6; p. 410, n. 4; and p. 414, n. 19.

347 The phrase “a new thought of spring and autumn,” found in the preface of the Chunqiu Zuoshizhuan by Du Yu, simply means the new thought of a later generation.

348 See the Laozi, chapter 25. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 116, n. 3.

349 See the Lunyu, Liren. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 165.

350 See the Liji, Zhongyong. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 314, n. 12.

351 See the Liji, Biaoji. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 333, n. 14, translates the passage as “those who fear the guilt of transgression practice it by con- straint.”

352 See the Zhuangzi, Quqie. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 332.

353 See the Shijing, Zhaonan. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, pp. 22, 25.

354 See the Shiji, fascicle 57, Jiang hou Zhou Bo shijia, for Zhou Yafu, and fascicle 91, Qingbu liezhuan for Ying Bu. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. VIII, pp. 45–46.

355 The Chinese term ruosang, which means to leave one’s native place or homeland when young, is originally found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. In the Zhuangzi, “homeland” refers to death, while the author here refers it to as the truth. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 242.

356 See the Zhuangzi, Xuwugui. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 548.

357 See the Zuozhuan, Yingong’s eleventh year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 32, right column.

358 See the Yijing, Xici, xia. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 390, n. 34.

359 See the Yijing, Shuogua zhuan. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 422, n. 3.

360 The Yijing, Xici, shang, states, “Therefore in (the system of) the Yi there is the Grand Terminus, which produced the two elementary Forms.” Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 373, n. 70.

361 These two sentences in all versions of the Hongmingji have three Chinese characters for huo (“ﬁre”), but this does not make sense. Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 2, p. 256, n. 9) suggests the ﬁrst of two instances of huo should be shui (“water”). I follow this.

362 This expression is based on a passage found in the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi: “When we once understand that Heaven and Earth are a great melting pot, and the Creator a great founder, where can we have to go to that shall not be right for us?” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 297–298.

363 The Chinese character xing (“nature”) here does not make sense. Following Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 2, p. 259, n. 3), I read it as guai, “strange.”

364 The Chinese character wei (“to do”) is read as wu (“nothing”).

365 This statement is based on a passage found in the Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou: “I was frightened by them; they were like the Milky Way that cannot be traced to its beginning or end.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 218, n. 5.

366 See the Anshi Chunqiu, Neipian, Jianpian, in which the last sentence, “those who are not virtuous consider [that death is simply] to go away,” is given as “those who are not virtuous consider [that death is simply] to lie down.”

367 Both discussions appear in Fascicle 12 in the Collection for the Clariﬁcation and Propagation of Buddhism, Volume II (forthcoming).

368 The Daodejing states, “Therefore the Dao is great; Heaven is great; Earth is great; and the [sage] king is also great. In the universe there are four that are great, and the [sage] king is one of them.” See also note 348.

369 See the Yijing, Xici, xia. Legge translates this passage as “The great attribute of heaven and earth is the giving and maintaining [of] life” (I ching: Book of Changes, p. 381, n. 10).

370 See the Zhuangzi, Shanxing. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 419, n. 3.

371 See the Zhanguoce, Zhao ce.

372 The expressions “By teaching love on the basis of the feeling of intimacy” and “By teaching respect on the basis of sternness” derive from the Xiaojing. Rosemont’s translation differs slightly from this context; see The Chinese Classic of Family Rev- erence, p. 110.

373 This expression is based on the Zhuangzi, Tianyun: “One, traveling to the south, comes [at last] to Ying, and there, standing with his face to the north, he does not see Mount Ming. Why does he not see it? Because he is so far from it.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 395.

374 See the Laozi, chapter 39. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 130, n. 1.

375 See the Lunyu, Taibo. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 214, n. 1.

376 This expression derives from the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “Therefore the knowledge that stops at what it does not know is the greatest.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 238.

377 See the Zhuangzi, Tiandao. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 385.

378 See the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun, for this quotation and the following two quotations. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 237.

379 This is a summary of the passage found in the Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3: 473b1–11).

380 See note 267 for the Great Pervader.

381 The expression “the spirit is the most mysterious of a myriad of things” is based on a passage found in the Yijing, Shuogua zhuan. Legge translates this as “When we speak of Spirit we mean the subtle [presence and operation of God] with all things” (I ching: Book of Changes, chapter 6, p. 427, n. 10).

382 The expression “By a transformation a person is born. By another transformation a person dies” derives from the Zhuangzi, Zhibeiyou. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 505.

383 Here, the translation of the phrase ruo si sheng wei bi tu ku should be “if death and life are vainly suffering for them (i.e., collection and dispersion).” This does not make sense. It should be ruo si sheng wei tu (“if death and life are the same category”), as found in the Zhuangzi, Zhibeiyou. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 499.

384 Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 290, n. 6.

385 In the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi, when Sang Hu died, two men sang, “Ah! Come, Sang Hu! Ah! Come, Sang Hu! You already returned to the truth, but we are still in the human [world]. Ah!” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 299.

386 See the Wenzi, Shoupu pian.

387 See the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 291, n. 6.

388 See the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. Legge translates it as “now life and now death.” Legge,

Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 230.

389 Kimura Eiichi refers to Liu Shao’s Renwuzhi and concludes that the Chinese character

shu (“number” or “fate”) is used as an equivalent to the character shi (“consciousness”

or “intelligence”) here. See Kimura, Eon kenkyū, ibun-hen (Kyoto: Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo, 1960), p. 396, n. 49.

390 See note 267 for the “great truth.”

391 The expression “the way of ‘forgetting both’” derives from passages found in the Zhuangzi, Tianyun: “If it were easy to make my parents forget me, it is difﬁcult for me to forget all the people of the world. If it were easy to forget the people of the world, it is difﬁcult to make the people of the world forget me.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 395.

392 The year of efeng is the year of jia of Taisui (Jupitor), considered to be a powerful time. The third year of Yuanxing is the year of jia-chen in the Chinese calendar.

393 See the Liji, Tangong, xia. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 169, n. 29.

394 See the Laozi, chapter 31. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 121–122.

395 Confucius had his right hand uppermost at a mourning rite. See the Liji, Tangong,

shang. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, pp. 137–138, n. 19.

396 See the Yijing, Bi. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 75, n. 5.

397 To strip off the upper garment is a token of sincere apology. To load a cofﬁn on one’s carriage means to show one’s determination to succeed on an undertaking or die. See the Zuozhuan, Xigong’s sixth year and Xuangong’s twelfth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 316, left column, and p. 147, right column, respectively.

398 See the Lunyu, Shuer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 203.

399 The expression “reducing day by day to attain wuwei” derives from the Laozi, chapter

48. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 138, n. 2.

400 The expression “have not been out from the closed world from the beginning” (wei shi chu yu youfeng) is based on the expression “Things exist, but they have no boundary with others from the beginning” ( youwuyi er wei shi youfeng) found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. Legge translates this as “There was something, but without any responsive recognition of it [on the part of men]” (Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 233, n. 5). I translate the Chinese term youfeng as “the closed world.”

401 See the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 300.

402 This phrase is based on a statement found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “There is further the great awakening. Later we will know that this [life] is a great dream.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 243, n. 9.

403 See the Ruhuan sanmei jing, T.342.12:150c12–15.

404 This expression is based on a statement found in the Yijing, Xici, shang. Legge translates it as “They (i.e., sages) [thus] stimulated [the people] as by drums and

dances, thereby completely developing the spirit-like [character of the Yi]” (I ching: Book of Changes, p. 377, n. 76).

405 See the Shangshu, Dayumo. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 66.

406 This expression is also based on a statement found in the Yijing, Xici, xia: “Good fortune and ill, occasion for repentance or regret, all arise from these movements.” Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 380, n. 3.

407 This statement is based on a passage found in the Laozi, chapter 58: “The delusion of the people (on this point) has indeed subsisted for a long time.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 150, n. 2.

408 The expression “to honor the talented and virtuous, bear with all people” derives from the Lunyu, Zi Zhang: “The superior man honors the talented and virtuous, and bears with all.” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 340.

409 This statement is based on a passage found in the Lunyu, Shuer: “When I have pre- sented one corner of a subject to any one, and he cannot from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my lesson.” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 197.

410 See the Lunyu, Xianjin and Weizheng, respectively; the source for the phrase “Ran Boniu looks like the ignorant” is unknown. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 240–241, and p. 149, respectively.

411 The “Five Kinds of Vermin” in the Han Feizi (fascicle 49) reads: “These are the cus- toms of a disordered state: Its scholars praise the ways of the former kings and imitate their benevolence and righteousness, put on a fair appearance and speak in elegant phrases, thus casting doubt upon the laws of the time and causing the ruler to be of two minds. Its speechmakers propound false schemes and borrow inﬂuence from abroad, furthering their private interests and forgetting the welfare of the state’s altars of soil and grain. Its swordsmen gather bands of followers about them and perform deeds of honor, making a ﬁne name for themselves and violating the prohibitions of the ﬁve government bureaus. Those of its people who are worried about military service ﬂock to the gates of private individuals and pour out their wealth in bribes to inﬂuential men who will plead for them, in this way escaping the hardship of battle. Its merchants and artisans spend their time making articles of no practical use and gathering stores of luxury goods, accumulating riches, waiting for the best time to sell, and exploiting the farmers.” Watson, Han Feizi: Basic Writings, pp. 117–118.

412 This expression is based on a phrase found in the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi: “When [Wu- zhuang] lost his beauty, [Ju Liang] his strength, and [Huangdi] (the Yellow Emperor) his wisdom, they all [recovered them] under the molding [of your system].” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 304, n. 13.

413 See the Yijing, Xici, xia. Legge translates it as “The course cannot be pursued [without them (i.e., proper men)]” (I ching: Book of Changes, p. 399, n. 56).

414 The expression “attend to their own ambition in a lofty spirit” derives from the Yijing, Gu, “in a lofty spirit prefers [to attend to] his own affairs.” Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 96, n. 6.

415 This is the medical treatment for controlling the vapor of the body: treating with cold for illness caused by cold and with heat for illness caused by heat. It is also found in the third fascicle of this text. Zong Bing responded to He’s letter, “[Furthermore,] when a doctor [practicing the medical science] of admonishing the vapor makes water or ﬁre in the mind, [the patient’s body] always responds to it by becoming cold or warm.”

416 The expression “Even though one tries to keep his shadow tied up, he catches [only] the wind” may derive from the expression “Even though one tries to keep the wind tied up, he catches his shadow” found in the Qian Han ji, Xiaocheng huangdi ji 3.

417 This expression is based on the passage “When I have presented one corner of a subject to any one, and he cannot from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my les- son” found in the Lunyu, Shuer. See note 409.

418 This expression is based on Confucius’s statement in the Lunyu, Zi han: “The pros- ecution of learning may be compared to what may happen in raising a mound. If there want but one basket of earth to complete the work, and I stop, the stopping is my own work. It may be compared to throwing down the earth on the level ground. Though but one basketful is thrown at a time, the advancing with it is my own going forward.” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 222–223.

419 This expression is based on the passage found in the Yijing, Xiangzhuan: “A sack tied up— there will be no error; this shows how, through carefulness, no injury will be received.” Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 269, n. 4.

420 In the Lunyu, Taibo, Confucius says, “Is not the saying that talents are difﬁcult to ﬁnd, true?” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 214, n. 3.

421 See the Lunyu, Yong ye. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 188.

422 The six extreme sufferings refer to disease, anxiety, poverty, evil, weakness, and mis- fortune, including premature death. Yan Hui died young. See the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 239.

423 Confucius’s advice to Zixia is found in the Lunyu, Zilu. Legge, The Chinese Classics,

vol. 1, p. 270.

424 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 243.

425 See the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 176, n. 1.

426 See the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 174–175.

427 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 242–243.

428 See the Lunyu, Yong ye. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 186.

429 See the Shiji, fascicle 83, Lu Zhong Lian Zou Yang liezhuan. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. VII, p. 286.

430 See the Zhuangzi, Tiandi. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 363, n. 7.

431 See the Lunyu, Weizi. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 333–334.

432 See the Shiji, fascicle 129, Huozhi liezhuan. Yang and Yang, Selections from Records of the Historian, pp. 413–414.

433 See the Lienuzhuan, Xianming, Chu Yuling qizhuan.

434 See the Liexianzhuan (Biographies of Arrayed Transcendants).

435 See the Hanshu, fascicle 72 (xu).

436 See the Hou Hanshu, Zhang Hengzhuan.

437 See the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 183.

438 See the Lunyu, Shuer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 202.

439 This refers to an incident in which Guanshu and Caishu made a false accusation against the Duke of Zhou. See the Shujing, Jinteng. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, pp. 357–358, n. 12.

440 See the Shujing, Shundian. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, pp. 39–40, n. 12.

441 See the Laozi, chapter 17. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 109, n. 2.

442 Duangan Mu, a man of Wei state, leaped over the wall of his house to avoid a prince who had come to invite him to court. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 270, n. 2.

443 See the Zhuangzi, Gengsang Chu. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 514– 515.

444 The expression “we occupy our thoughts, but do not discuss anything” is based on a passage found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “Outside the limits of the world of men, the sage occupies his thoughts, but does not discuss about anything.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 237.

445 See the Beijing chao, translated by Zhi Jian (T.790.17:729a3–736b1).

446 See the Yijing, Xici, shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, pp. 375–376, n. 75.

447 See the Zhuangzi, Gengsang Chu. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 523, n. 8.

448 The term “three revered ones” (sanzun) refers to: (1) the primary revered one (often, a buddha) and his two attendant bodhisattvas; (2) a buddha, a pratyekabuddha, and an arhat; or (3) Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, i.e., the Three Treasures. From the context, the third interpretation is most appropriate here.

449 See the Laozi, chapter 42. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 133, n. 2.

450 See the Han Feizi, Heshi. See note 69.

451 See the Taizi ruiying benqi jing, T.185.3:479b26–28.

452 This story is found in several different sutras. For example, see the Chang Ahanjing,

T.1.1:25a2–25b25.

453 See the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 236, n. 6.

454 See the Taizi ruiying benqi jing, T.185.3:473b10.

455 The phrases “the Way is helpful to all in the world” and “its knowledge embraces all things” derive from the Yijing, Xici shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 354, n. 22.

456 See the Yijing, Ge. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 168, n. 6.

457 This statement is based on Confucius’s answer to Zhuan Sun’s question. See the

Lunyu, Weizheng. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 153.

458 In the Lüoan (Lüshi chunqiu), Chajin, there is a story that a man of Chu, when crossing a river aboard a boat, dropped his sword into water; he then marked the side of the boat at the point where the sword fell in order to be able to ﬁnd it, not considering that the boat was moving. This fable describes a person who lacks adaptability.

459 This is a story of another man lacking adaptability, found in the Han Feizi, Wudu.

Watson, Han Feizi: Basic Writings, p. 98.

460 See the Laozi, chapter 39. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 130, n. 1.

461 See the Laozi, chapter 33. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 123, n. 2.

462 This statement is based on the phrase “Dao becomes obscured through the small com- prehension [of the mind]” found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 230.

463 The expression “striking one’s root deeply in oneself and being perfectly still” derives from the Zhuangzi, Shanxing. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 419, n. 3.

464 The Chinese term haoran zhi qi (“the great primordial vapor”) is found in the Mengzi, Gongsun Chou. Legge translates this term as “ﬂowing passion-nature” (The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 189–190, n. 11–14).

465 This statement is based on a passage found in the Liji, Yueji: “When the [ancient] kings had accomplished their undertakings, they made their music [to commemorate them]; when they had established their government, they framed their ceremonies. The excellence of their music was according to the greatness of their undertakings; and the completeness of their ceremonies was according to the comprehensiveness of their government. The dances with shields and axes did not belong to the most excellent music, nor did the sacriﬁces with cooked ﬂesh mark the highest ceremonies. The times of the ﬁve Dis were different, and therefore they did not each adopt the

music of his predecessor. The three kings belonged to different ages, and so they did not each follow the ceremonies of his predecessor.” See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, pp. 101–102, n. 26–27.

466 Shanci is Zhou Yong’s pseudonym.

467 This statement is based on the the Lunyu, Taibo: “When a bird is about to die, its notes are mournful; when a man is about to die, his words are good.” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 209, n. 3.

468 This expression is based on a phrase found in the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi, “to hide a boat in a narrow ravine and to hide a hill in a marsh.” See notes 164, 275.

469 All these expressions except “staying in the void to let the animation act at will” derive from the Laozi, chapter 10. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 101.

470 This statement is based on a story found in the Zhuangzi, Tiandi, about the Yellow Emperor who lost his dark-colored pearl. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 359–360, n. 4

471 I follow the interpretation for this sentence in Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 369, n. 11.

472 This expression derives from the Zhuangzi, Tian Zifang. Legge translates it “As soon as my eyes lighted on that man, the [D]ao in him was apparent” (Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 484, n. 2).

473 The Shiji, Zhou benji. See Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 58, in which King Wen is referred to as the Lord of the West.

474 See the Taizi ruiying benqi jing, T.185.3:473b10.

475 This expression is based on a passage found in the Zhuangzi, Xiaoyao you: “When the sun and moon have come forth, if the torches have not been put out, would it not be difﬁcult for them to give light?” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 217, n. 4.

476 The Chinese character bu (“not”) is deleted according to the previous discussion (T.2101.52:39c5, 40c21).

477 In the Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese Gu Huan says, “Daoism is pre- cisely Buddhism; Buddhism is none other than Daoism.”

478 The Chinese term guan ju derives from a poem found in the Shijing, Guan ju: “Guan- guan go the ospreys, /On the islet in the river./The modest, retiring, virtuous, young lady:/For our prince a good mate [is] she.” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p.

1. The four states are found in Shijing, Binfeng. According to Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 377, the four states refer to Guan, Cai, Shang, and Yan.

479 This expression is based on a phrase found in the Chuci, Buju: “The sound huangzhong

is abrogated and an earthen pot sounds very loud” (a metaphor for the case where a

gentleman is rejected and a petty man becomes dominant). The term huangzhong

refers to the ﬁrst note of the twelve classical Chinese musical notes; see note 7.

480 This expression derives from the Laozi, chapter 38. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 128, n. 6.

481 This expression is based on a passage found in the Laozi, chapter 48: “He who devotes himself to the Dao [seeks] from day to day to diminish [his doing].” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 138, n. 2.

482 This expression is based on another passage found in the Laozi, chapter 48: “He who devotes himself to learning [seeks] from day to day to increase [his knowledge].” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 138, n. 1.

483 This expression is based on a passage found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “When they were dreaming they did not know it was a dream; in their dream they may even have tried to interpret it; but when they awoke they knew that it was a dream. And there is the great [awakening], after which we shall know that this life was a great dream.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 242–243.

484 The expressions “carve a mark on a boat” and “wait by the stump” are used to indicate a person who lacks adaptability. See notes 458, 459.

485 This expression is based on a phrase found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “Under Heaven there is nothing greater than the tip of an autumn down, and the Tai mountain is small.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 236.

486 See the Yijing, Xici shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 366, n. 56.

487 The interpretation of this sentence is based on a passage found in the Lunyu, Yang Huo: “Are there not gamesters and chess players? To be one of these would still be better than doing nothing at all.” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 329.

488 See the Zhuangzi, Yufu. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 637.

489 See the Zuozhuan, Zhuanggong’s tenth year. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 86, left column.

490 See the Miaofa lianhuajing, T.262.9:38c22–29.

491 The Chinese term chaosan (“the deception of the inconsistency”) derives from the

Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 233.

492 This expression is based on the Yijing, Xici, shang. See note 360.

493 The phrase “the ﬂesh of birds and beasts, drinking their blood, and swallowing [also] the hair and feathers” derives from the Liji, Liyun. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 369, n. 8.

494 This expression is based on a conversation between Duke Wei of the Zhou dynasty and Tian Kaizhi, found in the Zhuangzi, Dasheng. Responding to Duke Wei’s question

about the subject of life, Kaizhi said, “I have heard my master say that they who skill- fully nourish their life are like shepherds who whip up the sheep that they see lagging behind” and “Bao nourished his inner man, and a tiger ate his outer; while Yi nourished his outer man, and disease attacked his inner. Both of them neglected whipping up their lagging sheep.” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 456–457.

495 The Chinese character bu (“not”) is read as the character qian (“thousand”), since this sentence appears to be a repetition of the previous sentence.

496 See note 69.

497 See the Zuozhuan, Chenggong’s eighth year. Legge translates it as “He followed the wise and good, as in the course of a stream, and right it was [that he should be so successful]” (The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 367, left column).

498 The phrase “to open up [knowledge of the issues of] things and accomplish the under- takings [of men]” derives from the Yijing, Xici shang. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 371.

499 The emperor’s formal robe with dragon patterns is called gun and a crown with a square-shaped top is called mian.

500 The Chinese term zhongmiao zhi men (“gate of many wonders”) derives from the Laozi, chapter 1. Legge translates it as “the gate of all that is subtle and wonderful” (Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 95, n. 4).

501 The tongren hexagram comes after the pi hexagram. See Yijing, shangjing. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. xii.

502 The term “the center of the ring [of thought]” derives from the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun.

Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 231.

503 Shangchen forced his father King Cheng to strangle himself. See the Shiji, fascicle 40, Chu shijia. For an English translation, see Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, pp. 392–393.

504 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. See note 31.

505 If the term dao is taken to mean Daoism here, the following statement does not make sense. It is possible that Gu Huan originally meant dao to indicate Daoism and the author took its meaning as “the Way.”

506 This expression derives from the Yijing, Xici shang. Legge translates it as “The nature [of man] having been completed, and being continually preserved” (I ching: Book of Changes, p. 360, n. 37).

507 The punishment called paoluo was invented by King Zhou of the Yin dynasty.

508 See the Liji, Neize. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, pp. 456–457, n. 15.

509 This evil act was carried out by King Zhou of the Yin dynasty. See Shujing, Zhoushu, Taishi. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 285, n. 5.

510 The expression “a person who lives on the seacoast and who enjoys himself in forgetting the world” is based on a passage found in the Mengzi, Jinxin, shang: “. . . living some- where along the seacoast. There he would have been all his life, cheerful and happy, forgetting the kingdom.” Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 470.

511 See the Lunyu, Shuer. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 195.

512 The Chinese term daijiang (“instead of a carpenter”) derives from a passage found in the Laozi, chapter 74: “Seldom is it that he who undertakes the hewing, instead of the great carpenter, does not cut his own hands!” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 165. Hence I translate it as “taking risks.”

513 See the Lunyu, Xianjin. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 244–245.

514 See the Liji, Quli, shang. Muller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 64, n. 21.

515 See the Laozi, chapter 1. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 95, n. 1.

516 See the Weimojie suoshuojing, T.475.14:550b29–551c26.

517 This expression is based on a statement found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “Therefore, this being so, if we take a stalk of grain (“beams” in my translation) and a [large] pillar, a loathsome [leper] and [a beauty like] Xi Shi, things large and things insecure, things crafty and things strange; they may in the light of the Dao all be reduced to the same category (of opinion about them).” Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 232.

518 This is found in indigenous Chinese texts such as the Qingjing faxingjing (Sutra of Pure Dharma Acts) and the Laozi daquan pusajing. See the Weimojing xuanshu, T.1777.38:523a15–18, the Guang Hongmingji (Extensive Collection for the Propa- gation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism), T.2103.52:162b17, and the Poyelun, T.2109.52:477c22–23.

519 See the Laozi, chapter 38. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 128, n. 6.

520 See the Laozi, chapter 12. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 103, n. 1.

521 See the Laozi, chapter 44. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 135, n. 1–2.

522 See the Lunyu, Taibo. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 207.

523 See the Yijing, Xici xia. Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 385, n. 22.

524 See the Lunyu, Wei Linggong. Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 302.

525 In the ancestral sacriﬁces the father is called “‘the sovereign father” (huangkao). See the Liji, Quli, xia. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, pp. 117–118.

526 See note 89.

527 See note 90.

528 This expression is based on Confucius’s statement in the Lunyu, Shuer. Legge translates it as: “When I have presented one corner of a subject to any one, and he cannot from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my lesson” (The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 197).

529 See the Laozi, chapter 50. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 140–141.

530 See the Laozi, chapter 7. For Legge’s translation, see Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 100, n. 1.

531 The Chinese character qie has several different meanings. The Daoist Gu uses it in his discourse as “direct,” but Huitong takes it to mean “urgent.”

532 See the Laozi, chapter 12. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 103, n. 1.

533 See the Liji, Tangong, shang. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 132, n. 29.

534 See the Shiji, Xia benji. Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. I, p. 36.

535 The record is found in the last section of the Shujing, Zhouguan. Legge’s translation in The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, pp. 523–534, does not include it.

536 See the Liji, Tangong, shang. Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 139, n. 20.

537 See note 99.

538 See note 100.

539 See the Zhanguoce, Qin Zhaoxiangwang, xia.

540 See the Laozi, chapter 42. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 133, n. 3.

541 The Yellow Books are generally known as instruction books for the arts of the bed- chamber. Presently, only four texts called Huangshu are extant in the Daozang.

542 See the Laozi, chapter 13. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 104, n. 2.

543 See the Laozi, chapter 7. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 100, n. 2.

544 This passage is found in the Nanatsudera manuscript of the Qingjing faxingjing (Sutra of Pure Dharma Acts): “Mahākāśyapa is called Laozi over there.” See Makita Tairyō and Ochiai Toshinori, ed., Nanatsudera koitsu kyōten kenkyū sōsho, vol. 2. Chūgoku senjutsu kyōten (sono 2) (Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1996), p. 13.

545 See the Taizi ruiying benqi jing, T.185.3:473b12–20, for an example of this.

Glossary

bhikṣu (biqiu): A mendicant monk; a Buddhist monk. See also four kinds of Buddhist disciples.

bhikṣuṇī (biqiuni): A Buddhist nun. See also four kinds of Buddhist disciples.

dharmakāya (fashen): The Dharma body. There are various interpretations for this term. In the Sarvāstivādin school, it refers to the true Dharma expounded by the Buddha or the collection of the auspicious qualities of the Buddha, including his wisdom, compassion, and various powers. In the Mahāyāna the term evolved into a kind of cosmic principle that was regarded as the true nature of the Buddha or the body of ultimate reality and the source from which his other forms derived. For instance, the dharmakāya is one of the two kinds of buddha bodies along with the physical form (rūpakāya), or of the three kinds of buddha bodies along with the enjoyment or reward body (saṃbhogakāya) and the accommodative body (nirmāṇakāya), or of the four kinds of buddha bodies along with the enjoyment or reward body, the accommodative body, and the transformed body, or of the ten kinds of buddha bodies, two versions of which are presented in the Huayanjing (Garland Sutra)..

Daodejing (Scripture of the Way and Its Virtue): The foundational Daoist scripture authored by Laozi.

eight kinds of gods and demigods who protect Buddhism (babuzhong): gods (devas), demigods (asuras), dragons (nāgas), demons (yakṣas), divine musicians (gan- dharvas), mythical birds (garuḍas), half-horse, half-human beings (kiṃnaras), and great serpents (mahoragas).

eight difﬁculties (ba’nan): The eight conditions in which one is unable to encounter a buddha or hear the Dharma: being in hell; being in the state of an animal; being in the state of a hungry ghost; being in the heaven of long life or in Uttarakuru, the continent to the north of Mount Sumeru where people always enjoy great happiness (people in these worlds would not therefore be motivated to seek truth); being deaf, blind, and mute; being knowledgeable about worldly affairs and eloquent (which may defer people from following the true path); and living during the period before or after the Buddha’s appearance in the world.

eight kinds of suffering (baku): The suffering brought about by birth, aging, illness, death, separation from what one loves, encountering what one despises, not ﬁnding what one seeks; and the ﬁve skandhas. See also ﬁve skandhas.

323

eight precepts: (bajiezhai): Not to kill, not to steal, not to commit sexual conduct, not to use false speech, not to ingest intoxicants, not to perform such acts as wearing bodily decoration, using perfume, singing and dancing, and going to see dances or plays, sleeping in a raised bed, and eating after noon. See also ﬁve precepts; six puriﬁcation days.

ﬁve cardinal duties (wudian): A father’s righteousness, a mother’s benevolence, an elder brother’s love, a younger brother’s respect, and a son’s ﬁlial piety.

ﬁve cardinal virtues (wuchang): Benevolence, justice, politeness, wisdom, and ﬁdelity.

Five Classics: The Confucian canon comprising the Book of Changes (Yijing or Zhouyi), which looks into the law between Heaven, Earth, and human beings by asserting that all phenomena of the universe come from changes caused by the union and separation of yin and yang; the Book of History (Shujing or Shangshu), a record of two ideal rulers, Yao and Shun, and the three dynasties of Xia, Yin (Shang), and Zhou; the Book of Odes (Shijing or Maoshi), a collection of three hundred odes composed prior to Confucius’s time; the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu), which discerns virtue and vice in various historic events that happened in all states for a period of two hundred and forty-two years, from the ﬁrst year of Lord Yin up to Lord Ai of Lu state; and the Book of Rites (Liji), a compilation of records of theory and practice regarding rites.

ﬁve desires (wuyu or wuqing): Desires that arise in connection with the ﬁve senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch; or desires for wealth, sex, food and drink, fame, and sleep.

ﬁve penalties (wuxing): Branding, cutting off the nose, cutting off the feet, castration, and death. The earliest record that describes wuxing is the Canon of Shun in the Book of History, in which Gao Yao carried out these penalties at Shun’s command.

ﬁve precepts (wujie; Skt. pañcaśīla): Not to kill, not to steal, not to use false speech, not to commit sexual misconduct, and not to ingest intoxicants. These are the ﬁve basic precepts taken by laypeople on entering the Buddhist path.

ﬁve primary elements (wuchang): Fire, wood, earth, metal, and water. See also four great elements.

ﬁve realms of existence (wudao, wutu, or wuqu): The realms of hell, hungry ghosts, ani- mals, human beings, and heavenly beings. See also six realms of existence.

ﬁve roots of wholesomeness (wugen): 1) Belief in the Three Treasures, 2) making efforts to practice good, 3) being mindful of the true Dharma, 4) concentration, and 5) the investigation of the true nature of things. (Volume II)

Five Sacred Mountains (wuyue): The Eastern Mountain (Mount Tai), the Southern Moun- tain (Mount Heng or Huo), the Western Mountain (Mount Hua), the Northern Moun- tain (Mount Heng), and the Central Mountain (Mount Song).

ﬁve skandhas (Skt. pañcaskandha; wuyin or wuyun): The ﬁve constituent elements of existence that produce various kinds of suffering: matter or form (rūpa), perception (vedanā), conception (samjñā), volition (samskāra), and consciousness (vijñāna).

Five Thearchs (wudi): Five legendary emperors: Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), Emperor Gaoyang (Zhuanxu), Emperor Gaoxin (Diku), Emperor Yao, and Emperor Shun.

four devils (Skt. māras; simo): Deﬁlements (Skt. kleśas), the ﬁve skandhas, death (Skt. maraṇa), and the king of devils, Māra, in the Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven, who tries to thwart one’s attempts to carry out good acts.

four fruits (siguo): The four stages of spiritual attainment in the Hinayana: the fruit of entering the stream of the sacred Dharma (Skt. srota-āpanna), the fruit of only one more rebirth (Skt. sakṛdāgāmin), the fruit of not returning (Skt. anāgāmin); and the fruit of arhatship.

four gravest offenses (Skt. pārājika; boluoyi): Engaging in sexual intercourse, stealing, taking life, and lying about one’s spiritual attainment. Monks who commit even one of these offences is permanently expelled from the sangha.

four great elements (sida): Earth, water, ﬁre and wind. See also ﬁve primary elements. Four Holy Rivers (sidu): The Yangzi River, the Yellow River, the Huai River, and the Ji

River.

four immeasurable minds (Skt. catur-apramāṇa or catvāry apramāṇāni; sidengxin or siwuliangxin): Benevolence (ci), or giving pleasure and happiness to others; com- passion (bei), or removing others’ pain and suffering; taking joy in making other people happy (xi); and giving up all attachments (she or hu).

four kinds of Buddhist disciples (sizhong): Monks (bhikṣus), nuns (bhikṣuṇīs), laymen (upāsakas), and laywomen (upāsikās).

Grand Terminus (taiji): In Daosim, the origin of all things in the universe.

icchantika (yichanti): One who has no good roots and has no possibility of becoming a buddha.

kalpa (jie): An eon, an immeasurably long period of time.

Mount Sumeru (Xumishan): In Buddhist cosmology, the highest mountain that rises from the center of the world.

nine kinds of Buddhist scriptures (jiubujing): The ﬁrst nine of the twelve kinds of Buddhist scriptures. See twelve kinds of Buddhist scriptures.

nine realms of the transmigration of birth and death (jiudi): Subdivisions of the three realms of samsaric existence, consisting of the realm of desire, the four meditation heavens of the realm of form, and the four domains of the realm of nonform. See also three realms of existence.

nine schools (jiuliu): Confucianism, Daoism, the school of Yin-Yang, Legalism, the Nom- inalist school, the school of Mo Di (i.e., Mohism), the school of the Political Strate- gists, the school of Miscellaneous Thoughts, and the school of the Farming Life.

nirvana (niepan): The ultimate goal of Buddhism, where delusions are extinguished and the highest wisdom is attained.

pure speech (qingtan): Discourse following doctrines or theories found in the Laozi Daodejing and the Zhuangzi without regard to its practicality. The earliest example is that carried out by Fu Gu and Xun Can in the ﬁrst year of the Taihe era (227). It was popular during the period from the Wei kingdom (220–265) through the Jin dynasty (265–420).

Seven Classics: The Five Classics plus the Book of Music (Yuejing), no longer extant, and the Analects (Lunyu) of Confucius. See also Five Classics.

seven kinds of self-conceit (qiman): The feeling of superiority toward those who are inferior; the feeling of superiority toward those who are one’s equals; the feeling of superiority toward those who are superior to oneself; being proud of oneself and despising others; considering oneself to be more worthy or virtuous than one actually is; false humility, i.e., feeling pride at one’s humility; and proudly thinking that one is virtuous although, in fact, one is a person of little virtue.

six arts (liuyi): Six areas in which a reﬁned person must be skilled: rites, music, archery, driving a chariot, learning, and mathematics.

Six Classics: The Five Classics plus the Book of Music. See also Five Classics. six domestic animals: Horse, cattle, sheep, chickens, dogs, and pigs.

six extreme evils (liuji): Misfortune that results in shortening one’s life, sickness, mental distress, poverty, wickedness, and weakness. Also called the six feelings (liuqing).

six pāramitās (liuboluomi or liudu): The six qualities or “perfections” a bodhisattva prac- tices in order to attain nirvana: (1) generosity (Skt. dāna), giving property, the Dharma, and peace; (2) morality (Skt. śīla), observing precepts; (3) forbearance or patience (Skt. kṣānti); 4) diligence or effort (Skt. vīrya); (5) meditation (Skt. dhyāna); and (5) wisdom (Skt. prajñā).

six puriﬁcation days (liuzhai): The eighth, fourteenth, ﬁfteenth, twenty-third, twenty- ninth, and thirtieth days of the month, during which laypeople observe eight precepts (the ﬁve basic precepts along with additional proscriptions against indulging in adornment or perfume, entertainment, sleeping in a raised bed, or eating after midday) in order to purify themselves. See also ﬁve precepts.

six realms of existence (liudao or liuqu): The six realms into which sentient beings are reborn in the course of samsaric existence: the realms of hell, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, asuras, and heavenly beings.

six relations (liuqin): Father, mother, elder and younger brothers, wife, and children. six sense organs (liugen): Eyes, ears, nose, tongue, the tactile body, and mind.

six supernatural powers (liutong or liushentong): (1) The ability to go anywhere at will and to transform oneself or objects at will; (2) the capability of seeing anything at any distance; (3) the capability of hearing any sound at any distance: (4) the ability to know others’ thoughts; (5) the ability to know one’s own and others’ former lives; and (6) the ability to destroy all evil passions.

śramaṇa (shamen): A Buddhist monk. śrāmaṇera (shami): A male novice. śrāmaṇerikā (shamini): A female novice.

tathāgata (rulai): One of ten epithets for a buddha, construed as “one who comes from thusness.”

ten epithets for the Buddha (shihao): Thus-come One, One Worthy of Alms, Fully Enlight- ened, One Having Wisdom and Practice, One who Has Attained Emancipation, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed, Tamer of Humans, Teacher of Gods and Humans, and Enlightened and World-honored One.

ten powers (shili): Ten powers attributed to a buddha: (1) distinguishing right and wrong;

(2) knowing the karma of all sentient beings of the past, present, and future, and its outcome; (3) knowing all forms of meditation; (4) knowing the greater and lesser capacities of sentient beings; (5) knowing the thoughts and desires of sentient beings;

(6) knowing the different levels of existence of sentient beings; (7) knowing the results of various methods of practice; (8) knowing the transmigratory states of all sentient beings and the courses of karma they follow; (9) knowing the past lives of all sentient beings and the nirvanic state of nondeﬁlement; and (10) knowing how to destroy all evil passions.

ten wholesome acts (shishan): Not killing living beings, not stealing, not committing adultery, not telling lies, not uttering harsh words, not uttering words that cause enmity between people, not engaging in idle talk, not being greedy, not being angry, and not holding wrong views.

Three Augusts (sanhuang): Three legendary monarchs of ancient China. There are several different theories about the identity of these ﬁgures. For instance, Sima Qian’s Shiji lists Tianhuang (Emperor of Heaven), Dihuang (Emperor of Earth), and Renhuang (Emperor of People) in the Sanhuangji (Chronicles of the Three Augusts), and Tian- huang, Dihuang, and Qinhuang (the ﬁrst emperor of the Qin dynasty) in the Qin Shihuangji (Chronicles of the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty). The Chunqiu wei (a book about charms and omens circulated in the Han dynasty as appendices to the Spring and Autumn Annals) lists Fuxi, Shen Nong, and Nüwa as the Three Augusts.

three kinds of emptiness (sankong): The three gates of emancipation: emptiness (kong), devoid of characteristics (wuxiang), and absence of aspiration (wuyuan).

three lowest realms of existence (santu, sanqu, or san’e): The realms of hell, hungry ghosts, and animals. See also six realms of existence.

three most revered people (zaisan): The sovereign, one’s parents, and one’s teacher. three periods of existence (sanshi): Past, present, and future.

three periods of the Dharma: The period of the True Dharma (zhengfa), when the Buddha’s teaching is properly practiced and enlightenment can be attained; the period of the Semblance Dharma (xiangfa), when the teaching is practiced but enlightenment is no longer attainable; and the last period of the Decadent Dharma (mofa), when only the teaching still exists but practice and attainment are no longer possible.

three poisons (sandu): Greed, anger, and stupidity.

three powers (sancai): Heaven, human beings, and Earth.

three realms of existence (sanjie): The realm of desire (Skt. kāmadhatu), which comprises the realms of hell, hungry ghosts, animals, asuras, and human beings, and a part of heaven; the realm of form (Skt. rūpadhātu), which includes part of a lower heaven and in which there are only reﬁned types of form without sexual desire and other appetitites; and the realm of nonform (Skt. arūpyadhātu), in which there is no material form, only meditative states.

three transcendental knowledges (sanda or sanming): The ability to know one’s former lives and those of others, the ability to know one’s future destiny and that of others, and the ability to know about all the suffering of the present life and to remove its root cause.

three vehicles (sansheng): The three kinds of teaching and paths of practice for śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas.

trichiliocosm (Skt. tri-sāhasra-mahāsāhasra): In ancient Indian cosmology, the entire universe in which a thousand worlds make a small one-thousand world; a thousand of these make a medium one-thousand world; and a thousand of these make a great one-thousand world.

Tripiṭaka (sanzang): The three “baskets,” or collections, of the Buddhist teachings; Sutra (discourses of the Buddha), Vinaya (monastic rules), and Abhidharma (treatises).

twelve causations (Skt. pratītyasamupāda; shieryinyuan): A foundational Buddhist teaching on the twelvefold links of cyclic existence: (1) ignorance (avidyā), (2) volition (saṃskāra), (3) consciousness (vijñāna), (4) mental functions and the for- mation of physical elements (nāmarūpa), (5) six senses (āyatana), (6) contact with sense objects (sparśa), (7) sensation or feeling (vedanā), (8) craving (tṛṣṇā), (9) grasping what one desires (upādāna), (10) existence (bhava), (11) birth (jāti), and

(12) old age and death (jāramaraṇa).

twelve gates of meditation (shiermen): Three groups of the four stages of meditation: the four stages of meditation in the realm of form, the four immeasurable virtues attained through meditation, and the four stages of meditation in the realm of non- form.

twelve kinds of Buddhist scriptures (shierbujing): (1) sūtra, the Buddha’s exposition of the Dharma in prose; (2) geya, verses that repeat the ideas already expressed in prose; 3) gāthā, verses containing ideas not expressed in the prose section of a sūtra;

(4) nidāna, narratives of past occurrences that explain a person’s present state; (5) itivṛttaka, narratives of past lives of the Buddha’s disciples; (6) jātaka, narratives of the Buddha’s past lives; (7) adbhuta-dharma, accounts of miracles performed by the Buddha or other deities; (8) avadāna, exposition of the Dharma through alle- gories; (9) upadeśa, discussions of doctrine, often in question-and-answer form;

(10) udāna, exposition of the Dharma by the Buddha without awaiting questions or requests from his disciples; (11) vaipulya, full-length, in-depth exposition of principles of truth; and (12) vyākaraṇa, the Buddha’s predictions of his disciples’ attainment of buddhahood.

upāsaka: A layman. See also four kinds of Buddhist disciples.

upāsikā: A laywoman. See also four kinds of Buddhist disciples.

Way of the Spirit (shendao): In Daoism, the unfathomed mysterious way, the transcendental religious world, or a synonym for a supreme spiritual being.

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333

Index

A

Afang Palace, 106

Āgama sutras, 248

aging, 32, 170, 171, 173, 301n210

See also causation(s), twelve Ajitakeśakambala, 289n1 Analects (Lunyu), 23, 26–27, 97

See also Seven Classics

animals, 7, 22, 35, 40, 41, 63, 75, 84, 91,

94, 113, 125, 132, 135, 139, 142, 148,

155, 194, 246, 248, 279

badger, 29, 42

birds/fowl, 36, 42, 44, 55, 57, 74, 75,

89, 94, 112, 126, 143, 173, 231, 246,

248, 251, 272, 272, 273, 281,

295n102, 302n220, 318n467,

319n493

dove, 70, 77, 300n194

hedan, 4

jingwei, 4, 289n3

owl(s), 35, 212, 263

swallow(s), 55, 230, 233, 235, 237,

238, 243

wild duck(s), 230, 233, 235, 237,

238, 243

wild geese/goose, 55, 112, 230,

2133, 235

zhen, 263

chimpanzee, 272

cows, 22, 23, 140, 150, 211, 280

music played for, 29, 276

deer, 12, 23, 37, 75, 278, 279, 280

dog(s), 74, 125, 142, 155, 261, 266,

272, 278

domestic, six/three, 40, 140, 150, 151,

156

ﬁsh, 11, 23, 75, 76, 82, 91, 113, 126,

139, 142, 148, 155, 194, 264,

307n304, 308n310

fox, 29, 42, 261, 265, 266, 272, 275

hog(s)/pig(s), 74, 75, 113, 140, 142,

150, 155

killing/slaughter of, 22, 74, 75–76, 94,

128, 131, 135, 140, 142, 143, 151, 252

hare(s), 76, 225, 277

horse(s), 6, 13, 23, 41, 42, 103, 280, 294n94

and Dongye Bi, 34, 278

Kaṇṭhaka, 7, 8

Qiji, 11

and Zidu, 92, 303n238

insects, 35, 41, 74, 85, 88, 94, 99, 119,

126, 173, 246, 250, 251, 271, 272,

273, 281, 308n313

otter(s), 75, 126, 135, 308n310

pregnant and baby/young animals, 75, 94, 113, 306n289

sacriﬁce, 100, 140, 150, 156

sheep, 11, 74, 76, 125, 140, 143, 150,

253, 319n494

shrimp, barbels of, 144, 310n342 snake(s), 27, 55, 126

tiger(s), 15, 30, 63, 70, 74, 77, 94, 216, 300n194, 319n494

twelve, of the Zodiac, 290n15

335

animal(s) (continued) wolf/wolves, 75, 126, 135, 216, 308n310

See also ﬁve supernatural animals; hunting

Anguo. See Sun Sheng An Qisheng, 79 Aśvaka, 289n1

See also bhikṣu(s), six evil Avalokiteśvara, 88

Avīci Hell, 219

B

Bai Qi, 77, 295n108

cruelty of, 38, 70, 73–74, 116, 300n190 sending provisions to King Zhao, 102, 109

suicide of, 38–39

Bailun, 80

Ban Si, 65

Bao Zidu, 92, 303n238 Ba River, 69

Bei, 216

Beijing chao, 316n445

beilü. See twelve classical Chinese musi- cal notes

Beishan jing, 289n3

bhikṣu(s) (biqiu), 69, 89, 117, 122, 175 six evil, 289n1

See also Buddhist clergy; four kinds of Buddhist disciples; śramaṇas

Bian He, 27–28, 219, 255, 293n69

Bian Que, 12, 43–44, 76–77

Bianwei lu, 295n105 Bi Gan, 47

Bimbisāra, King, 76 Bing Ji, 74, 301n202

Biographies of Arrayed Transcendents (Liexianzhuan), 69, 159, 316n434 See also Liu Xiang

birth and death, 40, 53, 57, 85, 86, 149,

161, 162, 167, 168, 169, 177,

178–180, 183, 184, 185–187, 188,

189, 195, 199, 201, 247, 283

See also rebirth; transmigration Bo, 55

boat, metaphors of:

and carriage, 11, 225, 248, 276 carving a mark on the side of, 225, 250, 270, 277, 317n458, 319n484

hidden in a ravine, 60, 103, 104, 110,

231, 305n275, 318n468

Bocheng Zigao, 213

body and spirit, 164, 165, 168, 170–172 See also New Discourse on Body and Spirit

Bo Fazu, 106

Book of Changes (Yijing), 51, 64, 74, 86,

91, 100, 127, 138, 145, 147, 161, 174,

208, 217, 251

“Commentary of Appended Judgments” (Xicizhuan), 145 diagrams/hexagrams/lines/symbols of, 64, 126, 133, 138, 145, 185, 198, 260

“Explanation of the Words and Sen- tences” (Wenyan), 145

See also Five Classics

Book of History (Shujing, Shangshu), 12, 15, 28, 51, 52, 155

Announcement about Drunkenness

(Jiugao), 113

Canon of Shu (Tangdian), 67 Canon of Yu (Yudian), 67 Hongfan chapter, 58, 169

Kong Anguo’s preface (Shangshu xu), 66

See also Five Classics

Book of Mountains and Seas (Shanhai- jing), 68, 117, 121, 159

See also Shanhaijing

Book of Music (Yuejing), 12, 51

See also Six Classics

Book of Odes (Shijing), 12, 15, 23, 28,

51, 119, 126

See also Five Classics

Book of Rites (Liji), 12, 51, 52, 68, 190,

193, 272

See also Five Classics Bo, Princess, 14, 98

Bo Qi, 300n190

Boyang, 228, 235, 241, 242

See also Laozi

Boyang, Lord/Marquis, 132, 301n202

See also Bing Ji Boyi, 22, 68, 81

and Shuqi:

death of, on Mount Shouyang, 15, 22, 35–36, 47, 212

exemplary lives of, 21, 24, 73, 98

See also Book of Mountains and Seas

Boyou, 121

Bo Yu, 36

Brahmā Heaven, king of, 220, 284

Buddha, xv, 11, 17, 19, 30, 33, 39, 40, 41,

46, 47–48, 49, 59, 63, 64, 67, 69, 71,

72–73, 76–77, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86,

87, 88, 91, 94, 101, 102, 103, 106, 108,

109, 110, 120, 134, 137, 143, 158, 182,

189, 190, 201, 217, 221, 222, 226, 229,

230, 234, 244, 250, 251, 254, 261, 262,

263, 270, 280, 284, 285, 298n157,

300n195

biography of, 7–9, 98–99

and Confucians/Daoists, 12, 16, 23,

37, 43, 65, 77, 95, 104, 246, 253, 260,

274, 283, 284, 286

disciple(s), 47, 220, 289n1

image/relics of, 25, 42, 43, 69, 80, 81 light/marks/qualities/powers/virtue of, 3, 9, 12–13, 25, 30, 58, 70, 99, 104,

110, 120, 122, 207, 274, 284

teaching/voice/words, 28, 43, 45, 72,

79, 95, 99, 103, 108, 117, 120, 121,

164, 169, 174, 190, 220, 223, 224,

226, 227, 247

See also Śakyamuni

Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, 316n448 See also three revered ones; Three Treasures

Buddhism, 65, 67, 68, 80, 85, 102, 104,

106, 110, 111, 116, 119, 126, 136,

144, 175, 191, 192, 197, 201, 203,

205, 206, 207, 208, 215, 219, 220,

221, 222, 229, 232, 253, 269, 275,

280, 282, 283, 286, 287, 288, 290n8,

297n149

adoption/transmission in China/Chi- nese, xvi, xvii, 25, 69, 80–81, 116,

260, 261–262, 264, 274, 286

and Confucianism/Daoism, 20–21, 28,

34, 51–52, 58, 62, 65, 87, 95, 106,

107–108, 114, 115, 121, 132, 134, 144,

153, 159, 169, 183, 184, 190, 193–194,

205, 208, 221, 223, 224, 226, 227,

230–232, 234, 235, 237–241, 243–247,

250, 251, 254, 257–260, 262, 264–266,

268, 270, 272–275, 278, 283, 286–287,

318n477

criticism/doubts/negative views of, xv, 7, 24, 27, 29, 30, 42, 45, 49, 70, 73,

79–80, 100, 106, 115, 185, 190, 216,

227, 246

as heretical/foreign, 3, 12, 118, 134,

270–271

protection/promulgation of, xv, xvi, 4, 30, 33, 91, 129, 175–190

Buddhist(s), xvi, xvii, 17–18, 20, 21, 31,

32, 34, 42, 44, 51, 67, 68, 71, 79, 81,

96, 102, 105, 106, 109–110, 112, 113,

115, 129, 175, 190, 225, 236, 237,

242, 242, 246, 249, 253, 267,

297n149

Buddhist(s) (continued): clergy/monk(s), xv, xvi, 4, 42, 69, 73,

99, 117, 144, 159, 160, 174, 177–178,

180, 214, 224, 225, 230, 232–233,

246, 248, 249–250, 260, 261, 265,

267, 277

lay/laypeople, xv, xvi, xvii, 4, 36, 73,

101, 175, 176, 177, 282

See also bhikṣus; four kinds of Buddhist disciples; śramaṇas

Buddhist doctrine(s)/teaching(s), xv, xvi, 12, 45, 50, 64, 66, 68, 78, 81, 85, 86,

87, 89, 100, 102, 106, 109, 112, 121,

137, 143, 157, 158, 167, 168, 170,

175, 206, 233, 237, 249, 250, 254,

262, 269

and Confucianism/Daoism, 28, 82,

182, 207, 220, 240

geyi interpretation of, xvii, 65 Buddhist scripture(s)/texts, xv, xvii,

xviii, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 22, 24, 25,

28, 29, 30, 36, 40, 46, 47, 50, 59, 60,

64, 69, 71, 89, 102, 103–104, 107,

110, 116, 118, 120, 122, 132, 137,

177, 186, 196, 202, 203, 206, 215,

217, 222, 241, 247, 248, 263, 264,

265, 269, 270, 272, 274, 277, 279,

284, 285, 286, 287, 297n149

twelve kinds of, 8, 100 Bu Shang. See Zixia

C

Caishu Du, 19, 21, 93, 136, 144, 160,

215, 316n438

Cai state, 318n478 Cai Yin, 25

cakravartin. See wheel-turning king Cang Jie, 89, 250

Cangwu prefecture, 5, 289n4 Emperor Shun’s tomb, 35, 279

Canon of Filial Piety, 11–12, 13, 14, 15,

See also Confucius; Xiaojing

Cao Gui, 251 Cao Pi, 303n238 Cao state, 22

causation(s), 121, 205, 223

twelve, 105, 116

Celestial Ofﬁcer/Thearch, 41 Chanda, 289n1

See also bhikṣu(s), six evil Chandaka, 7, 8

Chang, 20

Chang Ahanjing, 317n452 Chang Ju, 213

Changping, 76

Chaofu, 24, 67, 208, 216

Chang Ju, 213

Chen county/region, 121, 170, 307n303

Cheng, Emperor, 174

Cheng, King, 36, 82, 169, 307n301, 320n503

Chen Xiang, 18, 19

Chisongzi, 30, 45, 52, 208 Chuci, 318n478

Chunqiu. See Spring and Autumn Annals Chunqiu Zuoshizhuan (Spring and Autumn with Commentary), 42, 69, 97, 120

Du Yu’s preface, 310n347

See also Zuo Qiuming

Chunyu Sheng (Chunyu Kun), 108, 110, 306n279

Chu state, 27, 30, 38, 51, 82, 105, 123,

148, 169, 193, 219, 230, 233, 255,

257, 261, 293n69, 297n134, 305n270,

317n458

Ku county, 236, 240, 244

Ying (capital city), 27, 205

See also Mount Chu

Classics, 5, 12, 24–25, 28–29, 30, 36, 38

See also Five Classics; Seven Classics; Six Classics

Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Hong- mingji), xv–xviii, 4

See also Sengyou

Collection of Records Derived from the Tripiṭaka (Chusanzangjiji), xviii

See also Sengyou Confucian, 118, 144, 178, 226

cap, 91, 291n28

doctrines/teachings, 34, 79, 82, 120,

127, 182, 234, 239

literature/texts, 52, 141, 153

scholars, 29, 52, 66, 126, 216, 222,

241, 284

See also Confucianism/Confucianist(s) Confucianism/Confucianist(s), 33, 51, 52,

58, 65, 108, 115, 134, 144, 153, 159,

183, 193, 194, 196, 204, 205, 206,

207, 215, 218, 220, 225, 230, 231,

232, 233, 238, 246, 259, 260, 277

compared with Buddhism, 3, 234, 239,

267

and Daoism/Daoists, xv, xvi, xvii, 239, 245, 260

and the Five Classics, 9, 11

See also Confucius; Legalists; Nomi- nalists; nine schools; Six Classics

Confucius, 9–10, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 21,

24, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 43, 45, 51,

57, 58, 65, 66, 81, 118, 121, 126, 131,

136, 150, 192, 193, 214, 223, 228,

231, 236, 240, 249, 261, 284, 291n28,

294nn86, 94; 307nn292, 303;

313n395, 322n528

books/writings of, 12, 15, 31, 49, 51,

83, 118

and Boyi and Shuqi, 15, 47, 98

cited/quoted, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,

21, 23, 25, 26, 31, 33, 35, 36, 44, 47,

62, 64, 81–82, 87, 113, 264, 268, 279,

315nn418, 420

disciple(s), 21, 120–121, 211, 308n308

dream of, 35, 77, 279, 301n210

and the Duke of Zhou, 3, 49, 51, 77,

80, 88, 91, 93, 94, 95, 101, 106, 108,

112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121,

142, 147, 153, 155, 164, 170, 215,

246, 285

and Fan Xu, 80, 302n215 and the Five Classics, 9, 11 and Jie Yu, 27

and Laozi, 12, 64–65, 66, 68, 229,

253, 257, 260, 274

and Qu Boyu, 308n324 and Ran Boniu, 53, 205

and Ran Qiu, 62, 268, 299n167 and Rong Qiqi, 296n114

and Shaozheng Mao, 93 and Taibo, 14, 97, 275 and Xiang Tuo, 47

and Xu You, 15

and Yan Hui, 205, 228

and Yan Yuan/Yanzi, 36, 44, 47, 59, 279

and Yao, 143, 182, 183, 228, 249

and Zhuan Sun/Zichang, 12, 225, 317n457

and Zilu, 18, 32, 87, 113, 131, 205,

261, 268, 307n291

and Ziyou, 12

and Zixia, 315n423

See also Analects; Canon of Filial Piety; Five Classics; Spring and Autumn Annals

Cui Wenzi, 213

D

Dan, 12, 18, 44

See also Zhou, Duke of Danzhu, 21, 170, 188

dao/Dao, 147, 290n9, 305n267, 311n368, 317n462, 318n472, 319n481,

320n505, 321n517

Daoan, xvi, xvii, 89, 106

Daodejing, 6, 26, 31, 37, 65, 68, 232,

235, 244, 253, 311n368

Daojing (Dao) and Dejing (De) divi- sions of, 244, 295n104

See also Laozi; Laozi/Laozi Daodejing Daode zhengjing zhigui, 297n137 Daohan, 114

Daoheng, 207

See also Discourse to Elucidate the Refutation

Daoism/Daoist teaching, xv, xvi, xvii, xviii, 35, 36, 47, 65, 74, 106, 107,

221–224, 226–227, 230–235, 237–241,

243–246, 249–252, 254, 257, 259–260,

262–266, 268–270, 272–275, 278–281,

283, 286–287, 318n477, 320n505

inactivity/vacancy in, 65, 236, 240,

242, 266

See also nine schools; wuwei

Daoist(s), 3, 5, 33, 92, 222, 227, 236, 241,

244, 249, 253, 257, 258, 277, 280, 287

monk(s), 221, 225, 230, 232–233, 250

Daoist practices and rituals:

unity of the yin-yang vapors (heqi), xvii guiding the breath (daoyin), 309n327 mud and ash fête (tutanzhi), xvii

Daoist schools:

Shangqing (Supreme Purity), 253

Way of the Celestial Master (Tianshidao), xvii

Way of the Five Pecks of Grains (Wudoumidao), xvii, 281

Daoist scripture(s), xviii, 221, 249, 253,

269, 270, 272, 274, 280, 287, 290n115

See also Daodejing; Laozi Daodejing; Liezi; Sequel Scripture of No Spirit;

Scripture of the Yellow Court; Scrip- ture on Laozi who Ediﬁed the Barbar- ians; Wonderful Scripture of the Truth of the Numinous Jewel

Daoxuan, xviii

See also Extensive Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism

Dawang, 126

Dawei, 67

Dayuezhi (Central Asia), 25 Dazhidulun, 80, 302n228 Deer Park (Mṛgadāva), 284 Devadatta, 219

Dharma, xv, 4, 76, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89,

116, 120, 122, 176, 182, 188, 206,

250, 284, 286

Great, 3, 175, 275, 281, 282

Semblance, 3

See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; Buddhist teaching; Dharma- nature

dharmakāya, 57, 58, 65, 104–105, 111,

116, 119, 147, 323

Dharma King. See Buddha

Dharma-nature, 118, 232, 236, 240, 242,

243, 244

dharmas, 244

Diamond Sutra (Vajracchedikāprajñā- pāramitā-sūtra; Jingang borejing), 263

Dian region, 62

Ding, 60

Ding, Prince, 34, 278

Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy (Baiheilun):

He Chengtian’s critique/responses, 100–101, 107–115, 123

Zong Bing’s responses, 101–107, 115–122

See also Huilin

Discourse on Health Care (Yangsheng- lun), 135

See also Zhongsan

Discourse on Regeneration (Gengsheng- lun), 161–162

Luo Junzhang’s response to Sun Sheng, 163

Sun Changsha’s letter to Luo Jun- zhang, 162–163

See also Luo Junzhang

Discourse on the Clariﬁcation of Reward and Retribution (Ming Baoyinglun) 196–202

See also Huiyuan

Discourse on the Elucidation of Delusions

(Lihuolun), 5–36

See also Mouzi Bo

Discourse on the Equality of Good (Jun- shanlun). See Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy

Discourse on the Five Kinds of Perver- sions, 207

Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life (Daxinglun), 125–127

He’s responses to Yan Yanzhi, 129–132, 138–144

Yan Yanzhi’s expiations of, 127–128, 132–137, 144–160

See also He Chengtian

Discourse on the Immortality of the Spirit (Shen bumielun), 164–170 See also Zheng Daozi

Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese (Yi xialun), 221, 318n477 Huitong’s disputation of, 273–282 Ming Zhengjun’s response, 221–229 Shi Shengmin’s response, 282–288

See also Discourse on the Western Tribe and China

Xie Zhenzhi’s response, 245–255

Zhu Guangzhi’s doubts about, 265– 273

Zhu Zhaozhi’s critique, 257–265

See also doubts about Buddhism; Gu

Discourse on the Śramaṇa’s Robe Worn with a Bared Shoulder (Shamen tanfulun), 190–192

He Wuji’s crticism, 192–193 Huiyuan’s reeponse, 193–196 See also Huiyuan

Discourse on the Way and the Wise, 114

See also Sun Chuo [Xinggong]

Discourse on the Way to Reach the Ori- gin of the Two Teachings, 232, 234, 239–245

See also Discourse to Rectify [the Argument on] the Two Teachings Discourse on the Western Tribe and

China (Rong hualun), 282–288

See also Sengmin

Discourse on Three Periods of Reward and Retribution (Sanbaolun), 202– 206

See also Huiyuan

Discourse on Three Sects (Sanzonglun), 240, 243

See also Zhan Yong

Discourse on Why Śramaṇas Do Not Bow to the Sovereign (Shamen bujing wangzhelun) 174–190

See also Huiyuan; śramaṇas Discourse to Clarify Buddhism (Ming-

folun), 49–90, 107, 115, 122

See also Zong Bing

Discourse to Correct Faulty Accuusations [against Buddhism] (Zhengwulun), 37–48

Discourse to Elucidate the Refutation

(Shibolun), 297–221

See also Daoheng

Discourse to Explain the [Buddhist] Way

(Yudaolun), 91–100

See also Sun Chuo [Xinggong]

Discourse to Rectify [the Argument on] the Two Teachings (Zheng erjiaolun), 221–229

See also Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin of the Two Teachings; Ming Zhengjun

Di state, 19, 317n465

Divine Book (Shenshu), 30–31

See also Gan Ji

Divine Transcendents, 35, 279

See also Way of the Divine Transcen- dents

Dongfang Shuo, 68

Dongguan Library, 29

Dongye Bi, 34, 278, 294n89

Dong Zhuo, 39

Dou Ying, 75

Duangan Mu/Mu of Duangan, 24, 215, 316n442

Du Fang, 170

Duyou, 39

Du Yu, 310n347

E

eight kinds of gods and demigods, 220, 323

See also gods

eight difﬁculties, 215, 323

eight kinds of suffering, 105, 120, 323 See also aging; birth; death; ﬁve skan- dhas; illness

eight wise men, 80, 116–117, 211

emptiness, 27, 60, 61, 63, 103, 109, 118,

171, 249

and Daoist concepts of nothingness/ vacancy/void, 110, 236, 266

of emptiness (śūnyatā-śūnyatā), 286

and form, 116, 118, 236, 239, 240

three kinds of, 284 truth of, 305n272

enlightenment, 59, 63, 64, 189, 210, 219,

247, 264, 283

of Buddha, 99, 284

path/way to, 8, 98, 189, 191, 195, 222

right, perfect/supreme, 99, 253, 258,

261, 283

thirty-seven elements of, 36, 215, 295n103

See also nirvana

Extensive Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Guang Hongmingji), xviii, 321n518

See also Daoxuan

F

Fa, 44

See also Wu, King Fajing, xviii

Zhongjing mulu, xviii Falang, King, xviii

Family Law (Menlü), 230–231

See also Zhang Rong

fangshu (“square documents”), 144, 310n343

Fan Xu, 80, 302n215

Fei Changfang, xviii

ﬁlial piety, xvii, 12, 13, 14–15, 43,

54–55, 66, 85, 95, 96, 99, 178, 218,

225, 226, 267, 274, 277, 302n232

See also Canon of Filial Piety

First Emperor of the Qin dynasty, 102, 106, 109, 115, 118

See also Qin dynasty

ﬁve cardinal duties (wudian), 81, 323 ﬁve cardinal virtues, 10

Five Classics, 6, 9, 11, 13, 20

and Buddhist scriptures, 5, 28, 50,

224, 259–260

and Confucian teachings, 83, 118

See also Book of Changes; Book of History; Book of Odes; Book of Rites; Seven Classics; Six Classics; Spring and Autumn Annals

ﬁve desires (wuyu or wuqing), 282, 324

See also sexuality

ﬁve penalties (wuxing), 21, 112, 113,

215, 303n234

ﬁve powers, 30, 295n103

ﬁve primary elements, 131, 134, 164, 290n15

ﬁve realms of existence, 40, 53, 76, 285,

324

Five Sacred Mountains, 10–11, 54

See also Mount Heng; Mount Hua;

Mount Song; Mount Tai

ﬁve skandhas (pañcaskandha; wuyin or

wuyun), 251–252, 298–299n149, 324

Five Thearchs, 9, 41, 52, 56, 66, 68, 230,

232, 233, 237

books by, 67

See also Gaoxin; Gaoyang; Shun; Yao; Yellow Emperor

Five Thousand Words, 6, 26, 31, 253,

274, 280, 284

See also Daodejing

Foshuo Chaoriming sanmei jing, 299n173 Fotudeng, xvii, 69, 106

four devils (māras; simo), 3, 324

four fruits, 238, 245, 325

four gravest offenses ( pārājika; boluoyi), 101

four great elements, 147, 174, 196–200,

229

Four Holy Rivers, 54

four immeasurable minds, 175, 193, 250,

262, 270

four kinds of Buddhist disciples, 81 See also bhikṣu; Buddhist(s), clergy/ monks, lay/laypeople; śramaṇa

four sages, 57–58

See also Confucius; Duke of Zhou;

Shun; Yellow Emperor four states, 318n478

See also Cai state; Guan state: Shang state; Yan state

four supernatural animals, 125 dragon(s), 13, 35, 42, 55, 57, 58, 125,

145, 262, 283, 284

kylin, 12, 22–23, 125, 138, 228, 272,

279–280

phoenix(es), 11, 12, 35, 121, 125, 228,

272

turtle(s), 27–28, 35, 125, 293n70

Flying Emperor, 67

See also wheel-turning king

Foshuo Chaoriming sanmei jing,

299n173

Fozu lidai tongzai, 295n105 Futu. See Buddhism

Fuxi, 13, 52, 142, 146, 155, 251, 259

See also Three Augusts Fuyan, 78

Fu Yue, 77–78

Fu Yi, 25

G

Ganges River, 51, 61

Gan Ji, 30

Gaosengzhuan, 300nn188, 189; 302n216, 307n295

Gaoxin, Emperor, 66, 211

Gao Xing, 14, 98

Gaoyang, Emperor, 66, 211

Gao Yao, 21

Gaozong, Emperor, 77, 79

Gaozu, Emperor, 116, 123

Gan Bao, 69

Ge Gong, 65

Gelu, 75

Geng Gong, 70, 77

Gengsang Chu, 215

Ge Xuan, 227

go ( yi), 50, 101, 264

god(s), 8, 9, 21, 25, 100, 190, 205, 214,

220, 287

See also eight kinds of of gods and demigods

gong. See twelve classical Chinese musi- cal notes

Gong, Duke of, 14 Gonggong, 215

Gongli (Zhong Changtong), 135 Gongming Yi, 29, 276

Gongshu Ban, 21, 212

Gongsun Yang, 24

Gongyang, 69

See also Spring and Autumn Annals

Grand One, 259

grand submission to the natural course, 137, 143, 157, 309n330

Grand Terminus (taiji), 166, 251, 311n360

Grand Void, 51, 286, 287

Great Model (Hongfan), 15

Great Pervader, 100, 184, 188, 305n267 Great Sage. See Buddha; Sage

Great Way, 19, 20, 26, 28, 31, 50, 60, 66,

72, 83, 91, 181, 205, 210, 220, 226,

259, 263, 274, 278

See also Way, the

Guang Cheng, 67, 300n183 Guangdong province, 289n4

See also Jiaozhou Guangdu, 121

Guang Hongmingji. See Extensive Col- lection for the Propagation and Clar- iﬁcation of Buddhism

Guangling, 282

Guangxi province, 289n4

See also Jiaozhou

Guanshu Xian, 19, 21, 93, 136, 144, 160,

215, 316n438

Guan state, 284, 318n478 Guan Youan, 120

Guanzhong, 221

See also Shansi province Gu/Gusou, 19, 53, 72, 170, 188

Gu Huan, 245, 251, 257, 260, 265, 273, 282, 318n477, 320n505, 322n531

See also Discourse on the Non-Chinese and the Chinese

Guiji, 35, 279

Guiyang, 6

Guliang, 69

See also Spring and Autumn Annals

Gun, 97, 121

Gunyu, 215

Guo Ju, 120, 307n300

Guo Linzong, 65

Guo Pu, 68, 118

Guo state, 295n106 Guo Wenju, 80, 106

Guzhu, 98

H

Han dynasty/land/period/state, xv, xvi, 19, 25, 45, 49, 68, 70, 74, 77, 79, 83,

89, 116, 123, 131, 154, 222, 259, 283,

302n232

See also Later Han dynasty Han Fei, 27, 216, 217

Han Feizi:

“Five Kinds of Vermin,” 207, 216, 314n410

Heshi, 293n69, 316n450 Shoulin, 301n204 Wudu, 317n459

Han Xin, 93

Hanyuan, 93

Heavenly Master. See Buddha; Yellow Emperor

He Chengtian, 306n286, 314n414 Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life, 125–127

Response to Yan of Yongjia, 129–132 Second Response to Yan of Yongjia, 138–144

Elucidation of the Criticism on [the Discourse] on the Equality of Good, 107–115

Letter to Zong Bing, 100–101 Second Response to Zong Bing, 123

He Chong, 174

He Dian, 230

He of Hengyang. See He Chengtian He Yin, 230

hexagram(s), 74, 139, 146, 148 pi and tongren, 260, 320n501 sixty-four, 145

See also Book of Changes Hiraṇyavātī (Ajitavatī) River, 284 Houji, 54, 55, 83, 121, 302n221

Hu, 69

Hu Tu, 121

Huaiyin, Marquis of. See Han Xin Huandou, 215

Huangdi. See Yellow Emperor Huan Junshan, 170

Hui, King/Prince, 92, 301n205, 303n240 Huilin, 101, 102, 104, 106, 108, 113, 114,

117, 122

See also Discourse on Buddhist Lay- men and Clergy

Hui of Liuxia, 24, 73

Hui Shi, 103

Huitong, 273, 322n531

Huiyuan, xvi, xvii, 89–90, 106, 174, 190,

193, 196, 202

See also Discourse on the Clariﬁca- tion of Reward and Retribution; Dis- course on the Śramaṇa’s Robe Worn with a Bared Shoulder; Discourse on

Three Periods of Reward and Retri- bution; Discourse on Why Śramaṇas Do Not Bow to the Sovereign

Huizi (Hui Shi), 103

hunting, 24, 156, 194, 278, 308n310

appropriate season/time, 75–76, 94,

113, 126, 128, 140, 141, 150, 154,

194, 306nn288, 289

ﬁve offenses, 113, 126, 306n289 threefold use of game, 143, 309n339 and sanqu zhi li (“the politeness of providing a way of escape”), 193, 194, 303n245

See also animals

I

icchantikas, 70

illness, 173, 259, 303n237

of Confucius, 32

and Daoists/those of the Way of the immortals, 32, 259

of Mouzi, 5

treated with cold or heat, 209, 315n415

immortals/immortality, 30, 33, 35, 45,

118, 121, 180, 182, 208, 222, 226,

228, 238, 268, 278, 279

abstention from eating grain, 5, 31

books/texts, 5, 30–31

eight immortals, 30

four immortals of Mount Gushi, 67 and illness, 32, 259

of the spirit, 53–54, 55, 56, 57, 79, 88,

106, 112, 115, 122, 165–166, 183

India, xvi, 81, 121

Buddha’s origins in, 7–8, 25, 39, 80–81 identiﬁed as:

central kingdom, 8, 252, 275, 284

foreign/barbarian land, 39, 80, 118,

158, 246

Shendu, 118

India, identiﬁed as (continued):

Tianzhu, 68, 118

western land, 147, 282, 284

Zhugan, 37

Laozi’s travels in, 221, 284, 285

Inner Section of the Mysterious and Sublime (Xuanmiao Neipan), 222

Invisible One. See Buddha

J

Ji. See Lu, Duke of, 294n94 Jianchu Temple, 1

Jiandi, 302n220 Jiang Yuan, 302n221 Jiangzuo, 69

Jiankang, 114

Jiantuole, 80, 106, 106, 114, 302n216

Jiao, 148

Jiao Shen (Zhongyang), 135 Jiaozhi, 5

Jiaozhou, 5, 289n4 Jia Sheng/Jia Yi, 110 Ji clan/family, 35, 215

Ji county, 118 Ji, Duke of, 57

See also Duke of Zhou Jie, King, 34, 55, 56

cruelty/tyranny of, 39, 46, 55, 271

Jie Ni, 213

Jie state, 75

Jie Yu, 27

Ji Gang. See Zhongsan Ji Kang, 54, 144

Jili, 20

Ji Lu, 65

Jin dynasty/period/state, xv, xvii, 14, 15,

29, 30, 38, 49, 69, 74, 75, 83, 92, 121,

174, 189, 207, 222, 257, 294n83,

302n231, 303n240

Eastern, xv, xvi, xvii, 80 Western, xvi, 80

Jingang borejing. See Diamond Sutra

Jing Ke, 102, 109

Jing, Lord, 172

Jing River, 208, 251

Jingzhou, 5

Jinji, 69

Jin, Marquis of, 295n106 Jin Ridi, 116, 153

Jinyangqiu, 69

See also Sun Sheng Jiujiang, 70, 77

Jīvaka, 80, 106, 114

Ji, Viscount of, 15

Jizha, 34, 54, 55, 73, 141, 152

as an exemplary sage, 130

ranking of, 134, 139, 146, 147, 148

Juanzi, 45

Jue. See Buddha

Ju Liang, 208, 314n412

K

Kabuda-kātyāyana, 289n1 Kaiyang Gate, 25 Kālodāyin Udāyin, 289n1

See also bhikṣu(s), six evil Kao Shu, 97

Khotan, 34

Kimura Eiichi, 312n388 King Aśoka Temple Koguryo, 285

Kong Anguo, 66

Kong Zhigui, 230

Kong Zhongzhi, 230

Kuang, 29, 33, 34, 252, 294n83

Kuang region, 121, 307n303 Kumāra Guangjing. See Confucius

L

Lao Dan. See Laozi

Laozi, 22, 52, 64, 65, 68, 80, 101, 108,

170, 192–193, 215, 222, 223, 227,

236, 237, 240, 241, 274, 284

and Buddha/Śakyamuni, 37, 68, 242,

244, 246, 272, 283, 284

and abstention from grain, 31, 279

and Confucius, 12, 64–65, 68, 229,

253, 257, 260, 274

and existence and nonexistence, 237, 240, 243

identiﬁed as Mahākāśyapa, 274, 284, 322n544

in India, 221, 284–285 life span of, 170 physical features of, 13

quoted, 6, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 23–24,

25, 26, 29, 32, 35, 45, 215, 226, 237,

243, 248, 259, 275, 279, 280, 281

teaching/way of, 31, 52, 108, 178, 223,

227, 229, 231, 235, 237, 240, 243–244,

246, 249, 257, 272, 280, 287

and the undeﬁned and complete, 149–150

views of the body, 17, 32, 223, 281, 293n78

and the void/nothingness, 50, 244, 286

and wuwei, 16, 64, 215

See also Daodejing; Five Thousand Words; Laozi Daodejing

Laozi Daodejing, xvi, 28, 31, 36, 78, 91,

147, 174, 222, 303n233

and interpretation of Buddhist scrip- tures, xvii

See also Daodejing; Five Thousand Words

Laozi daquan pusajing, 321n518

Laozi xishengjing, 295n105

Later Han dynasty, 5, 39, 49, 69, 70, 77,

135

Legalists, 83

See also nine schools

Li, 150, 192, 240, 251, 257, 272

See also Laozi

Liang dynasty/state, xv, 1, 14, 19, 98, 293n67, 301n205

Lidai sanbaoji, xviii

See also Fei Changfang

Lieyizhuan, 303n238

See also Cao Pi

Liezi, 290n12, 296n114

life span/longevity, 30, 44, 45, 55, 74,

100, 103, 151, 171, 222, 226, 234, 249

and Daoist belief/practice, 32, 246,

249, 280, 283

Liji. See Book of Rites

Li, King, 255, 293n69

Ling, Emperor, 5

Lingling, 6

Ling Zhe, 22, 93

Liu Boshi, 172 Liudujijing, 300n194 Liuli, King, 76

Liu Shao, 312n389 Liu Yan, 6

Liu You, 45

Liuxia, 24, 73

Liu Xiang, 69, 117

Liuzi county, 69

Li Zhu, 63, 252

Lotus Sutra (Fahuajing), 72, 253, 298n157

Loutanjing, 39, 295n111

Luan Da, 283

Lu Cheng, 170 Lunyu. See Analects Lüoan, 317n458

Luo Junzhang, 161, 162

Luo River, 19, 57, 118, 216

Luoyang, 25, 44

Lu state, 14, 19, 21, 24, 29, 34, 35, 51,

70, 77, 83, 212, 215, 272–273, 276,

278, 294n94

Duke of. See Ji

Lu Zhonglian, 213

Lü Shang, 12, 22, 33, 143, 290n14, 292n45

M

Mafu, Lord. See Zhao Kuo Mahākāśyapa, 274, 284

Mahayana, 66, 122

Ma Jun, 213

Mañjuśrī, 153, 198

Man state, 51

Maskarī-gośālīputra, 289n1 Māyā (Qingmiao), 7, 221–222

medicine(s), 12, 32, 64, 140, 151, 213, 249

and control of the vapor of the body, 109, 315n415

one of the four requisites, 189 refusal of, 43–44, 64, 76–77

meditation/meditative, 222, 254 practiced by the Buddha, 98–99

Mencius, 19, 33, 65, 95 appreciation of King Xuan of Qi, 75–76

driving off Yang Zhu and Mo Di, 5, 33, 289n5

ridicule of Chen Xiang’s studies with Xu Xing, 18–19

on the rule of right, 24

on the trees of Mount Niu, 308n319 Meng Gongchuo, 15

Meng Ke. See Mencius Mengsun, 110

merit(s)/meritorious acts/deeds, 21, 22,

47, 81, 92, 94, 114, 120, 129,

131–132, 133, 136, 137, 149, 151,

155, 168, 169, 178, 183, 188, 195,

201, 204, 209, 210, 214, 217, 218,

223, 226, 228, 229, 240, 263, 269,

274, 277

of Taibo, 97

of Vimalakīrti, 282

See also reward and retribution Merupradīparāja:

lion seat of, 108, 119

and transformation of Vimalakīrti’s room, 72, 298n158

Miaofa lianhuajing, 301n198, 319n490 Middle Kingdom. See China

Milky Way, 169, 311n365 Ming, Emperor, 49, 69

Xianjie mausoleum, 25

Mingling, 101, 305n270

Ming Zhengjun, 221

See also Discourse to Rectify [the Argument on] the Two Teachings

Min Ziqian, 21

mirror, 276

and Buddha/Buddhism, 3, 252 metaphor of mirror and dust, 60–61 and the three transcendental knowl- edges, 261

Mo Di, 5, 33, 289n5

Mohism/Mohist(s), 15, 107, 230, 232,

233, 238

See also nine schools Mount Ao, 29

Mount Chu, 293n69 Mount Dai, 4, 28, 66

Mount Gushi, 67 Mount Gu Ye, 67 Mount Heng, 31

Mount Hua, 30–31

Mount Ji, 216

Mount Jing, 255

Mount Juci, 67

Mount Kongtong, 66

Mount Kunlun, 30, 87, 121

Mount Li, 22

Mount Longmen, 141, 152

Mount Lu, 89

Mount Meng, 51, 83

Mount Ming, 178, 311n373 Mount Niu, 130, 133

Mount Shang, 79, 216

Mount Shouyang, 15, 24, 36, 98, 212

Mount Song, 22, 28, 30

Mount Sumeru (Xumishan), 3, 49, 70,

77, 247, 300n194

Mount Tai, 22, 30, 34, 35, 52, 83, 112,

250, 278

Mount Weilei, 215

Mount Yu, 121

Mount Yunhe, 141, 152

Mouzi Bo, 5–36

See also Discourse on the Elucidation of Delusions

Mu, King (Chu state), 82, 169, 261

See also Shangchen

Mu, Prince (Qi state), 303n240 Mucalinda, King, 220

music, 3, 14, 27, 29, 34, 45, 72, 127,

141, 143, 152, 176, 230, 271, 294n94

and Chinese ceremonies/rites, 108, 121, 259, 260, 317n465

and the deaf man and the braying of a donkey, 273–274

eight kinds of musical sounds, 125, 306n285

ﬁve notes of traditional Chinse music, 23–24, 29, 292n55, 308n316

played for a cow, 29, 276

See also twelve classical Chinese musical notes

musical composition(s), 34

Beili, 45

Cao, 29, 276

Dashao, 91

Daxia, 91

Dazhang, 27

songs, 27, 57, 89

“Cloud Gate,” 49

“Rushes” (Xingwei), 126, 308n311

“Yellow Flowers,” 49

Xianchi, 27

Xiaoshao, 27

musical instruments, 6, 27, 10, 125, 143,

271, 296n117, 306n285

Chinese zither (qin), 6, 29, 33, 42,

127, 141, 152, 296n117

drums, 18, 38, 42, 271, 296n117

N

Nanda, 289n1

See also bhikṣu(s), six evil Nanjun, 196

Nature, 125, 143, 188, 199

law of, 128, 159, 177, 178, 179, 180,

181, 184, 186, 187, 191, 192, 193,

195, 196, 197, 198, 205, 228, 229,

232, 235, 244, 246, 272, 286

New Discourse on Body and Spirit,

170–174

See also Huan Junshan Nie Zheng, 14

nine schools, 80, 107, 108

Ning Qi, 20

Ning Wuzi, 26

Nirgrantha-jñātiputra, 289n1

nirvana, 37, 65, 104, 111, 116, 121, 213,

279, 295n103

of Buddha/Śākyamuni, 8, 37, 249, 254 equated with Daoist transcendence, 226, 246, 278

and the spirit/Way, 61, 121, 180, 226,

278

as state of complete extinction/no change/nonexistence, 116, 179, 223 as wuwei, 64, 290n8

Nominalists, 83

See also nine schools

non-beginning, 50–51, 169, 223

as profound, 62, 169

non-Buddhism/non-Buddhist(s), xvi, xvii, 51, 71, 95, 118, 153, 176, 247

six non-Buddhist masters, 289n1 Northern Wei dynasty, xvi

See also Wei dynasty numinous beings, 73, 83, 88, 122,

148–149, 166, 170, 186, 228

Buddha/Śākyamuni as, 283–284

three, 113, 306n290

See also sentient beings; spirits numinous powers, 57, 58, 59

and numinous mushrooms, 250, 254

O

One, the, 84, 98, 179, 222, 226, 233, 236,

238, 239, 254, 297n137, 302n222

preservation of, 18, 32

and the spirit/Way, 54, 178, 297n141 One of Transcendent Wisdom, 269

See also Buddha

P

Paekche, 285

Panwu, 66

Pengsheng, 92

Pengzu, 45, 222

Pi, 35, 294nn84, 95

Ping, Lord, 294n83 Prabhūtaratna, 72

precepts, 9, 20, 42, 46, 47, 71, 76, 81, 88,

111, 122, 188, 208, 258, 264

nonobservance/violations of, xvi, 31 ﬁve, 9, 36, 40, 46, 105, 112, 113, 215

two hundred and ﬁfty, 9

Poyelun, 321n518

Pu, 113, 121, 308n309

Puban of Hedong, 69 Purnavasu, 289n1

See also bhikṣu(s), six evil

Qi. See Houji Qiang, 19, 285

Qi Bo, 32

Qiji, 11

Qi Liang, wife of, 102, 109

Qin dynasty/state, 19, 30, 70, 73, 75, 77,

102, 118, 143, 158, 216, 217, 222,

303nn237, 240

First Emperor of, 106, 109, 115, 118

Qingjing faxingjing (Sutra of Pure Dharma Acts), 321n518, 322n544

Qingliang Tower, 25

Qin Jing, 25

Qi state, 13, 19, 20, 30, 34, 69, 75, 92,

172, 272, 278, 294n94, 306n279

Marquis of, 103, 110, 305n274

Qiu, 50

Qiushui, 305n267

Qu Boyu, 132, 293n64, 308n324

Queen Mother of the West, 118 Que Gonze, 80, 106

R

Rāhula, 261, 271

Ran Boniu, 36, 41, 65, 205, 208, 314n410

illness of, 53, 82, 121, 169, 211

Ran Qiu, 62, 65, 211, 268, 299n167, in

Ratnaśikhi, 108, 119

rebirth, 88, 126

in Heaven, 105, 112, 154, 176

in the Western Paradise, 100

See also birth and death; transmigration receptivity, 120, 181, 252

Renwuzhi, 312n389

See also Liu Shao

reward and retribution, 22, 58, 63, 71,

74, 78, 82, 92, 93, 105, 129, 131,

136–137, 142, 153, 154, 155, 157,

159, 176, 197, 198–202, 217

doctrine/law of, 58, 141, 153, 176

and rebirth/transmigration, 76, 79, 81,

82, 108, 111–112, 117, 118, 176, 188,

201, 202

three periods of, xvii, 202–206

See also merit(s), and demerit(s) Rites of Zhou (Zhouli), 141, 152 Rong Qiqi, 41, 296n114

Rong state, 285

Ruhuan sanmei jing, 313n403 Rui state, 238, 244, 245

S

Sage, 79, 155, 210, 221, 224, 226, 247,

250, 264, 286, 287, 288

See also Buddha

sage king(s), 3, 19, 75, 92, 108, 147, 183,

219, 311n368

Śakra-devendra, 220

Śākya clan, 76

Śākyamuni, 72, 101, 106, 113, 122, 153,

154, 156, 183, 194, 223, 234, 236,

239, 247, 261, 263, 283, 289n1,

298n157

passing/nirvana of, 80, 249

and the Duke of Zhou, 153, 158, 192

and Laozi, 242, 244, 251, 253, 257,

272

teaching of, 110, 119, 147, 158, 170,

177, 193, 236, 237, 241, 243

See also Buddha Samarkand, 264

Samantabhadra, 284

Sanfen, 52

Sañjayī-vairatīputra, 289n1 Sanmiao, 215

Scripture of the Yellow Court (Huangting- jing), 253

Scripture on Laozi who Ediﬁed the Bar- barians (Laozi huahujing), 284

Sengmin, 282

See also Discourse on the Western Tribe and China

Sengyou, xv–xvi, xviii, 4

on criticisms and questions between Zhou and Zhang, 245

See also Collection for the Propaga- tion and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism; Collection of Records Derived from the Tripiṭaka

sentient beings, 85, 87, 88, 96, 111, 126,

127–128, 130–131, 134, 149, 165,

166, 201, 218, 276

and Buddha/Buddhism, 8, 19, 43, 63,

72, 73, 91, 111, 120, 137, 147, 157,

188, 189, 217, 224, 249, 260, 285,

286, 287

killing/harming of, 74, 156

and spirit(s), 52, 58, 62, 69, 72, 84

sense(s), 63, 83, 112, 174, 182, 236, 297n149

organs, 23, 165

See also six feelings

Sequel Scripture of No Spirit (Wuling xiajing), 41–42, 296n115

Seven Classics, 10, 12, 13, 21

See also Analects; Book of Changes; Book of History; Book of Music; Book of Odes; Book of Rites; Five Classics

seven treasures, 102, 109, 247, 298n157

sexuality, 56, 113, 287

Shan, 230, 231

Shanci, 230, 231, 318n466

See also Zhou Yong Shandong provice, 69

Shangchen, 82, 169, 261, 320n503

See also Mu, King, Prince

Shang dynasty, 24, 83, 117, 291n28, 309n337, 318n478

See also Yin dynasty Shangjun/Shang Yang, 53, 216, 217

Shangqing (Supreme Purity) school, 253 Shangshu. See Book of History Shanhaijing, 68, 300n186, 307n304

Beishanjing, 289n3

Nanshanjing, 307n304

See also Book of Mountains and Seas

Shan state, 230

Shanxi province, 121–122

Shaozi, 230–231

Sha River, 116

Shaozheng Mao, 93 Shendu. See India Shenjian, 216

See also Xun Yue Shen Nong, 32, 43, 151

writing of, 52, 135, 140

See also Three Augusts Shen Sheng, 46, 121

Shensi province. See Guanzhong Shi Chong, 46

Shiji, 67

Shijing, 307n297, 308nn311, 314, 315; 310n353, 318n478

See also Book of Odes

Shi Le, 69

Shi Que, 97

Shi Yi, 118

Shuangjin family, 103, 305n274

Shujing, 316nn438,439; 320n509, 322n535

See also Book of History

Shun, Emperor, 3, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 20,

22, 22, 27, 42, 53, 67, 72, 215, 216,

225

birth of, 39, 50–51, 170

and Gu (father), 19, 51, 72, 170, 188

lifespan of, 32, 35, 67

music composed by, 27, 91 and Shangjun (son), 53 unusual eyes of, 13, 53

tomb in Cangwu, 35, 279 amd Yu, 298n153

See also Five Thearchs; Yao and Shun; Yu Shun

Shuqi. See Boyi and Shuqi Shusun Qiaoru, 21

Si, 121, 131

See also Zigong

Sima Qian, 66, 67, 91, 156

See also Shiji; Sun Qiao; Zichang Sima Zhongda. See Xuan, Emperor Si River, 65, 118

six arts, 21, 35

Six Classics, 52, 106, 117, 215

See also Book of Changes; Book of History; Book of Music; Book of Odes; Book of Rites; Five Classics;

Spring and Autumn Annals

six extreme evils/sufferings, 88, 211, 315n422

six feelings, 71, 78

See also sense(s), organs six masters, 3, 289n1

six pāramitās, 63, 73, 250, 265 six puriﬁcation days, 9

six realms of existence, 204 six relations, 178, 253

six sense organs, 23

six supernatural powers, 99

Song dynasty/state, 14, 27, 30, 38, 83,

98, 101

Song Jun, 70, 77

Song Yu, 27

Soushenji, 307n300

spirit(s), xv, 16–18, 31, 41, 42, 50–62,

65–67, 69, 71–74, 78, 80, 83–88, 99,

101, 105, 108, 111, 114, 117, 119, 121,

122, 128, 131, 136, 139, 140, 141, 149,

157, 152, 162, 164–173, 180, 184–188,

195, 196, 198–200, 203, 205–207, 214,

215, 217, 228, 231, 235, 236, 241, 242,

249, 259, 261, 297n141, 302n226,

307n291, 312n381, 313n404 evil, 42, 131, 136, 275

exquisite/extraordinary, 55, 119, 120,

122, 126, 128, 131, 134, 136, 139,

142, 149, 152, 154, 156

of Heaven, 141, 152

immortal/imperishable, 53–54, 55, 56,

73, 78, 79, 83, 84, 87, 88, 106, 112,

115, 122, 165, 166, 183

lofty, 53, 73, 153, 208, 315n414

essence/foundation/origin/source, 66,

76, 84, 87, 89, 161, 164, 180, 228

perishing, xvii, 17, 49, 79, 84, 106,

112, 126, 164

principle of, 61, 65, 72, 166

subtle, 61, 85, 102, 108, 119, 164, 165

and transmigration, xv, 120, 187, 204

vapor, 55, 172

vigorous, 52, 53, 54, 68, 73, 74, 82,

84, 88, 89, 156

wandering, 98, 131, 136

See also Way of the Spirit spiritual:

darkness, 142, 155, 199, 221, 249

function(s), 70, 72, 76, 232, 236

intelligence, 52, 60, 62, 67, 78, 83, 95,

101, 108, 125, 126, 134, 164, 166,

249, 282

spiritual being(s), 8, 17, 18, 41, 84, 108,

140–141, 152, 282

Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu), 11, 51, 69

See also Five Classics

Spring and Autumn with Commentary.

See Chunqiu Zuoshizhuan śramaṇas, xvi, 24, 26, 34, 44, 45, 71,

154, 181, 189, 191, 195, 196, 206,

207, 213–219, 277, 287

behavior/conduct/deportment of, 9, 15,

16, 21, 23, 25, 188, 208, 209, 211,

212, 213, 214

deference toward sovereigns, 174, 180

and ﬁlial piety, 14, 96

and ﬁve kinds of perversions, 207, 209–211, 216

and shaving hair and beards, 13, 14, 16, 78

and wearing robes, 190, 194

See also Buddhist(s), clergy/monk(s); four kinds of Buddhist disciples

Subhadra, 220

Sudāna, Prince, 19–20

Śuddhodana, King, 7

Sui, Marquis of, 15, 19, 291n22

Suiren, 166

Sui state, 62

Sun Changsha, 162

Sun Chuo [Xinggong], 80, 91, 114, 116–

117

See also Discourse on the Way and the Wise; Discourse to Explain the [Buddhist] Way

Sun En, 281–282

Sun, Lord, 137

See also Xunzi

Sun Qiao, 130, 134, 141, 147, 152, 156

See also Sima Qian; Zichang Sun Sheng, 69, 162, 163

Supreme Thearch, 172

Su Qin, 24

sutra(s), 9, 25, 37, 71, 79, 179, 182, 254, 295n105, 298n157, 300n195,

302n214, 317n452

Sutra of Forty-two Chapters (Sichier- zhang), 25

sword(s), 9, 197

Moye, 109, 306n281

parable of carving a mark on a boat after dropping a sword in the water, 225, 270, 277, 317n458, 319n484

T

Taibo, 14, 97, 275, 286

Taigong Wang Lü Shang, 12, 22, 33,

143, 290n14, 292n45

Taiping yulan, 310n342

Taishō canon/Taishō shinshū daizōkyō,

xv, xviii, 295n111, 300n195, 302n214 Taixue National University, 29

Taizi ruiying benqi jing, xviii, 297n138, 312n379, 317nn451, 454; 318n474,

322n545

Taizi Xudanajing (Jinapatra-arthasiddhi- sūtra), 291n39

Tang, Emperor, 21, 51, 142, 155, 126, 308n313

See also Yao, Emperor

Tang, King (Yin dynasty), 20, 34, 44, 46,

56, 93, 95, 190

See also Three Augusts Tao Qian, 45–46

Tao Zhugong, 213

Tathāgata, 3, 66, 68, 76, 88, 182, 192, 253,

284, 285

See also Buddha

Ten Celestial Stems, 13, 290n15 Teng, Lord, 158

Teng state, 15

Teng Xiu 144, 310n342

ten wholesome acts, 40, 104, 295n112

Three Ancient Books, 66 Three Augusts, 56, 235

See also Tang, King; Wu, King; Yu,

King

three dynasties, 68, 92, 93, 190

See also Xin; Yin; Zhou

three kinds of acts (of body, speech, and mind), 189, 203

three numinous beings, 113, 306n290 three periods of existence, xv, xvii, 40,

149, 168, 222, 223

three powers, 125, 127, 129, 130, 138,

139, 142, 145–148, 155, 157, 246,

251, 309n337

three realms of existence, 43, 59, 82, 84,

99, 179, 221, 249

three revered ones, 218, 316n448

See also Buddha, Dharma, Sangha;

Three Treasures

three sovereigns, 126, 128

See also Dawang, Wang Ji; Wen Wang three teachings, 65–66, 231, 259

See also Buddhism; Confucianism;

Daoism

three transcendental knowledges, 99, 161, 247, 261

Three Treasures, xv, 4, 316n448 See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; three revered ones

Tian Fen, 74–75

Tian Kaizhi, 320n494 Tianzhu, 68, 118

See also India Tiying, 89, 302n232

transmigration, 53, 57, 85, 86, 149, 162,

167, 168, 169, 178, 179, 180, 186,

199, 201, 247

See also birth and death; rebirth Tong prefecture, 170

triple truths, 305nn271, 272

truth of existence (youdi), 102–103 truth of nonexistence (wudi), 103

Turfan, 116

twelve kinds of scriptures, 8, 100 twelve notes of classical Chinese music,

289n7, 290n10, 319n479

beilü, 45, 127, 130, 308n316

gong, 10, 24, 127, 130, 220, 246, 290n10, 308n316

huangzhong, 127, 248, 289n7, 308n316, 318n479

jue, 24, 27, 290n10, 308n316

qingjue, 29, 276

shang, 10, 24, 27, 220, 246, 290n10, 308n316

six yang lü notes, 127, 289n7, 308nn316, 317

six yin lü notes, 127, 289n7, 308nn316, 317

yu, 24, 290n10, 308n316

zhonglü, 289n7

zhi, 24, 290n10, 308n316

See also music/musical compositions

U

Upananda, 289n1

See also bhikṣu(s), six evil

V

Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra. See Diamond Sutra

vapor(s), 31, 44, 55, 96, 113, 134, 147,

148, 166, 171, 172, 184–185, 187,

191, 197, 204, 228, 307n292

admonishing/controlling, 102, 109, 315n415

coarse, 184, 186

common, 96, 149

concentrating, 233, 238, 271

exquisite, 184, 186

of harmony, 135, 140, 204

pestilential/vicious, 39, 171

primordial, 227, 317n464

pure, 44, 112, 116, 125

yin and yang, xvii, 149, 173, 184, 185,

186, 287

Vietnam. See Jiaozhi

Vimalakīrti, 72, 77, 272, 282, 298n158

Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra, 298n158, 299n159, 300nn194, 195

See also Foshuo Weimojiejing

Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakuṭa), 64, 284

waiting by a stump, metaphor of, 225, 250, 277, 319n484

Wang Bi, 240

Wang Ji, 126

Wang Ling, 75

Wang Mang, 106

Wang Qiao, 30

Wang Xiang, 120, 307n300 Wangziqiao, 45, 52, 208

Wang Zun, 25

Warring States period, 79, 306n279 Way, the, xv, 3, 4, 8, 9–10, 12, 14, 15,

17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26–27, 28, 29,

32, 37, 42, 52, 56, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68,

71–72, 78, 84, 85, 87, 89, 91, 98, 104,

105, 109, 114, 118, 126, 128, 131,

135, 143, 151, 154, 156, 159, 167,

172, 174, 175, 178, 179, 185, 186,

198, 204, 206, 208, 209, 211, 213,

214, 215, 219, 224, 225, 226, 228,

229, 235, 237, 240, 242, 243, 246,

248, 249, 252, 253, 254, 258, 259,

263, 267, 268, 275, 276, 277, 278,

283, 297n148, 317n455, 320n505

fundamental/profound/true, 82, 241,

247

highest, 18, 25, 29, 91

subtle, 49, 269, 270, 280

ultimate, 67, 180, 181, 182, 183, 210,

229, 2130, 268, 281

See also Great Way; Way, Buddhist Way, Buddhist/of the Buddha, Tathāgata,

6, 9–10, 12, 17, 32, 34, 46, 47, 51, 63,

64, 65, 66, 68, 72, 73, 76, 80, 81, 84,

89, 96, 116, 121, 122, 129, 178, 183,

188, 192, 193, 197–198, 202, 211,

215, 218, 220, 222, 223, 241, 250,

267, 270, 277, 282, 284, 287

Way of Heaven, 8, 10, 17, 26, 51, 74, 75,

81, 87, 125, 131, 230, 233, 275–276,

282

See also Daoism

Way of the Celestial Master, xvii

Way of the Divine Transcendents/Immor- tals, 31, 32, 34, 265, 283

See also Daoism

Way of the Five Pecks of Grain, xvii, 281

See also Daoism

Way of the Spirit, 77, 78,83, 85, 169,

181, 186, 223, 230, 231

See also Daoism Wei, Duke, 320n494

Wei dynasty/period/state, xv, 15, 19, 24,

27, 74, 75, 83, 97, 132, 144, 215, 222,

246, 309n324, 316n442

See also Northern Wei dynasty Wei Ke, 92, 303n237

Wei, King, 306n279

Wei Linggong, 307n303

Weimojie suoshuojing, 298n158, 321n516

Weimojing xuanshu, 321n518 Wei River, 208, 251 Weisheng Gao, 33, 294n86 Wen, Emperor:

of the Han dynasty, 89 of the Song dynasty, 101 of the Wei dynasty, 144

Wen, King, 13, 24, 35, 44, 54–55, 146,

238, 244, 290n14, 293n69, 318n473

Boyi and Shuqi compared with, 24 musical compositions of, 34

Wen, Marquis, 302n231 Wenming. See Yu, King Wen Wang, 126 Wenxuan, 293n67 Wenzi, 186

Western Jin dynasty, xvi, 80 Western Paradise, 100

wheel-turning king, 67, 182–183, 214,

251

Wonderful Scripture of the Truth of the Numinous Jewel (Lingbao miaozhen- jing), 253

World-honored One, 191

See also Buddha Wu Cheng, 12

See also Zhou, Duke of Wu Ding, Emperor, 57

Wu, Emperor, xvi, 18, 57, 68, 225

Wu, King, 15, 24, 32, 34, 35, 44, 56, 95,

190, 211, 293n69, 307n301

See also Three Augusts

Wuliang xiajing, 296n115

Wu state, 34, 35, 54, 55, 130, 141, 152,

286, 294n95

wuwei (“non-action”):

and Buddhism/Buddhist teachings, 8, 9, 15, 16, 20–21, 27, 28–29, 31, 32,

40, 254, 275, 290n8

and Laozi/Five Thousand Words, 16, 215, 228, 253

and diminishing/reducing day by day, 32, 57, 105, 112, 313n399

and nirvana, 37, 64, 290n8

Wu-Yue region, 14

Wuzhai, 67

Wuzhong, 114 Wuzhuang, 314n412 Wuzi Xu, 35, 294n95

X

Xia dynasty/state, 15, 34, 68, 92, 190, 309n337

Xiang, 72

See also Guan Xian Xiang Ji, 70, 77, 122

cruelty/tyranny of, 70, 73–74, 300n190

Xiang, King, 27

Xiang, Lord, 193 Xiangmai, 295n105 Xiang, Prince, 92

Xiang Tuo, 47

Xiang Wu, 116

Xiang Xiu, 161

Xiaojing, 255, 290n16, 291nn32, 40; 294n93, 296n113, 304nn251, 252,

253, 255; 311n372

See also Canon of Filial Piety

Xiaoming, Emperor, 25

Xi Ba, 75

Xie, 83, 302n220

Xie Zhengzhi, 245, 251, 260, 265

Xi Fuji, 22

Xi, Lord, 193 Xi Shi, 321n517

Xuan, Emperor, 74, 75, 132 and Bing Ji, 74, 301n202

Xuan, Lord, 158

Xuan, King, 75

Xuan Meng, 22, 93

See also Zhao Dun Xuanyuan, 51, 66, 121

See also Yellow Emperor Xue state, 15

Xunyue, 216

See also Shenjian

Xunzi, 136, 141, 153

See also Sun, Lord Xu state, 193

Xu Xing, 18, 19

Xu You, 15, 16, 22, 24, 67, 208

Xuzhou, 45

Y

Yandi, 296n124 Yangdu, 1

Yang, Emperor, 225

Yang Huo, 30

Yang, Marquis, 70, 77

Yang Wangsun, 65

Yang Zhu, 5, 33, 289n5

Yangzi River, 286

Yan Hui/Yan Yuan. 41, 59, 65, 130, 134,

139, 146, 147, 148, 205, 208, 228,

284

and Dongye Bi, 34, 278

untimely death, 36, 44, 47, 82, 121,

169, 211, 279, 315n422

Yan Junping, 52, 65, 213

Yan of Yongjia/Yan Yanzhi, 127–129, 138

Yan state, 228, 318n478

Yan Yannian, 74, 75, 105, 111 Yan Ying, 172, 305n274

Yan Yuan. See Yanzi Yanzi, 44, 59, 60, 103

See also Yan Hui/Yan Yuan Yanzi of Qi state. See Yan Ying Yaochi, 118

Yao, Emperor, 3, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 20,

42, 44, 49, 51, 66, 67, 72, 84, 95, 97,

143, 154, 155, 181, 182, 183, 198,

208, 211, 216, 225, 291n24

and the bush of luck-tea, 57 life span of, 32, 35, 249

son Danzhu, 21, 170, 188

virtuous nature of, 55, 56, 84, 91 See also Five Thearchs; Tang, Emperor

Yao Lüe, 69

Yao region, 62

Yecheng Temple, 273

Yellow Books (Huangshu), 280, 322n541 Yellow Emperor, 16, 43, 51, 57, 58, 66,

67, 186, 208, 291n24, 299n174,

314n412, 318n470

and acupuncture, 32

battle against Yandi, 296n124

Yellow Emperor (continued): and eating meat, 23

music composed by:

“Cloud Gate,” 49

Xianchi, 27

Sanfen, 52

teaching of, 231, 240

See also Five Thearchs; Three Augusts; Xuanyuan

Yellow Face. See Buddha Yellow River, 19, 21, 30, 57

Yi, 79

Yi Dun, 33

Yijing. See Book of Changes

yin and yang, 8, 13, 44, 52, 125, 139,

147, 149, 166, 184, 194, 251, 289n7,

290n12

musical notes, 127, 308n317 vapor(s), 149, 173, 184, 185, 186

See also Daoism

Yin dynasty, 15, 20, 34, 35, 44, 45, 47,

57, 68, 77, 92, 97, 100, 126, 190, 216,

225, 283, 291n28, 309n337, 320n507,

321n509

See also Shang dynasty

Ying (city), 27, 55, 105, 112, 312n373

Ying (king of Chu), 114 Ying Bu, 154, 310n354

Ying family, 217

Ying Jifu/Ying Zheng, 257 Ying River, 216

Yin, Prince, 34, 278

Yin Shou, 12

Yin Wenzi, 37, 39

Yin Xi, 65, 68

Yi River, 118

Yisang, 93

Yixi era, 207

Yi Yin, 20, 130, 134, 139, 143, 146, 147,

148

Yong gate, 25

Yongjia, 129, 138

Youling, 66

You Yu, 19, 116, 153

Yu (Jiang of Chu state), 123

See also Xiang Ji Yuan, 207

Yuan, Lord, 27

Yuan Xian, 16

Yuanxing era, 174, 189, 313n392 Yu Bing, General, 174

Yu Daosui, 80, 106, 117

Yu Dingguo, 301n202, 306n277 Yue Guang, 80

Yue state/region, 14, 160, 228, 230, 233,

252, 257, 286

Yuezheng Zi Chun, 95

Yu Falan, 80, 106, 114, 117

Yu family, 74, 131, 136, 306n277

Yu Gong, 105, 111, 306n277

Z

Zai Wo, 54, 65

Zai Yu, 121, 211

Zang Wen Zhong, 33, 294n86 Zeng Shen, 21, 36, 279 Zengyi Ahanjing, 301n207

See also Collection for the Propaga- tion and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism

Zengzi, 13

Ze Rong, 6, 45–46, 114

Zhang Heng, 213 Zhang Liang Zifang, 54 Zhang Ling, 227

Zhang Rong, 230–231, 234, 245

See also Family Law Zhang Wen Zhong, 294n86 Zhang Yi, 24

Zhao Dun, 22, 93

See also Meng; Xuan Meng

Zhao dynasty/family/state, 15, 38, 70,

73, 76, 77

Zhao, King, 102, 109

Zhao Kuo, 76, 78

See also Mafu, Lord Zhao Meng, 38 Zhaoming, Prince, 293n67 Zheng Daozi, 164

See also Discourse on the Immortality of the Spirit

Zheng Kangcheng, 65

Zhengshi era, 248

Zheng state, 27, 97, 130, 141, 152, 193,

280

Zhengyang, 135

See also Jiao Shen Zhi, 34, 46, 148, 271

Zhicheng Temple, 101

Zhi Daolin, 80, 106, 116, 117

Zhi Dun, xvi, 104 Zhifu, 67

Zhi Jian, 316n445 Zhong Changtong, 135

Zhong’er, 22

Zhong Gong, 211

Zhonghua, 39, 53, 188

See also Emperor Shun Zhongjing mulu, xviii Zhonglun, 80

Zhongsan, 135, 140

See also Ji Gang

Zhong You, 87, 121, 131, 205, 211, 268

See also Zilu

Zhou, Duke of, 12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 21, 32,

35, 43, 57, 58, 192, 223

and Confucius, 3, 77, 80, 88, 91, 94,

101, 106, 108, 112, 113, 114, 117,

118, 121, 142, 147, 155, 158, 164,

246, 285, 301n210

teachings/writings of, 49, 51, 93, 94,

95, 112, 114, 120, 153, 155,

169–170, 193, 215

and brothers Guanshu Xian and Caishu Du, 19, 21, 93, 316n439

and Emperor/King Wen, 44, 54, 55

and Emperor/King Wu, 18, 32, 307n301

equated with Buddha/Śākyamuni/ Tathāgata, 95, 153, 284, 285

reburial of, 35, 279

and Taigong Wang Lü Shang, 12, 33–34

Zhou dynasty/state, 13, 15, 20, 23, 30,

34, 57, 68, 92, 97, 100, 113, 117, 118,

136, 151, 155, 158, 190, 211, 215,

216, 225, 280, 284, 286, 303n234,

309n337, 319n494 Zhou, King, 34, 35, 56, 57

Beili composed by, 45 cruelty/tyranny of 39, 47, 320n507, 321n509

Zhouli. See Rites of Zhou Zhou Yafu, 154, 310n354 Zhouyi. See Book of Changes

Zhou Yong, 230, 239, 268, 318n466

criticism/responses to Zhang Rong’s

Family Law, 230, 239–245

See also Shanci Zhouxu, 97

Zhou Zhongzhi, 46

Zhuang, King/Lord, 22, 82, 97, 148, 261 Zhuangzhou. See Zhuangzi

Zhuangzi, 44, 50, 52, 62, 65, 66, 80, 101,

108, 118, 137, 141, 148, 152, 157,

178, 186, 215, 223, 227, 246, 284

Zhuangzi, xvi, 110, 118, 181, 182, 185,

217, 222, 251, 294n89, 303n233,

310n355

chapter on the “Great and Most Honored Master,” 186

chapter on “Nourishing the Lord of Life,” 187

and geyi, xvii, 65 Zhuan Sun, 225, 317n457

See also Zichang

Zhuanxu (Emperor Gaoyang), 66, 211

See also Five Thearchs Zhu Falan, 69

Zhu Fasheng, 106

Zhu Faxing, 80, 106 Zhu Fayan, xvii

Zhu Guangzhi, 265–273

Zhu River, 65, 118

Zhu Shixing (or Zixing, third century Chinese Buddhist leader), xvi

Zhu Zhaozhi, 257–258

Zichang, 130, 134, 139, 141, 146, 147,

148, 152, 156

and Confucius, 12, 225 and the Shiji, 67

See also Sima Qian; Sun Chao; Zhuan Sun

Zigong, 12, 54, 65, 87, 121, 131, 211

beard lost by, 121

Buddhist teaching received internally by, 65

and Prince Yin and Prince Ding, 34, 278

See also Si; Zisi

Zilu, 16, 87, 113, 114, 211, 268, 308n309

and Confucius, 18, 32, 87

death of, 36, 121

See also Zhong You Zishang, 211

See also Zixia Zisi, 65, 211

See also Zigong

Zixia, 23, 65, 118, 211, 315n423

See also Bu Shang; Zishang Zixing. See Zhu Shixing

Ziye. See Kuang Ziyou, 12

Zong Bing, 49, 297n149, 306n286, 315n415

response to He Chengtian/He of Hengyang, 100–106, 115–122

See also Discourse to Clarify Buddhism

Zou Yan, 72, 102, 109

Zuo Qiuming, 42, 121, 308n308, 309n331

See also Chunqiu Zuoshizhuan

BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series)

Abbreviations

Ch.: Chinese Skt.: Sanskrit Jp.: Japanese

Eng.: Published title

Title Taishō No.

Ch. Skt.	Chang ahan jing (長阿含經) Dīrghāgama	1
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Zhong ahan jing (中阿含經) Madhyamāgama The Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Discourses) (Volume I, 2013)	26
Ch.	Dasheng bensheng xindi guan jing (大乘本生心地觀經)	159
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Fo suoxing zan (佛所行讃) Buddhacarita Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha’s Acts (2009)	192
Ch. Eng.	Zabao zang jing (雜寶藏經) The Storehouse of Sundry Valuables (1994)	203
Ch. Eng.	Faju piyu jing (法句譬喩經) The Scriptural Text: Verses of the Doctrine, with Parables (1999)	211
Ch. Skt.	Xiaopin banruo boluomi jing (小品般若波羅蜜經) Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra	227
Ch. Skt.	Jingang banruo boluomi jing (金剛般若波羅蜜經) Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra	235
Ch.	Daluo jingang bukong zhenshi sanmoye jing	243

(大樂金剛不空眞實三麼耶經)

Skt. Adhyardhaśatikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra

361

Ch.	Renwang banruo boluomi jing (仁王般若波羅蜜經)	245
Skt.	*Kāruṇikārājā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra
Ch.	Banruo boluomiduo xin jing (般若波羅蜜多心經)	251
Skt.	Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya-sūtra
Ch.	Miaofa lianhua jing (妙法蓮華經)	262
Skt.	Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra
Eng.	The Lotus Sutra (Revised Second Edition, 2007)
Ch.	Wuliangyi jing (無量義經)	276
Eng.	The Inﬁnite Meanings Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)
Ch.	Guan Puxian pusa xingfa jing (觀普賢菩薩行法經)	277
Eng.	The Sutra Expounded by the Buddha on Practice of the Way
	through Contemplation of the Bodhisattva All-embracing
	Goodness (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)
Ch.	Dafangguang fo huayan jing (大方廣佛華嚴經)	279
Skt.	Avataṃsaka-sūtra
Ch.	Shengman shizihou yisheng defang bianfang guang jing	353
Skt.	Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanāda-sūtra
Eng.	The Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion’s Roar (2004)
Ch.	Wuliangshou jing (無量壽經)	360
Skt.	Sukhāvatīvyūha
Eng.	The Larger Sutra on Amitāyus (in The Three Pure Land Sutras,
	Revised Second Edition, 2003)
Ch.	Guan wuliangshou fo jing (觀無量壽佛經)	365
Skt.	*Amitāyurdhyāna-sūtra
Eng.	The Sutra on Contemplation of Amitāyus
	(in The Three Pure Land Sutras, Revised Second Edition, 2003)
Ch.	Amituo jing (阿彌陀經)	366
Skt.	Sukhāvatīvyūha
Eng.	The Smaller Sutra on Amitāyus (in The Three Pure Land Sutras,
	Revised Second Edition, 2003)
Ch.	Da banniepan jing (大般涅槃經)	374
Skt.	Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra
Eng.	The Nirvana Sutra (Volume I, 2013)

(勝鬘師子吼一乘大方便方廣經)

Ch.	Fochuibo niepan lüeshuo jiaojie jing (佛垂般涅槃略説教誡經)	389
Eng.	The Bequeathed Teaching Sutra (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)
Ch.	Dizang pusa benyuan jing (地藏菩薩本願經)	412
Skt.	*Kṣitigarbhapraṇidhāna-sūtra
Ch.	Banzhou sanmei jing (般舟三昧經)	418
Skt.	Pratyutpanna-buddhasammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra
Eng.	The Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sutra (1998)
Ch.	Yaoshi liuli guang rulai benyuan gongde jing	450
Skt.	Bhaiṣajyaguru-vaiḍūrya-prabhāsa-pūrvapraṇidhāna-viśeṣavistara
Ch.	Mile xiasheng chengfo jing (彌勒下生成佛經)	454
Skt.	*Maitreyavyākaraṇa
Ch.	Wenshushili wen jing (文殊師利問經)	468
Skt.	*Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā
Ch.	Weimojie suoshuo jing (維摩詰所説經)	475
Skt.	Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra
Eng.	The Vimalakīrti Sutra (2004)
Ch.	Yueshangnü jing (月上女經)	480
Skt.	Candrottarādārikā-paripṛcchā
Ch.	Zuochan sanmei jing (坐禪三昧經)	614
Eng.	The Sutra on the Concentration of Sitting Meditation (2009)
Ch.	Damoduoluo chan jing (達磨多羅禪經)	618
Ch.	Yuedeng sanmei jing (月燈三昧經)	639
Skt.	Samādhirāja-candrapradīpa-sūtra
Ch.	Shoulengyan sanmei jing (♛楞嚴三昧經)	642
Skt.	Śūraṅgamasamādhi-sūtra
Eng.	The Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sutra (1998)
Ch.	Jinguang ming zuishengwang jing (金光明最勝王經)	665
Skt.	Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra
Ch.	Dasheng rulengqie jing (入楞伽經)	672
Skt.	Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra

(藥師琉璃光如來本願功徳經)

Ch. Skt. Eng.

Jie shenmi jing (解深密經) Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra

The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning (2000)

676

Ch. Skt. Eng.

Yulanpen jing (盂蘭盆經)

*Ullambana-sūtra

The Ullambana Sutra (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

685

Ch. Eng.

Sishierzhang jing (四十二章經)

The Sutra of Forty-two Sections (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

784

Ch. Dafangguang yuanjue xiuduoluo liaoyi jing

(大方廣圓覺修多羅了義經) 842

Eng. The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

Ch. Da Biluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing 848

(大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經)

Skt. Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi-vikurvitādhiṣṭhāna-vaipulyasūtrendra- rājanāma-dharmaparyāya

Eng. The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra (2005)

Ch. Jinggangding yiqie rulai zhenshi she dasheng xianzheng dajiao

wang jing (金剛頂一切如來眞實攝大乘現證大教王經) 865

Skt. Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṃgraha-mahāyānā-bhisamaya-mahākalparāja Eng. The Adamantine Pinnacle Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)

Ch. Suxidi jieluo jing (蘇悉地羯囉經) 893

Skt. Susiddhikara-mahātantra-sādhanopāyika-paṭala

Eng. The Susiddhikara Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)

Ch. Modengqie jing (摩登伽經) 1300

Skt. *Mātaṅgī-sūtra

Ch. Mohe sengqi lü (摩訶僧祇律) 1425

Skt. *Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya

Ch. Sifen lü (四分律) 1428

Skt. *Dharmaguptaka-vinaya

Ch. Shanjianlü piposha (善見律毘婆沙) 1462

Pāli Samantapāsādikā

Ch. Fanwang jing (梵網經) 1484

Skt. *Brahmajāla-sūtra

Ch. Skt. Eng.	Youposaijie jing (優婆塞戒經) Upāsakaśīla-sūtra The Sutra on Upāsaka Precepts (1994)	1488
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Miaofa lianhua jing youbotishe (妙法蓮華經憂波提舍) Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-upadeśa The Commentary on the Lotus Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)	1519
Ch. Skt.	Shizha biposha lun (十住毘婆沙論) *Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā	1521
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Fodijing lun (佛地經論) Buddhabhūmisūtra-śāstra The Interpretation of the Buddha Land* (2002)	1530
Ch. Skt.	Apidamojushe lun (阿毘達磨倶舍論) Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya	1558
Ch. Skt.	Zhonglun (中論) Madhyamaka-śāstra	1564
Ch. Skt.	Yüqie shidilun (瑜伽師地論) Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra	1579
Ch. Eng.	Cheng weishi lun (成唯識論) Demonstration of Consciousness Only (in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)	1585
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Weishi sanshi lun song (唯識三十論頌) Triṃśikā The Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only (in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)	1586
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Weishi ershi lun (唯識二十論) Viṃśatikā The Treatise in Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only (in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)	1590
Ch. Skt. Eng.	She dasheng lun (攝大乘論) Mahāyānasaṃgraha The Summary of the Great Vehicle (Revised Second Edition, 2003)	1593
Ch. Skt.	Bian zhongbian lun (辯中邊論) Madhyāntavibhāga	1600

Ch. Skt.	Dasheng zhuangyanjing lun (大乘莊嚴經論) Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra	1604
Ch. Skt.	Dasheng chengye lun (大乘成業論) Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa	1609
Ch. Skt.	Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun (究竟一乘寳性論) Ratnagotravibhāga-mahāyānottaratantra-śāstra	1611
Ch. Skt.	Yinming ruzheng li lun (因明入正理論) Nyāyapraveśa	1630
Ch. Skt.	Dasheng ji pusa xue lun (大乘集菩薩學論) Śikṣāsamuccaya	1636
Ch. Skt.	Jingangzhen lun (金剛針論) Vajrasūcī	1642
Ch. Eng.	Zhang suozhi lun (彰所知論) The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable (2004)	1645
Ch. Skt.	Putixing jing (菩提行經) Bodhicaryāvatāra	1662
Ch.	Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun	1665
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Dasheng qixin lun (大乘起信論) Mahāyānaśraddhotpāda-śāstra The Awakening of Faith* (2005)	1666
Ch.	Shimoheyan lun (釋摩訶衍論)	1668
Ch. Pāli	Naxian biqiu jing (那先比丘經) Milindapañhā	1670
Ch. Eng.	Banruo boluomiduo xin jing yuzan (般若波羅蜜多心經幽賛) A Comprehensive Commentary on the Heart Sutra (Prajñāpāramitā-hṛdaya-sūtra) (2001)	1710
Ch.	Miaofalianhua jing xuanyi (妙法蓮華經玄義)	1716
Ch.	Guan wuliangshou fo jing shu (觀無量壽佛經疏)	1753
Ch.	Sanlun xuanyi (三論玄義)	1852
Ch.	Dasheng xuan lun (大乘玄論)	1853

(金剛頂瑜伽中發阿耨多羅三藐三菩提心論)

Ch.	Zhao lun (肇論)	1858
Ch.	Huayan yisheng jiaoyi fenqi zhang (華嚴一乘教義分齊章)	1866
Ch.	Yuanren lun (原人論)	1886
Ch.	Mohe zhiguan (摩訶止觀)	1911
Ch.	Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao (修習止觀坐禪法要)	1915
Ch.	Tiantai sijiao yi (天台四教儀)	1931
Eng.	A Guide to the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings
	(in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)
Ch.	Guoqing bai lu (國清百録)	1934
Ch.	Zhenzhou Linji Huizhao chanshi wulu (鎭州臨濟慧照禪師語録)	1985
Eng.	The Recorded Sayings of Linji (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)
Ch.	Foguo Yuanwu chanshi biyan lu (佛果圜悟禪師碧巖録)	2003
Eng.	The Blue Cliff Record (1998)
Ch.	Wumen guan (無門關)	2005
Eng.	Wumen’s Gate (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)
Ch.	Liuzu dashi fabao tan jing (六祖大師法寶壇經)	2008
Eng.	The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (2000)
Ch.	Xinxin ming (信心銘)	2010
Eng.	The Faith-Mind Maxim (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)
Ch.	Huangboshan Duanji chanshi chuanxin fayao	2012A
Eng.	Essentials of the Transmission of Mind (in Zen Texts, 2005)
Ch.	Yongjia Zhengdao ge (永嘉證道歌)	2014
Ch.	Chixiu Baizhang qinggui (勅修百丈清規)	2025
Eng.	The Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations (2007)
Ch.	Yibuzonglun lun (異部宗輪論)	2031
Skt.	Samayabhedoparacanacakra
Eng.	The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines (2004)
Ch.	Ayuwang jing (阿育王經)	2043
Skt.	Aśokāvadāna
Eng.	The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka (1993)

(黄檗山斷際禪師傳心法要)

Ch. Maming pusa zhuan (馬鳴菩薩傳) 2046

Eng. The Life of Aśvaghoṣa Bodhisattva

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Longshu pusa zhuan (龍樹菩薩傳) 2047

Eng. The Life of Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Posoupandou fashi zhuan (婆藪槃豆法師傳) 2049

Eng. Biography of Dharma Master Vasubandhu

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Datang Daciensi Zanzang fashi zhuan (大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳) 2053

Eng. A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (1995)

Ch. Gaoseng zhuan (高僧傳) 2059

Ch. Biqiuni zhuan (比丘尼傳) 2063

Eng. Biographies of Buddhist Nuns

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (高僧法顯傳) 2085

Eng. The Journey of the Eminent Monk Faxian

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Datang xiyu ji (大唐西域記) 2087

Eng. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (1996)

Ch. Youfangjichao: Tangdaheshangdongzheng zhuan 2089-(7) (遊方記抄: 唐大和上東征傳)

Ch. Hongming ji (弘明集) 2102

Eng. The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism, Volume I (2015)

Ch. Fayuan zhulin (法苑珠林) 2122

Ch. Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan (南海寄歸内法傳) 2125

Eng. Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia (2000)

Ch. Fanyu zaming (梵語雑名) 2135

Jp. Shōmangyō gisho (勝鬘經義疏) 2185

Eng. Prince Shōtoku’s Commentary on the Śrīmālā Sutra (2011)

Jp. Eng.	Yuimakyō gisho (維摩經義疏) The Expository Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sutra (2012)	2186
Jp.	Hokke gisho (法華義疏)	2187
Jp.	Hannya shingyō hiken (般若心經秘鍵)	2203
Jp.	Daijō hossō kenjin shō (大乘法相研神章)	2309
Jp.	Kanjin kakumu shō (觀心覺夢鈔)	2312
Jp. Eng.	Risshū kōyō (律宗綱要) The Essentials of the Vinaya Tradition (1995)	2348
Jp. Eng.	Tendai hokke shūgi shū (天台法華宗義集) The Collected Teachings of the Tendai Lotus School (1995)	2366
Jp.	Kenkairon (顯戒論)	2376
Jp.	Sange gakushō shiki (山家學生式)	2377
Jp. Eng.	Hizōhōyaku (秘藏寶鑰) The Precious Key to the Secret Treasury (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2426
Jp. Eng.	Benkenmitsu nikyō ron (辨顯密二教論) On the Differences between the Exoteric and Esoteric Teachings (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2427
Jp. Eng.	Sokushin jōbutsu gi (即身成佛義) The Meaning of Becoming a Buddha in This Very Body (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2428
Jp. Eng.	Shōji jissōgi (聲字實相義) The Meanings of Sound, Sign, and Reality (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2429
Jp. Eng.	Unjigi (吽字義) The Meanings of the Word Hūṃ (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2430
Jp. Eng.	Gorin kuji myōhimitsu shaku (五輪九字明秘密釋) The Illuminating Secret Commentary on the Five Cakras and the Nine Syllables (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2514
Jp. Eng.	Mitsugonin hotsuro sange mon (密嚴院發露懺悔文) The Mitsugonin Confession (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2527
Jp. Eng.	Kōzen gokoku ron (興禪護國論) A Treatise on Letting Zen Flourish to Protect the State (in Zen Texts, 2005)	2543

Jp. Eng.	Fukan zazengi (普勧坐禪儀) A Universal Recommendation for True Zazen (in Zen Texts, 2005)	2580
Jp. Eng.	Shōbōgenzō (正法眼藏) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume I, 2007) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume II, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume III, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume IV, 2008)	2582
Jp. Eng.	Zazen yōjin ki (坐禪用心記) Advice on the Practice of Zazen (in Zen Texts, 2005)	2586
Jp. Eng.	Senchaku hongan nenbutsu shū (選擇本願念佛集) Senchaku Hongan Nembutsu Shū: A Collection of Passages on the Nembutsu Chosen in the Original Vow (1997)	2608
Jp. Eng.	Kenjōdo shinjitsu kyōgyō shōmon rui (顯淨土眞實教行証文類) Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Enlightenment (2003)	2646
Jp. Eng.	Tannishō (歎異抄) Tannishō: Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith (1996)	2661
Jp. Eng.	Rennyo shōnin ofumi (蓮如上人御文) Rennyo Shōnin Ofumi: The Letters of Rennyo (1996)	2668
Jp.	Ōjōyōshū (往生要集)	2682
Jp. Eng.	Risshō ankoku ron (立正安國論) Risshōankokuron or The Treatise on the Establishment of the Orthodox Teaching and the Peace of the Nation (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)	2688
Jp. Eng.	Kaimokushō (開目抄) Kaimokushō or Liberation from Blindness (2000)	2689
Jp. Eng.	Kanjin honzon shō (觀心本尊抄) Kanjinhonzonshō or The Most Venerable One Revealed by Introspecting Our Minds for the First Time at the Beginning of the Fifth of the Five Five Hundred-year Ages (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)	2692

Ch. Fumu enzhong jing (父母恩重經) 2887

Eng. The Sutra on the Profundity of Filial Love

(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

Jp. Hasshūkōyō (八宗綱要) extracanonical Eng. The Essentials of the Eight Traditions (1994)

Jp. Sangō shīki (三教指帰) extracanonical

Jp. Mappō tōmyō ki (末法燈明記) extracanonical Eng. The Candle of the Latter Dharma (1994)

Jp. Jūshichijō kenpō (十七條憲法) extracanonical

THE COLLECTION FOR THE PROPAGATION AND CLARIFICATION OF BUDDHISM

VOLUME II

dBET PDF Version

All Rights Reserved

BDK English Tripiṭaka Series

THE COLLECTION FOR THE PROPAGATION AND CLARIFICATION OF BUDDHISM

VOLUME II

(Taishō Volume 52, Number 2102)

Translated from the Chinese by

Harumi Hirano Ziegler

BDK America, Inc.

2017

—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise— without the prior written permission of the publisher.

First Printing, 2017

ISBN: 978-1-886439-63-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014957879

Published by BDK America, Inc. 1675 School Street

Moraga, California 94556 Printed in the United States of America

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka

Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha’s eighty-four thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty-nine of the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project.

NUMATA Yehan Founder of the English

August 7, 1991 Tripiṭaka Project

Editorial Foreword

In the long history of Buddhist transmission throughout East Asia, translations of Buddhist texts were often carried out as national projects supported and funded by emperors and political leaders. The BDK English Tripiṭaka project, on the other hand, began as a result of the dream and commitment of one man. In January 1982 Dr. NUMATA Yehan, founder of Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai (Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), initiated the monumental task of translating the complete Taishō shinshū daizōkyō edition of the Chinese Tripiṭaka (Buddhist canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory committee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year the Translation Committee of the English Tripiṭaka was officially convened.

The initial Committee included the following members: (late) HANAYAMA Shōyū (Chairperson), (late) BANDŌ Shōjun, ISHIGAMI Zennō, (late) KAMATA Shigeo, (late) KANAOKA Shūyū, MAYEDA Sengaku, NARA Yasuaki, (late) SAYEKI Shinkō, (late) SHIOIRI Ryōtatsu, TAMARU Noriyoshi, (late) TAMURA Kwansei, (late) URYŪZU Ryūshin, and YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWA Atsushi, WATANABE Shōgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium.

After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected one hundred and thirty-nine texts for the First Series of the project, estimated to be one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected were not limited to those originally written in India but also included works composed in China and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published. Given the huge scope of this project, accomplishing the English trans- lations of all the Chinese and Japanese texts in the Taishō canon may take as long as one hundred years or more. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue until completion, even after all the present members have passed away.

Dr. NUMATA passed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven, having entrusted his son, Mr. NUMATA Toshihide, with the continuation and completion of the English Tripiṭaka project. The Committee lost its able and devoted Chair- person, Professor HANAYAMA Shōyū, on June 16, 1995, at the age of sixty- three. In October 1995 the Committee elected Professor MAYEDA Sengaku (then Vice President of Musashino Women’s College) as Chairperson, and renewed its determination to carry out the noble ideals of Dr. NUMATA under the leadership of Mr. NUMATA Toshihide. Present members of the Committee are Kenneth Tanaka (Chairperson), MAYEDA Sengaku, ICHISHIMA Shōshin, ISHIGAMI Zennō, KATSURA Shōryū, NARA Yasuaki, SAITŌ Akira, SHIMODA Masahiro, WATANABE Shōgo, and YONEZAWA Yoshiyasu.

The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established in November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publication of the translated texts. The Publication Committee was organized at the Numata Center in December 1991. In 2010, the Numata Center’s operations were merged with Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Inc. (BDK America), and BDK America continues to oversee the publication side of the English Tripiṭaka project in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo.

At the time of this writing, February 10, 2017, the project has completed about sixty percent of the seven thousand one hundred and eighty-five Taishō pages of texts selected for the First Series. Much work still lies ahead of us but we are committed to the completion of the remaining texts in order to realize Dr. Numata’s vision of the Buddhist canon to become readily accessible to the English-speaking world.

Kenneth K.Tanaka

Chairperson

Editorial Committee of

the BDK English Tripiṭaka

Publisher’s Foreword

On behalf of the members of the Publication Committee, I am happy to present this volume as the latest contribution to the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series. The Publication Committee members have worked to ensure that this volume, as all other volumes in the series, has gone through a rigorous process of editorial efforts. The initial translation and editing of the Buddhist scriptures found in this and other BDK English Tripiṭaka volumes are performed under the direction of the Editorial Committee in Tokyo, Japan. Both the Editorial Committee in Tokyo and the Publication Committee, headquartered in Moraga, California, are ded- icated to the production of accurate and readable English translations of the Buddhist canon. In doing so, the members of both committees and associated staff work to honor the deep faith, spirit, and concern of the late Reverend Dr. Yehan Numata, who founded the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series in order to dis-

seminate the Buddhist teachings throughout the world.

In conclusion, I wish to thank the members of the Publication Committee for their dedicated and expert work undertaken in the course of preparing this volume for publication: Managing Editor Marianne Dresser, Dr. Hudaya Kandahjaya, Dr. Carl Bielefeldt, Dr. Robert Sharf, and Rev. Brian Kensho Nagata, Director of the BDK English Tripiṭaka Project.

A. Charles Muller Chairperson Publication Committee

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka

	NUMATA Yehan	v
Editorial Foreword	Kenneth K. Tanaka	vii
Publisher’s Foreword	A. Charles Muller	ix
Translator’s Introduction	Harumi Hirano Ziegler	xix

The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism, Volume II Fascicle Eight

The Discourse on Debating to Remove Hindrances (Bianhuo lun)

and the Preface by Shi Xuanguang 3

The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions (Miehuo lun) by Liu Xie, Record Keeper at Dongguan County 13

Response to the Discourse on the Triple Destruction, which Daoists Postulate is Zhang Rong’s Composition (in Nineteen Articles),

by Shi Sengshun 27

Fascicle Nine

The Record that the Emperor of the Great Liang Dynasty Sets Forth the Right Logic for the Spiritual Intelligence and the Attainment

of Buddhahood, together with the Preface and Annotation Composed

by Shen Ji of Wuxing 41

Criticism of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit (Shenmie lun) Preface by Xiao Chen 48

The Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit 49

Criticism of Secretariat Fan’s Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit

by Cao Siwen 65

Response to Ofﬁce Manager Cao’s Criticism of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit [by Fan Zhen] 68

Imperial Response 73

The Second Criticism of Secretariat Fan’s Discourse on the Extinction

of the Spirit [by Cao Siwen] 74

Fascicle Ten

The Emperor of the Great Liang Dynasty’s Imperial Response to

His Subjects: [The Examination of ] the Discourse on the Extinction

of the Spirit 79

Letter Given by Dharma Teacher Fayun at Zhuangyan Temple to

Lords, Kings, and the Noble Courtiers, and their Responses 80

[Letter Given to Dharma Teacher Fayun (467–529)] 80

The Answer of the King of Linchuan 80

The Answer of the King of Jian’an 81

The Answer of the King of Changsha 81

The Answer of Shen Yue (441–513), Director of the Imperial Secretariat 81

The Answer of Fan Xiu (460–514), Grand Master for Splendid Happiness and Current Commandant of the Right Guard

of the Crown Prince 82

The Answer of Wang Ying, Governor of Danyang 82

The Answer of Wang Zhi (460–513), Secretariat Director 83

The Answer of Yuan Ang (461–540), Right Chief Administrator 83

The Answer of Xiao Bing, Chamberlain of the Court for the

Palace Garrison 84

The Answer of Xu Mian (466–535), Imperial Secretary of the

Ministry of Personnel 84

The Answer of Lu Gao (459–532), Palace Cadet of the Crown Prince 85

The Answer of Xiao Chen (476–512), Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary 86

The Answer of Wang Bin and Wang Jian, Attendants-in-Ordinary 87

The Answer of Lu Xu, Secretariat Drafter of the Heir Apparent 87

The Answer of Xu Gun, Gentleman of the Palace Gate 88

The Answer of Wang Jian (477–523), Palace Attendant 88

The Answer of Liu Yun (465–517), Palace Attendant 89

The Answer of Liu Cheng (d. 513), Attendant-in-Ordinary 90

The Answer of Wang Mao, Supervisor of the Household of the

Heir Apparent 90

The Answer of Yu Yong, Chamberlain for Ceremonials 91

The Answer of Xiao Ang (483–535), Acting King of Yuzhang 92

The Answer of Yu Tanlong, Superior Grand Master of the Palace 93

The Answer of Xiao Mi, Frontrider of the Heir Apparent 93

The Answer of Wang Sengru (465–522), Palace Aide to the

Censor-in-Chief 94

The Answer of Wang Yi, Gentleman Attendant at the Palace Gate 94

The Answer of Wang Tai, Gentleman Attendant of the Ministry

of Personnel 95

The Answer of Cai Zun (467–523), Palace Attendant 96

The Answer of Wang Zhongxin, Director of Jiankang 96

The Answer of Shen Ji, Adjutant of Outer Troops of the King

of Jian’an 97

The Answer of Sima Yun, Gentleman Attendant of the Ministry

of Sacriﬁces 98

The Answer of Shen Gun, Adjutant of the Personnel Evaluation

Section of the King of Yuzhang 99

The Answer of Wang Qi, Ofﬁcer of the Personnel Evaluation

Section of the King of Jian’an 100

The Answer of Wei Rui (440–520), Right Guard General 101

The Answer of Xie Chuo, Chief Minister for Law Enforcement 101

The Answer of Fan Xiaocai, Libationer of the Minister of Education 102

The Answer of Wang Lin, Attendant-in-Ordinary 103

The Answer of He Jiong, Gentleman of the Bureau of Provisions 103

The Answer of Wang Yun (481–549), Recorder of the King of

Yuzhang 104

The Answer of Sun Yi, Gentleman of the Granaries Section 105

The Answer of Xiao Misu, Aide to [the Magistrate of] Danyang 106

The Answer of Fu Jing (462–520), Secretariat Gentleman 108

The Answer of He Yang, Erudite of the Five Classics 108

The Answer of Liu Qia, Secretary of the Heir Apparent 109

The Answer of Yan Zhizhi (457–508), Erudite of the Five Classics 110

The Answer of Cao Siwen, Houseman of the Eastern Palace 111

The Answer of Xie Ju, Vice Director of the Palace Library 111

The Answer of Ma Yuanhe, Chamberlain for the National Treasury 112

The Answer of Wang Jing, Court Gentleman for Evaluations 113

The Answer of Lu Ren, Gentleman Cavalier Attendant, and

Lu Chui (470–526), Secretariat Drafter of the Heir Apparent 115

The Answer of Wang Shengshu, Vice Commandant 116

The Answer of Ming Shanbin (443–527), Erudite of the Five Classics 117 The Answer of Yu Qianlou, Court Gentleman for Comprehensive

Duty 119

The Answer of Yin Jun (484–532), Household Provisioner of the

Heir Apparent 122

The Answer of Zhang Mian (490–531), Assistant in the Palace

Library 122

The Answer of Lu Lian, Erudite of the Five Classics 124

The Answer of Zhang Fan, Mounted Escort of Yangzhou 125

The Answer of Wang Zhenguo (d. 515), Commandant of the Left

of the Heir Apparent 126

The Answer of Cao Jingzong (457–508), General of the Palace

Guard 126

The Answer of Yan Shan, Chamberlain for Attendants 127

The Answer of Shen Hong, Erudite of the Five Classics 128

The Answer of Sima Jiong (d. 518), Arbiter of Jiankang 129

The Answer of Qiu Zhongfu, Assistant Director of the Left 130

Fascicle Eleven

Director He Shangzhi’s Case to Glorify Buddhism, Responding to Emperor Wen of the Song Dynasty 131

The Responses of Two Dharma Masters, [Dao]gao and [Fa]ming, to Li Miao of Jiaozhou, Who Criticized the Matter that the Buddha

Does Not Manifest Himself, and Li [Miao]’s Letters 137

[Li Miao’s Criticism] 137

[Daogao’s Response] 138

[Li Miao’s Response] 139

[Daogao’s Second Response] 141

[Li Miao’s Second Response] 143

[Faming’s Response to Li Miao] 144

The Letter of King Wenxuan Given to Kong Zhigui, Palace Aide to the Censor-in-Chief, in Order to Dispel Doubts, together with the

Answer 149

Kong Zhigui’s Letters, together with [Prince Xiao’s] Answer 154

[Kong Zhigui’s (447–501) Letter] 154

[Kong Zhigui’s Second Letter] 156

[Kong Zhigui’s Third Letter] 158

[Prince Xiao’s Answer] 158

The Letters of Two Dharma Teachers, Daoheng and Daobiao, Responding to Yao [Xing Zi]lüe, the Usurper Ruler of the Later Qin Dynasty, Who Exhorts Them to Give up the [Buddhist] Way, together

with the Letters of the Ruler Yao 158

The Ruler Yao’s Letter Given to Two Eminent Monks,

[Dao]heng and [Dao]biao 158

[The Letter of Daoheng and Daobiao Responding to Yao] 159

[The Ruler Yao’s Response] 160

[The Second Letter of Daoheng and Daobiao] 161

[The Ruler Yao’s Second Response] 161

[The Third Letter of Daoheng and Daobiao] 161

Report to the Throne by the Three Dharma Teachers Senglüe, Sengqian, and Kumārajīva, in Response to the Letters of the Ruler Yao, Who Tried to Suspend [the Monkhood of Dao]heng and

[Dao]biao, together with the Ruler Yao’s Letters 162

The Ruler Yao’s Letter Given to Kumārajīva 162

The Ruler Yao’s Letter Given to Sengqian and Others 163

Report to the Throne by Senglüe, Sengqian, Kumārajīva, and Others Requesting [the Ruler Yao] to Cease Removing [Dao]heng and [Dao]biao from the [Buddhist] Way 164

The Letter of Dharma Teacher Huiyuan of Mount Lu in Response to Huan Xuan, Who Urges that [Huiyuan] be Removed from the

[Buddhist Way], together with Huan Xuan’s Letter 166

Huan Xuan’s (369–404) Letter 166

Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan’s Response 167

The Letters of Dharma Teacher Sengyan to Decline the Provincial Governor of Qingzhou Liu Shanming’s Recommendation for the Ofﬁcial Appointment of the Cultivated Talent (Xiucai), together

with Liu Shanming’s Responses 168

The Letter of Dharma Teacher Sengyan 168

[Liu Shanming’s] Response to Buddhist Monk Sengyan 169

Sengyan’s Second Letter in Response [to Liu Shanming] 170

[Liu Shanming’s] Second Response 171

Sengyan’s Third Letter 172

[Liu Shanming’s] Third Response 173

Fascicle Twelve

Letter Given to Shi Daoan by Xi Zaochi 176

The Letter of the King of [Nan]qiao to Discuss Confucius and

Śākyamuni 178

Zhang Xin’an’s Response 179

Letter Given to Meditation Master [Huiyi] to Discuss the Manner

of Eating While Squatting with Raised Heels by Zheng Daozi 180

Letter Given to Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs Wang [Hong] and All Others in Order to Discuss Buddhist Monks’ Manner

of Eating While Squatting with Raised Heels by Fan Bolun 182

Shi Huiyi’s Letter in Response to Fan Bolun 184

[Fan Bolun’s] Response to Eminent [Hui]yi 186

Fan Bolun’s Letter Given to the Two Dharma Teachers [Zhu

Dao]sheng and [Hui]guan 187

Petitions Presented to the Throne to Discuss the Manner of Eating

While Squatting with Raised Heels by Fan Bolun 188

[First Petition] 188

[Second Petition] 190

[Imperial Decree in Response to Fan Bolun] 191

[Third Petition] 191

Report to the Throne Regarding the Issue that Śramaṇas Should Not

Bow [to the King] by Director of the Imperial Secretariat He Chong 193

[Preface] 193

[Report to the Throne] 193

The Imperial Decree on Behalf of Emperor Cheng of the Jin Dynasty Composed by Yu Bing, Who Admonishes the Purport [of the Report] Again and Thinks that Śramaṇas Should Bow to the King 194

Second Report to the Throne by Director of the Imperial Secretariat He Chong and Ofﬁcials such as Chu She, Zhuge Hui, Feng Huai,

and Xie Guang 195

Emperor Cheng’s Second Imperial Decree 197

Third Report to the Throne Regarding the Issue that [Śramaṇas] Should Not Bow [to the King] by Ofﬁcials such as Director of the

Imperial Secretariat He Chong and [Left] Supervisor Chu She 198

[Epilogue] 199

Letter Given to the Eight Executives to Discuss Buddhist Monks’

Bowing [to the King] by Huan Xuan 199

The Eight Executives’ Response 200

Letter Given to Secretariat Director Wang [Mi] to Discuss the Issue

that Buddhist Monks Should Bow to the King by Huan Xuan 201

Letter in Response to Huan [Xuan] by Secretariat Director Wang [Mi] 202

Criticism [to Wang Mi] by Huan [Xuan] 203

Second Response by Lord [Wang Mi] 205

Second Criticism by Huan [Xuan] 209

Third Response by Lord [Wang Mi] 211

Fourth Letter by Huan [Xuan] 214

Additional Criticism by [Huan Xuan] 215

Fourth Response by Lord [Wang Mi] 216

Letter in Response to Huan Xuan Regarding the Issue that

Śramaṇas Should Not Bow to the King by Dharma Teacher Huiyuan

of Mount Lu, together with Huan Xuan’s Two Letters 217

Letter Given to Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan by Huan Xuan 217

Response [to Huan Xuan] by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan 218

Response [to Huiyuan] by Defender-in-Chief Huan [Xuan], together

with the Decree to Stop Śramaṇas from Bowing [to the King] 222

Imperial Decree to Allow Buddhist Monks Not to Bow [to the King]

by Huan [Xuan, Former King of] Chu 223

[Response to Huan Xuan’s Decree by Bian Sizhi and Yuan Kezhi] 223

[Decree by Huan Xuan] 224

[Response to Huan Xuan’s Decree by Ma Fan and Bian Sizhi] 224

[Decree by Huan Xuan] 225

[Response to Huan Xuan’s Decree by Bian Sizhi] 225

[Decree by Huan Xuan] 226

[Response to Huan Xuan’s Decree by Bian Sizhi] 226

Letter Given to Huan Xuan to Discuss the Evaluation of Śramaṇas

by Huiyuan of Mount Lu, together with Huan Xuan’s Decree 227

Decree Given to the Staff to Intend to Select Buddhist Monks

by Regent Huan Xuan 227

Letter Given to Defender-in-Chief Huan [Xuan] to Discuss the

Evaluation of Śramaṇas by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan 228

Letter Given to Huan Xuan to Discuss that the Provincial Ofﬁce

Requests to Register Śramaṇas by Dharma Teacher Zhi Daolin 230

Report to Emperor Wu of the Qi Dynasty to Discuss the Issue of the Inspection and Examination of Buddhist Monks by Shi Daosheng

of Tianbao Temple 232

Fascicle Thirteen

Essentials for Believing in the Dharma by Palace Secretary Chi [Chao] 235

The Family Code: Clariﬁcation of Two Issues by Chamberlain for

the Attendants Yan Yanzhi 253

[Issue One] 254

[Issue Two] 254

Sunshine by Wang Gai 255

Fascicle Fourteen

Written Appeal to Mount Tai by Zhu Daoshuang 267

Written Appeal to the Demon by Shi Zhijing 273

Written Appeal to Destroy Demons Composed by Shi Baolin 281

Afterword to the Discourse for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism by Shi Sengyou 289

A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series) 371

Translator’s Introduction

Sengyou was deeply concerned about delusions and misinformation held by anti-Buddhists, which he saw as a major cause of negative views toward Buddhism. In his Afterword (pp. 289–298 in this volume) Sengyou lists six kinds of secular scholars’ doubts about Buddhism: (1) what the Buddhist scrip- tures expound is preposterous and unveriﬁable; (2) since one’s spirit perishes when one dies, it is hardly possible that the spirit will transmigrate in the three periods of existence; (3) no one has never seen the real Buddha and his teaching has no beneﬁt to state governance; (4) the Dharma teaching did not exist in ancient times and emerged only recently during the Han period; (5) the Buddhist teaching should exist only in the region of western tribes and its ediﬁcation is not for Chinese people; and (6) the Dharma was rarely practiced in the Han and Wei periods and began ﬂourishing only during the Jin period.

xix

Historical Background

Buddhist teachings transmitted to China before the Common Era were initially practiced only among non-Chinese groups. During the Han dynasty, the Buddhist clergy consisted of śramaṇas from India or Central Asia, and there was not a large number of Chinese followers. Around the middle of the third century we see the remarkable activities of a Chinese Buddhist group led by Zhu Shixing (or Zixing). More conspicuous activities of Chinese monks can be seen during the time of the Eastern Jin dynasty. Thanks to eminent Chinese monks such as Zhi Dun (314–366), Daoan (312–385), and Huiyuan (334–416), who expended great effort to spread Buddhist teachings, the number of Chinese monks notably increased. Intellectuals who were well versed in the Chinese classics, such as the Zhuangzi and the Laozi Dao de jing and who enjoyed the “pure talks” (qingtan), became increasingly devoted to Buddhism. By the early sixth century, when Sengyou compiled The Collection for the Prop- agation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism, Buddhism had come to ﬂourish in both north and south China.

The growth of Buddhism consequently caused serious conﬂicts between Buddhists and non-Buddhists in political and social arenas and thought. People became more aware that the Buddhist teachings differed signiﬁcantly from Confucianism and Daoism in many ways. Moreover, lay Buddhists’ enthusiasm resulted in the construction of many Buddhist temples and pago- das, which caused ﬁnancial burden on civil administration and society, and the increasing number of monks who engaged in secular life and business contributed to the deterioration of the sangha. In the north, where non-Chinese groups had ruled continuously since the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty (316), government reaction to the ascendancy of Buddhism resulted in Emperor Wu’s persecution of Buddhists between 446 and 452 during the Northern Wei dynasty. In the south, where the Chinese established political power successively, there was no such large-scale Buddhist persecution, but there were longstanding serious conﬂicts between Buddhists and non- Buddhists. Accordingly, Buddhist groups became the target of criticism from anti-Buddhist groups and were compelled to explain their positions and protect Buddhism at the same time.

Translator’s Introduction

Characteristics and Significance

A notable aspect of this work is that Buddhist tenets are explained using Confucian and Daoist terminology. It is widely known that geyi, a way to interpret Buddhist scriptures by means of the philosophy asserted in the Laozi Dao de jing and the Zhuangzi, was popular during the Eastern Jin period. It began with Zhu Faya and Kang Falang who studied with Daoan under Fotu- deng. Even though Daoan criticized geyi, it is known that Daoan allowed only Huiyuan, his eminent disciple, to explain Buddhist doctrines using non- Buddhist texts. We see many examples of this tendency in this work.

Moreover, The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism is a valuable source to examine the early stage of Daoism in the south, particularly the Daoist school called the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain (Wudoumijiao) or the Way of the Celestial Master (Tianshidao). For instance, in Fascicle Eight (pp. 3–39 in this volume), through Shi Xuanguang’s criticism of Daoism, Daoist practices and rituals such as the “unity of the yin-yang vapors” (heqi) and the “Mud and Ash Fête” (tutanzhai) are described.

xxi

In addition, we ﬁnd the titles of each position of the organization together with their derivations. A scarcity of clearly dated Daoist sources for studies of early Daoism is a crucial problem in current scholarship. Although the Collection is a Buddhist work from chieﬂy the fourth and ﬁfth centuries, it also serves well as a primary source for contemporary Daoism.

Finally, it should be noted that this text served as inspiration for Daoxuan (596–667), who took Sengyou’s compilation as his model in compiling his own Extensive Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Guang Hongmingji) in 664.

Questions on the Compilation

The text of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism currently circulated consists of fourteen fascicles, with ﬁfty-eight headings. Sengyou, however, lists this work as consisting of ten fascicles together with a table of contents, with thirty-three headings, in his compilation Collection of Records Derived from the Tripiṭaka (Chusanzang jiji), completed around 515 in the last years of his life. The Buddhist catalogue Zhongjing mulu com- piled by Fajing in 593 lists this text as being comprised of ten fascicles as well, but Fei Changfang’s catalogue Lidai sanbaoji completed in 597 records the Collection as consisting of fourteen fascicles. Questions about the com- pletion of the fourteen-fascicle text are still controversial and require further research.

Note on the Translation

Transliterations of Chinese language follow the Pinyin system. Japanese Romanization follows the modiﬁed Hepburn system as employed in Kenkyū- sha’s New Japanese-English Dictionary (third and later editions).

THE COLLECTION FOR THE PROPAGATION AND CLARIFICATION OF BUDDHISM VOLUME II

Compiled by Shi Sengyou at Jianchu Temple in Yangdu during the Liang Dynasty

Fascicle Eight

The Discourse on Debating to Remove Hindrances (Bianhuo lun)

and the Preface by Shi Xuanguang

The trichiliocosm is remote and myriad transformations are limitless. People temporarily ﬁnd their enjoyment in the dreamland, infected and misled by worldly fame. If the perception of objects (Skt. pratyaya-lakṣaṇa) increases, like mist, how can they discern the brilliant right [way]? The weakening of simple and sincere customs causes all the devils to compete with each other in confusion. When one seeks glory by means of falsehood and deception, he will assuredly commit the ﬁve rebellious acts. When he leads ignorant people by force, he must apply the six atrocious methods. Then he is ﬁlled with the pestilent force like dust in a dust storm and brings various troubles upon himself.

I remember that the eastern Wu region suffered from hardships caused by the Water Transcendents [led by Sun En (d. 402 C.E.)]; in the western tribal land [Zhang Lu] gave the title “spiritual soldier” (guizu) [to his followers]; in the groves of the Minyue region the obscene ways of seed people (zhong- min) remain;1 and in the time of the Han dynasty the people were moved by the mourning song for the son (sizi).2 Loyal, wise men sigh in disappointment. The government has been maltreated and is about to come to an end. Even if we were to pick up [grains of] sand and grasses from the ground, how could we count the sins we have committed? People of insigniﬁcant and superﬁcial learning do not know the foundation of the teaching. The erroneous words of the worldly teaching defy and conceal the Three Treasures (i.e., Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha). The streets are full of resentment of our dear spiritual people (guimin; i.e., followers of the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain). All of this is none other than the ashes of Mount Yan and the dregs of the Yellow and Luo Rivers, and is together submerged in dangerous dif- ﬁculty. I am very sorrowful about it. I will try to explain what happened in

48a6

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the past, in the hope of mirroring the future. I will illuminate the profound native land for children who are confused [in foreign lands and who do not know the way to go home], expose the subtle purport beyond this world, secretly spread a happy breeze, and judge situations of [the dualism of] self and other. Is this something that can be presented and copied in words?

To Ban [the Circulation of] Scriptures and to Raise their Price— The First Rebellious Act

The profound scriptures (i.e., Buddhist scriptures) unfold like clouds and pierce through the beautiful world of emptiness and existence. What among the sages’ achievements would not have derived from these [scriptures]? [The scriptures] are really the deep sea for those who learn [Buddhism] and the sun and moon for sentient beings. Therefore, Sadāprarudita Bodhisattva illuminates [sentient beings] equally with benevolence, makes a ﬂash of lightning in the nether world, puts an end to devils in a dangerous marsh, sets a divine boat aﬂoat with the winds of faith, and delivers [beings of] this ﬂeeting world from the sea of suffering.

I have heard that when Daoist scriptures are composed worldly ideas are blended into them. Since the traces of the [Daoist] teaching are perverse and sinister, [the scriptures] have not been transmitted [to the public]. It is strange that the ediﬁcation of Daoism is futilely banned and yet we see today that those who study [Daoism] ignore the strict rules and give the scriptures in order to obtain gold and silk fabric. If a poor man comes to the Daoists they will not see him even if he dies. They are greedy for proﬁt and have no mercy. No one goes against [reason] more than this.

Moreover, their art is obscene and evil; it is not clean. They consider the grinding of teeth to be a heavenly drum, swallowed spit to be [like water from] a sweet spring, horse excrement to be numinous ﬁrewood, and old mice to be the raw material for a transcendent elixir. Even if one avails himself of this [teaching] to seek the Way, how could he attain it?

Formerly, the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty and Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty (141–187 B.C.E.) could not lighten their bodies [to become a transcendent]. [The First Emperor of the Qin dynasty] sent Xu Fu and [Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty] sent Gongsun [Qing] to a very distant place, beyond the clouds and waves, and [both emperors] ordered them to offer a prayer and a greeting to communicate with transcendents, but there

was no result [in either case]. When we tranquilize our minds and remove desire, [we see that] facts and the Way are next to each other. Would it then be necessary to make efforts to run around, swallow spit, or grind one’s teeth?

To Recklessly Claim the True Way—The Second Rebellious Act

Those who try to reach the pale red-colored clouds [in order to become a transcendent] talk of the merits of alchemy and elixirs. Those who try to open and clarify the pure intelligence count on the energy of a marvelous herb called danghua.3 Although [Daoists] maintain these [practices] and con- sider them to be true, they have not been able to avoid the ﬁnal consequence (i.e., death). Furthermore Zhang Ling absurdly called himself the Heavenly Master, but since he insulted people as well as spirits, he received retribution while still alive; at the end of the Xingping era (195 C.E.) of the Han dynasty he was swallowed by a python. His son Heng ran about looking for his body but could not locate it. [Heng] was afraid that [his father’s] pure talk would be besmirched by [his death]. So he set up a false expedient: in order to show the trace of [Zhang Ling’s] mysterious transformation, he bound [the legs of] a live crane and placed the animal on a precipice. After the scheme was complete, he set a date to make it public. In the ﬁrst year of the Jian’an era (196 C.E.) he sent messengers [to the parishes] to announce that the Heavenly Master would ascend to the Mysterious Capital [where divine transcendents dwell] on the seventh day of the ﬁrst month. The followers of the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain and those who make a living by hunting in the mountains gathered like ants outside the door [of the temple]. The parishioners of Mount Yuntai (in present-day Jiangsu province) bowed their heads to the ground twice and said, “We have humbly heard that the sage (i.e., Zhang Ling) will travel to the Mysterious Capital. We followers will be separated from his blessing and salvation forever. Corpus spirits (shijin) will surely enjoy them- selves4 and [the world] will precisely be as dark as the Nine Murks (i.e., the bottom of the earth).

Heng entered [the temple] and after a while came out. He lied to the people,

telling them that [Zhang Ling] had said, “I will turn the carriage toward Chenhua. Each of you, return to your parish, purify your mind, sustain the practice, keep the Master in mind, and think of the Way.” Heng then surrep- titiously untied [the crane] and the crane ﬂew straight up into the air. The followers, including those who make a living by hunting [in the mountains],

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were ignorant and foolish, and all said that [Zhang Ling] had ascended to [the realm of] immortals. [This example shows how] the living take advantage of the dead for proﬁt and cheat Heaven and Earth.

To Explain Sins by Means of the Union of the Yin and Yang Energies (i.e., Sexual Practices)—The Third Rebellious Act

When one clears his mind of all feelings and removes desire, his aspiration for the Way becomes bright and true. A group of nameless, ignoble people recklessly composed the Yellow Books.5 They bow down and lightly reproach those who deliver an evil, unprovoked magic formula.

(The magic formula says, “The Way of Heaven comes to an end. After ﬁf- teen days have passed, the sun and moon are bright. As they come out, it is tranquil and deep; as they go in, it is dark and profound. When energy comes in, the true energy is opened. When the spiritual energy spreads out, the energy of the Way is exercised. All vicious spirits vanish. He who sees me will become blind and he who hears me will become deaf. He who dares to impose upon me will receive disaster instead. I am fortunate and he is unfortunate.”) In the year of Jiazi there was an imperial decree, and in response a religious register was created. Men and women became intimate with each other (i.e., engaged in sexual behavior), and there was no distinction between high and low. Lu Xiujing (406–477 C.E.) of the Wu region frequently practiced this

[incantation].

Then they open the gate of destiny (mingmen) [where the foundation of life resides], hold a baby of the perfected, and adopt postures like the “winding dragon” and the “playing tiger.” Through taking postures like these, they [claim that they can] prevent calamities and disperse misfortune. Is this true? Is it possible to do so? Yi Jun of the Han period practiced this [incantation] as the Way; he greatly misled the people and plunged them into disaster, and was exiled to Dunhuang. Later, as for Sun En [of the Eastern Jin dynasty], his teaching was much more dissolute; [relations between] men and women became disordered and wild, no different from those between male and female birds and beasts.

[People] are easily drawn by visual objects, form and color, and it is difﬁcult to eliminate deﬁlements, not to mention those who mix the [ yin and yang] energies at the cinnabar ﬁeld (dantian; i.e., the abdomen), who attempt to prolong life at the transcendent cave, who give full swing to a weapon

and pass through the prohibition of the jade gate (i.e., the vulva), and who go to the extremity of adopting abnormal postures like the “winding dragon” and the “playing tiger.” When alive they have no principles of loyalty, and after death they suffer in the blue court (i.e., a euphemism for hell, located on the east side of Mount Tai). I sincerely wish that the bright Heaven will investigate and reveal these fellows; all things, including myself, will be upright and clean and will not go against the instructions of the unseen world.

To Presume Upon the Way and to Rise in Revolt—The Fourth Rebellious Act

It is difﬁcult to understand the ultimate truth and easy to be deluded by the glory of fame. Relations [in the secular world] are more signiﬁcant than deep waters or high mountains, and virtue is less important than wind and dew. People just like the rebels of the Yellow Turbans hoped [to soar just as] a hawk does [and usurp the power of] the Han royal family, but on the contrary they despised bright Heaven. For this sin they were all executed. Subsequently, there was [Zhang] Zi Lu, who also set forth the Way of Spiritual Beings (guidao). Yet the gods did not help him and he was gored by an elk. After that, Sun En also claimed the Purple Way (zidao). He did not care about his lowly status and inferior position and intended to attain the nobility of the emperor, [a dream as intangible as] a cloud or a sound in a dark cave; he issued absurd ideas in empty profundity. The Water Transcendent (i.e., Sun En) con- fused others and killed sinless people regardless of their age. He ruined the country and destroyed the people. Isn’t this cruel and inhuman? Therefore Emperor Wu of the [Liu-]Song dynasty thought of this and sighed with deep feelings. Then he ﬂew a thousand li like a dragon and crossed over the three large rivers like a tiger. He mounted a surprise attack and vanquished the witchcraft group without any special effort in twelve days. Sentient beings were pleased and the grasses and trees enjoyed the spring light.

Making Petitions Harms Virtue—The Fifth Rebellious Act

The highest ediﬁcation, even a very minor aspect of it, cannot be falsely accused and cannot be concealed. If one confers a posthumous title to the spirit of the dead or strives to follow the illustrious virtue, if there is no true essence in the Way, he just recklessly chases after unreality. Then [people] say that [the spirit of a dead person] has gone to the east, they get drunk and

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bring [the deceased’s] sins to an end. Isn't such a bigoted and obscure thing vile and unusual?

Moreover, regarding the issue that the merit one makes can be transferred to his ancestors of seven generations [through the Yellow Register Fête (a memorial service)], the purport of this passage is shallow and superﬁcial. [Some people] ask to escape from [the physical labor of] carrying sandstones and become spiritual [soldiers] (i.e., followers) of Daoism for a long time. The intelligence of sages thoroughly investigates the subtle [reason]; if there is a thought, this is illuminated. Why is it necessary to bother the liba- tionary (jijiu; i.e., clergy of the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain), or to waste paper and ink unreasonably [in order to make a petition to the heavenly ofﬁce]? If one must submit a petition and later a judgment is given, we know for the ﬁrst time that the Lord of the Way has no ability to profoundly examine things, and the heavenly administrative staff does not possess the function of the heavenly eyes. [The spiritual ofﬁcials of] the Three Ofﬁces (san’guan, the ofﬁces of Heaven, Earth, and Water) tire of attending to legal cases and spiritual ofﬁcers are exhausted by arresting [sinners]. To hear a petition is originally intended for those who are suddenly taken ill, but if one submits a petition on the day of wuchen it never reaches [the Most High Lord Lao]. Since the petition does not reach him, the petitioner will be wronged and driven to death.

Alas, it is sad! This is truly the ﬁfth rebellious act.

To Be Afraid of Evil Spirits and Wear Talismans is the Atrocity of Lawlessness—The First

For those who follow the correct Way sincerely, even recalcitrant evil spirits reform their [harmful] force. For this reason, sages of the superlative degree and people of lofty wisdom are devoid of emotions through myriad changes. Therefore they can profoundly enjoy music played with instruments made of metal or stone and sleep in mists and rosy clouds (i.e., nature). This is because their pure sincerity touches [Heaven] and is understood [by Heaven]. How can wearing [talismans] make [sages and wise people expe- rience] this? The words of the [Daoist] scriptures falsely exaggerate the harm caused by spirits. [The scripture] says:

If one carries the talisman of the Grand Terminus (Taijizhang) on the left and the iron sword of Kunwu on the right, when he points to the

sun, the sun stops shining, and when he imitates a spiritual being, he can cover an area even a thousand li away with blood.

If one receives the Yellow Book and the Red Writing (Chizhang, a talisman register written in red ink), [Daoists] say that he is a numinous transcendent. They put on shoes made of stone and enter the oratory ( jingshi), yet they cannot have an audience with the Most High [Lord Lao]. Regarding the matter of using a talisman to protect one against evil spirits on the six jia days and bowing one’s head to ground in a toilet, (just as Guo Jingchun said that those of the Daoist school go into a toilet to exorcise evil spirits but in the end they are unsuccessful), they are senseless and confused. How could this be the way for those who know rules and [have] integrity? I have heard about wearing talismans. In former days, as a group symbol, there were the yellow signs used by Zhang Jiao’s [group], the dark red-colored signs worn by [Zhang] Zi Lu’s [group], the purple marks [used by] by Lu Song’s [group], and the tactics called guxu (“solitary void”) [used] by Sun En’s [group]. They all powerfully confused the emperor’s troops, but in the end their people and spiritual beings were all exterminated.

To Institute Imposing a Tax or Donation on the People is the Atrocity of Skillful Deception—The Second

The teaching of the [Way of the] Five Pecks of Grain was founded by the Heavenly Master (i.e., Zhang Ling). Later it became vicious and corrupt. In addition, his group established [the system to collect grain as a tax from] the followers. People of the world loathed and feared [the group]. Therefore, [the Daoists] Zi Ming and Du [Zi]gong were both worried about [being swal- lowed] by an evil python [just as Zhang Ling had been].

Moreover, as for the Mud and Ash Fête (Tutanzhai), the ritual was begun by Zhang Lu. Since it was difﬁcult to edify the Di and Yi tribespeople, he established this ritual in which the practitioners tumble about in mud like a donkey, put yellow alkaline mud on their faces, bump their heads against a pillar and hang down, beating their bodies, just as clay is fashioned. This rite is designated to the borderland; it should not be performed in China.

At the beginning of the Yixi era (405 C.E.), there was Wang Gongqi, who was greedy for treasures. He avoided ascetic practices and excluded beating [his body] in private [from the practice]. Lu Xiujing (406–477 C.E.) of the

Wu area was quite aware that the ritual was originally abnormal, but still he smeared mud on his forehead and hung down with his hands bound behind his back. This is the extremity of idiotic and abnormal practices. I would be happy if you do not speak of this.

To Open a Kitchen at the Gate of a Tomb is the Atrocity of Not Being Benevolent—The Third

To open the city gate and give great alms to the people is understood to be virtuous.6 In the lingering vapor of the heterodox path (i.e., the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain) they open a kitchen at the gate of a tomb and give food to pitiful people, which becomes a disorderly situation. Formerly Zhang Zi Lu inaugurated a meritorious event in Guanzhong (present-day Shaanxi province) and gathered a large crowd of libationers and spiritual soldiers. (Spiritual soldiers [guizu], spiritual people [guimin], spiritual ofﬁcers [guili], and the Way of Spiritual Beings [Guidao] were created by [Zhang] Zi Lu, who looked down upon the Di and Yi tribes. Furthermore, the titles Heavenly Master [Tianshi], Succeeding Master [Xishi], Heir Master [sishi], and Master of Three Daughters [Sannüshi] were eulogistic titles created by Zhang Lu for himself. Moreover, the Woman of the Way [Daogu], the Man of the Way [Daonan], the Capped Female Ofﬁcials [Guannüguan], the Father of the Way [Daofu], the Mother of the Way [Daomu], the Spiritual Lord (Shenjun), and the [True Lord’s] Seed People [(Zhenjun) zhongmin] are names given to followers after they perform the ritual sexual practices of the union of the yin and yang energies. In addition, the People of Grain [Mimin], the Family of Grain [Mixing], the Supervisor of Merit [Dugong], and the Libationer [ Jijiu] are titles given in order to placate followers in hard times. Again, the Deﬁcient of the Way [Pindao; i.e., the humble self-reference of a Daoist priest] and the Dharma Master of the Three Grottoes [Sandong fashi] are titles created by Senghui of Chang’an. Moveover, the Learned Elder [Xiansheng], the People of the Way [Daomin], and the King of the Transcen- dent Lord [Xiangongwang] were created by Wang Lingqi, a man of Moling county. Furthermore, [the titles] Daoist Priest [Daoshi], Bandit of Ants [Yize], Controller of Wine [Zhiijiu], and Bandit of Grain [Mize] are named by what the people consider. Moreover, regarding the Dharma Master [Fashi], the Dharma Preacher [Dujiang], and the Attendant of Scriptures [Shijing], Lu

Xiujing established these names relying on Buddhism and following the world. The Lord of Heaven [Tiangong], the Lord of Earth [Digong], and the Vassal [Chen] or Concubine [Qie] are also designated. The Way of Great Peace [Taipingdao], the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain, the Great Way [Dadao], the Purple Way [Zidao], and the Teacher of Spiritual Beings [Guishen shijun] were false prestigious titles created during the rebellious times. In addition, Luan Da of the Jiaodong region (present-day Shandong province) was appointed to the post of General of Five Proﬁts [Wuli jiangjun]. Even though he was installed as a feudal lord he had none of the principles of a high-ranking ofﬁcial. By the end of the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, this title was no longer used.)

[Zhang Zi Lu] drank [wine] excessively and consequently fell into a drunken frenzy. His disgrace spread far and wide, and eventually reached the far-distant Min region [of the Ba Shu area (present-day Sichuan province)]. Liu Zhang, [a prince of the Ba Shu area,] admonished [Zhang Zi Lu], “Even the numinous transcendent refrains from taking pine nuts and the mist of clouds in order to preserve his life, yet you lead a luxurious life and relish good food and drink. How can you respect the Way?” When [Zhang] Zi Lu heard this, he was deeply resentful but felt ashamed in his mind. He punished himself and cleared roads. He imparted [this practice] to Daoists in the world. Later, in an assembly, he submitted a written form in order to prevent such difﬁculties. Concurrently, he established the rules of kitchen in which [the consumption of] wine is limited to three sheng.7 From the end of the Han dynasty onward, he was called the Controller of Wine.

At the time of Wang Lingqi the category of the sin was removed. The Learned Elders and the People of the Way were bestowed with [wine]. This is similar to [the case where] although [Luan Da] had the nobility of the [General of] Five Proﬁts, [his name] became the name of a monster.

To Deliver Living Creatures from Distress and Suffering is the Atrocity of Wild Imagination—The Fourth

The physical body is more fragile than the calyx of ripe fruit in fall and life is more transitory than ice in spring. The wind of karma blows widely and vigorously in the transitory realm. Therefore, Lord Jing [of Qi state] left [his life] in conditioned fate,8 and Sunzi recorded that [Lord Jing] was a

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walking corpse. Deluded people and those of shallow learning are not aware of the Great Law (i.e., Dharma). When they have an illness, fall into decline, or experience disaster, they are much more deluded and [thus] deepen the cause [of their misfortune] under the inﬂuence of evil spirits; they consider that a spiritual myna bird is the cause of disaster and try to turn their disasters over to the distant Milky Way; [they think it is inauspicious] to see a ﬁshing star (diaoxing; i.e., a night-traveling prostitute) at the place where water falls in drops. [Therefore, when they see such a case] they wash the talisman written in red ink (i.e., the Red Writing) in clean water of Mount Hua. Then they frown and revile the spirits of the unseen world, saying, “The messengers of the Three [Spiritual] Ofﬁces have already sent [the spirit of] the dead.” One who is going to die will naturally die. To vainly mourn [in this way] is nothing other than throwing away money. This is really only the libationer’s scheme to proﬁt from [donations of] clothes and food, and they exploit people just as a silk worm consumes mulberry leaves. It is loss for both the public and private sectors. It results in startling the highest sage by a burning house and manipulating people’s emotion with an elegy.

To Commit a Sin in a Dream is the Atrocity of Ignorance—The Fifth

Human beings originate with the function of consciousness as the foun- dation. The amount of grass and trees is not greater than the number of times they have abandoned their lives. In this case, even the great earth, hills, and mountains are all my former traces. A broad, blue river is all my tears and blood. Observing from this point of view, who would not be my close friend? [Nevertheless,] if someone sees in a dream someone who has passed away, then people say that it is a ghost or an apparition. Even though human beings differ from spiritual beings, both are assuredly the same in arising and extinc- tion. Their feelings of kindness and affection sometimes inﬂuence each other. All evil spirits are ill-mannered and do not understand the law of submission and opposition. [Daoists] summon and feed spiritual ofﬁcers and soldiers, and report to [the Lord of Heaven] in written form in order to judge them (i.e., the evil spirits). They can cut off disembodied spirits, but who can illu- minate their minds? I hope that in future you will not uphold superstitious words. Then it causes [the departed spirits of your ancestors] to have no thought of stopping a meal before ﬁnishing in Heaven and [hell beings] to calm the voice of disastrous thoughts in the icy river [of hell].

To Hastily Make Cold and Hot is the Atrocity of Ferocity and Hypocrisy—The Sixth

To profoundly calm the mind and keep silence is the true virtue among myriad acts. Generally, sentient beings in this world have no mercy. Those who are ﬁerce, cruel, evil, and vicious vie with one another in making talismans. They hang [the talisman] on a gate or attach it to a door and deceive ignorant people. Lofty, wise people and intellectuals are still not content with this. [Daoists] make the Yellow God (huangshen) and the transgressed talismans (yuezhang),9 and with them they kill [evil] spirits. Furthermore, they set up the Red Writing, which is used to kill people. Their interest is only to please human nature without taking disastrous sin into account. Regarding [the results of] making conspiracies and harboring jealousy, old patterns are found in [Buddhist] scriptures. [Such people] will go to the great hell of pincers after death and will be reborn as an owl or a shrike, or they will be dumb [upon their rebirth]. Their spirits and skeletons will decay in confusion and drown and perish [in sins] eternally. Who is aware of this?

For our dear spiritual people of Daoism, the characteristics of the Way are not so. The issues must be questioned. Although severe admonition is bitter, wise people should submissively listen to it. Therefore, I have brieﬂy conveyed my best regards. I hope you will try to think about them repeatedly. If you can correct your conduct and change your plan, you will be in the same practice of the great ediﬁcation (i.e., Buddhism). If you cannot adequately reform your- self, please wait for a person of the highest virtue [to appear] and prepare yourself to be illuminated by the melody of his song (i.e., his teaching) in order to understand the long night [of spiritual darkness]. Is this (i.e., the teaching) something that I can explain with my weak words today?

The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions (Miehuo lun) by Liu Xie, Record Keeper

at Dongguan County

A person composed the Discourse on the Triple Destruction (Sanpo lun).10 Its purpose and testimonies are vulgar and its literary style is philistine. Even though people of profound knowledge ascertain the highest principles, people of shallow ideas are confused by groundless statements. The vulgar views

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of townspeople [such as those found in the Discourse on the Triple Destruc- tion] are truly not worthy of argument, but on second thought I am afraid that if ordinary people hear [this discourse] they may think it is true. For the time being I will take up what can be adopted from [the Discourse on the Triple Destruction] and brieﬂy give my correct account.

The Discourse on the Triple Destruction says, “The excellent point of the Daoist teaching lies in putting all one’s thought in the attainment of the One and becoming a sage without death. On the other hand, the wonderful point of the Buddhist teaching lies in samādhi, in which one attains supernatural powers and is able to wish for no rebirth. Death is named nirvana. I have never seen a person who learns about death and yet does not die.”

The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “The true and the false of these two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism) are evident and easily argued. In the Buddhist teaching one trains the mind, while in the Daoist teaching one exercises the body. The body that must die is conﬁned within a time period and a place. The spirit is boundless and can go around the cir- cumference of the world twice [in a single moment]. Bright people avail themselves of boundlessness and teach others with distinctive wisdom. Dark people feel a persistent attachment to [their bodies] that must die, and deceive others with [the ﬁction of becoming] a ﬂying transcendent. The heart of the art of the transcendent is food and medicine. [Buddhist] conduct based on wisdom begins with meditation. Since meditation trains the true consciousness, it is exquisite and delicate, and nirvana can be wished for. Medicine, on the other hand, detains the impermanent body [temporally in this world], and consequently even if one puts all his thought [toward attainment of the One], he will be thrown into disorder endlessly. If one abandons the wonderful treasury (i.e., Buddhism), loses his wisdom, and nourishes his body, when we prove it on the basis of principles we can know [his course] is false. If his body ﬂies into boundless space and his spirit, which remains in the dark, ﬂies up to Heaven like a hawk, how could he escape from being a bird? In the wonderful fruition of nirvana, the Way is simply eternal. How could the assertion of ‘learning about death’ be about analyzing principles?”

The Discourse on the Triple Destruction says, “If it is said that a prince is the founder of the [Buddhist] teaching, then he did not take the tonsure yet he causes others to shave their heads; he did not give up his wife, yet he

causes others to cut off their posterity (i.e., to stay unmarried and childless); this is really laughable. We clearly know that Buddhism is precisely the art to exterminate evils. I have humbly learned that, regarding the virtue of gen- tlemen, our bodies, down to each hair and every bit of skin, are received from our parents and therefore we must not presume to damage them; this is the beginning of ﬁlial piety.”11

The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “The prince gave up his wife and took the tonsure. This matter is evidenced in Buddhist scriptures. Isn’t it deceptive to call white black? What Buddhist ﬁlial piety covers is probably more extensive. Reason is due to the mind, and has nothing to do with one’s hair. If a person has a persistent attachment to his or her hair and disregards their mind, what can he or she take hold of for ﬁlial piety? Formerly, [the two brothers] Taibo and Yuzhong cut their hair short and tattooed their bodies [in order to abdicate the throne for their younger brother Jili].12 The Master (i.e., Confucius) praised them both for their highest virtue and their timely conduct.13 Wise people in the secular world should practice worldly decorum, but [the two brothers’ conduct,] cutting their hair to abdicate the throne, [has been transmitted] as the praiseworthy anecdote of sages and saints, not to mention the teaching of prajñā. Conduct [based on this] is more clearly well-timed; the fruition of highest wisdom (i.e., enlightenment) is more wonderful than abdication in reason. Since [enlightenment] is more wonderful than abdication in reason, [Buddhist monks] shave their heads and follow the Way. Since the conduct based on [the teaching of prajñā] is more clearly well-timed, they abandon worldly conduct and seek the mind. Judging from the two wise men (i.e., Taibo and Yuzhong), [Buddhist monks] have no deﬁciency in ﬁlial piety. When you examine it with a sacred state of mind, of what are you doubtful?”

As for the ﬁrst kind of destruction, [the Discourse on the Triple Destruc- tion] says, “[Buddhism] is something that entered our country and destroys it. [Buddhist monks] talk nonsense with falsehoods, build [temples] regardless of the expense, exploit people, empty the National [Treasury], and put people in distress. Since they do not help the country, the population decreases. If we see a case where people do not conduct sericulture and yet wear [silk clothes] or where they do not cultivate land but have food, the country will go to ruin and the people will become extinct. Because of this, [Buddhism]

50a

is a failure; [Buddhist monks cause] losses and waste things in daily use. There is no beneﬁt at all; even the suffering from the ﬁve kinds of disasters is no worse than that caused by them.”14

The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “The teaching of Maha- yana Buddhism is completely perfect; it probes into the very root of truth and is the most subtle. Therefore, [this teaching] clariﬁes the twofold truth [of absolute and relative reality] in order to drive existence away, and speaks of the three levels of apprehension of emptiness (sankong) in order to put a mark on nonexistence. The four immeasurable minds (Skt. catur-apramāṇa) promote people’s distinctive minds. The six pāramitās save people from karmic suf- fering. Even though you slander them by saying ‘[Buddhist monks] talk non- sense,’ how could you damage the sun and moon (i.e., Buddhism)? They build Buddhist temples in order to expound and propagate the wonderful teaching. While the construction work is momentary the teaching lasts a thousand years. “In former times, when [Sage King] Yu gathered all the lords, many states presented gems and silk to him. Later, in the epoch of the Warring States (403–221 B.C.E.), only seven lords (i.e., those of the states of Qin, Chu, Yan, Qi, Han, Zhao, and Wei) survived. During the Taishi era (96–93 B.C.E.) [of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty], the government ﬂourished and every household was prosperous, too. [Nevertheless,] the disturbance of the Red Eyebrows caused the land within a thousand li [from the capital city, Chang’an,] to have no human habitation.15 ‘The country will go to ruin and the people will become extinct.’ Why is this due to [Buddhism]? In the reign periods of Hai (i.e., Hu Hai, the second emperor of the Qin dynasty, 209– 207 B.C.E.) and Ying (the third emperor, 207 B.C.E.) one dan of grain cost a hundred thousand qian. During the reign periods of Emperor Jing (157– 141 B.C.E.) and Emperor Wu [of the Former Han dynasty] the stored grain became red and rotted. There were few Buddhist monks at the end of the Qin dynasty, and at the beginning of the Han dynasty there was the Buddhist teaching. If we analyze [events that happened in] the past and accord [their causes] to present conditions, how can it be said that [Buddhism] has been

harmful to state affairs?”

As for the second kind of destruction, [the Discourse on the Triple Destruc- tion] says, “[Buddhism] comes into a family and ruins it. [Buddhism] causes

a father and his sons to differ from each other in their behavior, brothers to differ from each other in following rules, [children] to desert their parents, and the Way of ﬁlial piety ceases, [family members] separate from each other on sad or pleasant occasions or do not sing or weep together, enmity arises between kinsmen, a relative in mourning is eternally abandoned, [family members] go against what they have been taught and violate the right order, and [children] do not repay [the kindness of their parents, who are as lofty as] Heaven. Nothing among the ﬁve rebellious acts and impious conduct is worse than these.” The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “The principle of ﬁlial piety is supreme and runs through Buddhist clergy as well as laypeople equally. Although the Buddhist teaching differs from the non-Buddhist teaching (i.e., Confucianism) in conduct, the function of mind is the same in principle. If my fate falls in the secular realms, I will basically cultivate myself according to the decorum of Confucianism. When my fate receives the fruition of the Buddhist Way, I assuredly propagate ﬁlial piety in the pure conduct [of Buddhism]. Hence, the Lotus Sutra clariﬁes the meaning of conferring with one’s parents [about becoming a Buddhist monk].16 The Vimalakīrtinirdeśa- sūtra is an example for learning after hearing.17 How could [Buddhist monks]

forget the foundation?

“There are reasons they do so. They all realize the principles of the mind and examine and illuminate the human world. [The metaphor of] passing horses exceeds proverbs.18 A stream aggrieves the superb sage’s heart.19 Therefore, we know that even if we attend our parents with devotion through- out our life, which is as short as the blinking of an eye, there is no salvation for the disembodied spirit. If we learn the [Buddhist] Way and take our parents out [of the realm of suffering], then the suffering of the netherworld will vanish eternally. [Buddhist monks] ascertain that there is no failure in [Buddha’s] subtle response to us and discern that it is certainly possible to attain the wonderful fruition.

“Consequently the gravity of matters is weighed; that (i.e., the less impor- tant matter) is rejected and this (i.e., the more important matter) is adopted. Issues such as the rules of mourning [and the funeral] system are executed in order to commemorate remote ancestors. Even though rites are based on

the mind, they still follow secular customs. 50b

“In former days when the Three Augusts governed well, they were adored by [the sage kings] Yao and Shun. When one died, [his corpse] was covered with pieces of wood and laid in an open ﬁeld, without raising a mound over it or planting trees around it.20 There is no historical record about a mourner’s staff ( juzhang) or a mourning dress (zhanshuai). How could it be said that the Three Augusts instructed [the people] to reject ﬁlial piety?

“At the time of the Five Thearchs the mourning [and funeral] system was brilliantly established, [but] it has not been heard that Yao and Shun performed a rite and blamed the Three Augusts belatedly [for not having a mourning and funeral system]. The Three Augusts have never been blamed [for such, either]. Why is the Buddha alone doubted? The reason the Buddha has no rule for mourning [and the funeral] system is because his aim is to get rid of suffering. Why the Three Augusts abolished the mourning practices is because they followed the sincere and simple customs [of their time]. [Following] sincere and simple customs is not doubted, yet getting rid of suffering is reproached. This is what is called one who is inconsistent (chaosan musi) and who mixes up joy and anger.21 [From this] it is clearly known that the teachings of the sages are perfectly understood, complying with what people feel. The Three Augusts did not have the system of mourning practices because they [followed] the sincere and simple customs [of their time]; the Five Thearchs formulated the mourning [and funeral] system according to people’s feelings. Since Śākyamuni [intended to] get rid of suffering, he abandoned secular customs and returned to the truth. When the traces [of these sages] are inspected, [we know] there are different paths, but their pro- found ediﬁcations result in the same point.”

As for the third kind of destruction, [the Discourse on the Triple Destruc- tion] says, “[Buddhism] enters one’s body and destroys it. In the body born as a human being, there is ﬁrst of all the suffering of injury; second, the pain of punishment of shaving off the hair; third, the rebellious sin of being impious to one’s parents; fourth, the sin of extinguishing [one’s family line by not having] offspring; and ﬁfth, [the sin of] damaging the body, [all because of] following the Buddhist precepts and learning only impiety. Why do I say this? The precepts cause [Buddhist monks] to not bow to their parents. They vie with one another in following them. If a boy becomes a novice (Skt. śrā- maṇera) ﬁrst and later his mother becomes a nun, she must bow down to her

own son. The teaching of discourtesy should be terminated in China. How could we follow it?”

The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “The body in which one dwells and the mind he receives are determined, in reason, by conduct per- formed in a previous life. Whether someone enters the [Buddhist] Way or stays in the secular life is, in truth, linked with the causality [of his circum- stances]. For this reason, Śākyamuni appeared in the world and his ediﬁcation diffuses throughout Heaven and the human world. The trace of the [Buddhist] Way is testiﬁed to both in governing a country and ruling a family. I have never heard that all the people of the world renounce the world at the same time, because [each person] varies in giving rise to faith. Therefore there are two noble teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Confucianism). This is why the ofﬁ- cial class is different from that of śramaṇas.

“When we ﬁrst begin to free ourselves from the secular world, we must depend on the precepts and meditation in reason. A wife is a nuisance of affec- tion, and having hair is merely an adornment of one’s appearance. The nuisance of affection damages the mind and [being concerned with] the adornment of one’s appearance goes against the [Buddhist] Way. Therefore, [Buddhist monks] purify their minds and exterminate affection, and attending to the [Buddhist] Way they give up adornment. When principles go beyond the ordi- nary level, the teaching must reverse the secular way. If one does not bow to his parents, it is because the [Buddhist] Way is esteemed. If the parents bow to [their monk son], it is because they respect the [Buddhist] Way. The [Yi]li (Ceremonies for Courtesy) states that when a son who newly wears the cap [that marks his attainment of manhood] sees his mother, the mother bows to him. She is delighted with her son who is possessed of virtue. Therefore she condescends and bows to her inferior (i.e., her son). When a man in armor meets the ruler, he does not bow. Since it is valued that he holds weapons in his hands, to honor [the ruler by bowing] does not apply to [this man]. “The cap made of black fabric is used for minor ceremonies; originally

it had no signiﬁcance in the Way of the Spirit. A helmet and armor are instru- ments of evil omen and have no highest virtue. Nevertheless, in the case where respect is to be paid, a mother bows to her son. In the proper circum- stances to suspend paying one’s respects, vassals do not kneel down and bow to the ruler. The provisions of decorum are [part of] the worldly teaching

50c

established by the Duke of Zhou and Confucius. Speaking of its ﬂexibility, it is not only from one pattern, not to mention the dignity of the Buddhist Way that reveals beyond the three realms of existence, which is the subtle foundation of the marvelous teaching and the profound origin of a great num- ber of principles. If this [teaching] is given to a person, he really is more respectable than those who wear caps or armor. If those who wear caps or armor go against decorum, no one of any age will doubt them. Regarding the dignity that is given to the Buddhist Way, why are you surprised by it?” The Discourse on the Triple Destruction says, “Fo (the Chinese term for “buddha”) is indicated as futu (“to slaughter as a punishment”) in old Buddhist scriptures. Kumārajīva changed it to fotu (“a follower of Buddhism”) since he knew the derivation of the term futu (“to slaughter as a punishment”) is evil. The word futu was used because barbarians are atrocious. Laozi said, ‘I will educate [a person] at a fundamental level and I do not intend to injure his body.’22 Therefore, the punishment of shaving [a criminal’s] head was called futu (“to slaughter as a punishment”), which was compared with tuge (“to slaughter and sever”). Later Senghui changed it to fotu (“great plan”). Originally, in old Buddhist scriptures [Buddhist monks] are called sangmen (“gate of the dead”). The term sangmen derives from the gate of annihilation. Since it is said that the [Buddhist] Dharma is the teaching about nonarising (or nonbirth), [Buddhist monks] are called sangmen. Again, Kumārajīva changed it to sangmen (“gate of mulberry trees”). Senghui changed it once again to shamen (“gate of sorting”). The term shamen derives from the law of careful selection. Buddhist monks are not worthy of being called [shamen].” The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “Buddhist scriptures were transmitted [to China] for the ﬁrst time during Emperor Ming’s reign (57–75 C.E.) of the Later Han dynasty. Therefore, the sounds and the Chinese characters used for the transliteration [of foreign words] were not correct. The sound of fu (“ﬂoating”) is similar to that of fo (“buddha”) and the sound of sang (“mulberry tree”) is like that of sha (“sorting”). These [examples] show the slippage of pronunciations. To take tu (“plan”) as tu (“to slaughter”) is a divergence from the Chinese characters. Kumārajīva was well versed in Chinese and foreign languages; he knew both the sounds and their meanings.

It is indeed appropriate for him to correct such errors.

“The Five Classics are traditional Chinese books. Studies of them are not based on translation, but in both Ma [Ron]’s and Zheng [Xuan]’s annotations on them, the sounds and Chinese characters are interchanged. Hence, in a sentence [of the annotation,] ‘How deep and recordable are they (yu mubuji)!’ there is an error between the original text and the annotation in the hymns of Zhou [in the Book of Odes],23 and in the section ‘He is truly blocked up and peaceful (yunse anan),’ the interpretation [of the annotation] contradicts the sage’s virtue in the Yao dian [in the Book of History].24 Why is it regarded that the profundity of the highest teaching exists only within these two words (i.e., “highest” and “teaching”)? Zhuangzi understood to forget the words after apprehending the ideas [conveyed through the words].25 Mencius ridiculed the harm done to one’s ideas by written language.26 You have not traced back to the great principles and only pursue words. Could the people’s lack in versatility in Song state [during the Warring States period] have been any worse than this?”27

The Discourse on the Triple Destruction says, “The teaching to destroy the three entities (i.e., one’s country, one’s family, and oneself) is not applicable in China. Originally it was intended to correct [the tribespeople of] the western region. Why do we meddle in it? Tribespeople are matchless in being indomitable and uncivil. They do not differ much from beasts, and they do not believe in absolute vacancy (xuwu). After Laozi entered [the western region] through [Hangu] Pass, he intentionally established the teaching [to worship] the images [of buddhas and bodhisattvas] and ediﬁed them.” Furthermore [the Discourse on the Triple Destruction] says, “Tribespeople are ﬁerce and rude. [Laozi] intended to cut off their evil seeds. Consequently he ordered the men not to take a woman in marriage and the women not to get married to a man. If all the nations submit themselves to this teaching,

evil seeds will naturally be extinguished.”

The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “[Śākyamuni] obscured his trace under the twin [śāla] trees and then his images took his place. There is no doubt that [the Buddha’s] truth has been exquisite from the ancient time of nonbeginning, and the [Buddhist] Way will cover the endless [future]. Examining the event when Elder Li (i.e., Laozi) went over [Hangu] Pass, the time period falls in the last years of the Zhou dynasty. Since the world

51a

was in isolation and wise people lived in reclusion, he departed and forgot to come back. Even when Jie Yu withdrew from worldly affairs28 he wiped out his trace, not to mention [Laozi who] went to the foreign land. Who could catch sight of his footprints? Thereafter, a cunning and wicked libationer (i.e., Wang Fu) composed the Scripture on the Conversion of the Barbarians [by Laozi] (Laozi huahu jing). The doctrine [of this scripture] is clumsy and its expressions are vulgar. [The scripture] has been transmitted by petty people. When I examine it, [I realize that] the western tribespeople are weak and cowardly, while the northern tribespeople are evil and vigorous. If Laozi gave up virtue and employed punishment in order to destroy evil, why did he love the evil northern tribe, contrarily conquer the weak western tribe, and then cause the Xianyun tribe (i.e., the Huns) to run wild and their poison to ﬂow all over the world?

‘“[Ravenous and cruel beasts, such as] jackals and wolves, are on the road, and [they] kill foxes and raccoon dogs. Dragging each other to total ruin, [ravenous and cruel beasts] commit cruelties. Nothing [about the kindness of] Heaven and Earth is conveyed. Even the [harsh] law made by Shang Yang [of the Qin dynasty] is not as cruel as this. How could the way of Boyang (i.e., Laozi) be like this? Moreover, it is useless if images of the founder of the teaching are provided before people [know and] follow [the teaching]. If people faithfully follow the teaching, massacres can be prevented. If only those who already follow [the teaching] are given the death penalty, this means that a single word can cause morality to be lost and numerous false- hoods to be visible. What reason could be seen in the sayings of an unculti- vated person of the east [of Qi state]?”29

The Discourse on the Triple Destruction says, “Now I wonder by what means people such as the Three Augusts, the Five Thearchs, and the Three Kings learned the Way. They all received responses from [Heaven], but we have not heard about [their association with] Buddhism. Is it because the Nine August Ones ( jiuhuang) disregarded it,30 or because Buddhism had not yet been established? If [you say that] it is because Buddhism had not yet been established, this is vicious and false. I will not say anything more about this.” The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “Regarding supernatural powers and transformations, the substance of [the Buddha’s] teaching is not one. Receiving mysterious responses appears and disappears endlessly. If a

condition exists in the subtle ediﬁcation, bodhisattvas propagate the teaching, and if the ediﬁcation exists in a coarse condition, sage rulers exercise their virtue. Sage rulers and bodhisattvas reveal their responses in accordance with what they receive. Different teachings are united. There is originally no [teaching] that is not of the Buddha. It is certainly known that after the time of the Three Augusts what [these sages] received was extinguished and what was distinguished was hidden, but in the teaching during Emperor Ming’s reign (57–75 C.E.) of the Later Han dynasty, the condition responded to [the world] and the [Buddha] image appeared. Such things as the Three Augusts’ inﬂuence by means of virtue and the Five Thearchs’ education with benevolence are called the Way, but this seems not to be the highest [teaching]. We have not heard that when [Fu]xi and [Shen] Nong conducted their admin- istrations there were written reports to them. Yao and Shun continued their administrations. How could they have approved of talismans? King Tang and King Wu eased the violent conditions. Would they have ever taken elixirs? The Five Classics do not mention the Heavenly Master, yet [the Discourse on the Triple Destruction] seeks instructions from these sage rulers. Isn’t this sad?”

The Discourse on the Triple Destruction says, “In Daoism material force (qi) is considered to be the foundation, and the achievement is attainment of the One. When I examine the people of the Central Plains (i.e., the downstream regions of the Yellow River), there is no one who does not believe in Daoism. Those now in China who believe in Buddhism must be from a tribal back- ground. If they say they are not, why then do they believe in Buddhism?” The Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions says, “The ultimate of the highest Way results in the One in reason. The true state of the subtle Dharma is originally nondual. The highest [achievement] of the Buddha is empty, profound, and formless, but he responds to all aspects of natural phenomena. [The Buddha] entered the state of tranquility and extinction (i.e., nirvana) and he has no thought in his mind, yet his profound wisdom shines more and more. Our invisible fate secretly encounters [the providence of the Buddha], yet no one sees its culmination. We employ the deep merit [of the Buddha] daily, yet we are not aware that we are doing so. Once all aspects of natural phenomena have been produced, we consequently create tentative names

and simply say bodhi in Sanskrit and ‘the Way’ in Chinese.

51b

“When [the Buddha] reveals his trace, he shows his sacredness with his golden form. When he responded to the secular world, he was born [as a prince] in a royal palace. In order to get rid of ignorance, the four-stage med- itation (Skt. caturdhyāna) is considered to be the beginning. In order to develop wisdom, the ten [bodhisattva] stages (Skt. daśabhūmi) are considered to be the way leading to the goal. All dragons and spirits are equally guided, and even insects are equally loved.

“The expedient teaching has no set rules. There is no contradiction between [Buddhist] clergy and laypeople in [the Buddha’s] response. The subtle edi- ﬁcation is very extensive. Could there be any difference between Chinese people and foreigners in his mind? Therefore, when [the Buddha] expounds the Dharma in one language, people who speak a different language from each other all understand it together. When [the teaching of] the One Vehicle is expounded, [people who have learned] different scriptures are led to the same [awakening]. Since Buddhist scriptures follow expedients, although the teaching of Confucius is different from that of Śākyamuni, [both teachings] tally with the Way. Since understanding similarly follows the subtle teaching, although the foreign language differs from Chinese, the ediﬁcation is com- prehended in both [foreign lands and in China].

“There are, however, exquisiteness and coarseness in [people’s] perception. Therefore, the teaching is divided into two; one for the clergy and the other for laypeople. Because there are [the directions of] east and west on earth, a country ﬁxes its boundary between its interior and its exterior. In extensively administrating the marvelous ediﬁcation and educating and molding sentient beings, there is no distinction. Assuredly [Buddhism] can save [all sentient beings] in the six realms of existence and completely regulate the trichilio- cosm. The Way is simply the highest, and the Dharma is merely the most honored. Nevertheless, even though the highest Way is one, delusions arise at the crossroads. The ninety-six non-Buddhist teachings all claim to be the Way. When we hear their names, we cannot tell whether they are evil or vir- tuous, but when we verify their teachings, their truth or falsehood is spon- taneously proven.

“According to the Daoist system, there are three classes. Laozi is marked as the highest, the divine transcendent follows him, and Zhang Ling comes last. The Most High [Lord Lao] is the main body to worship. Considering the

Archivist’s (i.e., Laozi’s) great escape [to the western region], he is really a great, virtuous man; he wrote a book; he treated of the Way; he valued non- action; he attributed reason to being still and uniform (jingyi);31 and his teach- ing is based on voidness and suppleness. Nevertheless, he did not record about the three periods [of existence], and the conduct based on wisdom was not transmitted by him. This means that [his writing] is a good guidebook for secular people, but it is not a wonderful scripture beyond the mundane world. The petty way, like that of the Divine Transcendent, is called the Five Directions (wutong). Their highest happiness is to be reborn in Heaven; the best of one’s physical ability is to soar up [into the sky]; one attains super- natural powers and yet cannot escape from having deﬁlements; one has a long life and yet cannot avoid death. Merits are not expected from food and medicine. Virtue follows practice and cultivation. Thereupon, ignorant and crafty Daoists give rise to false pretexts; Zhang Ling, a grain thief, was recorded to have ascended to Heaven; and Ge Xuan, a rustic, was made known as Lord Transcendent (xian’gong) in his biography. Ignorant people are deluded in this way. Can intelligent people be deceived?

“Today when we speak of [Daoism] based on the way of Venerable Sir Li (i.e., Laozi), the shortcoming of the [Daoist] teaching is like this. When we clarify [the art of] the divine transcendent following [the way of Laozi], its essence is of low quality like this. The ﬁrst and second points [mentioned above] are excellent, but they are still matters of no importance.

“Moreover, imitating [Zhang] Ling and [Zhang] Lu, [Daoists] perform religious services and make petitions and talismans. They established the teaching of [the Way of] the Five Pecks [of Grain] and intend to save [sentient beings] in the three realms of existence. It is as if a mosquito were to try to carry a mountain on its back. How could they be competent enough [for such a task]? They hold up the name of the Great Way, but their teaching is below the level of secular [teaching]. They put up the designation Most High [Lord Lao], but their law is extremely idiotic. How do I know this?

“To wish greedily for a long life and to fear an early death are common feelings of sentient beings. Therefore, with the transcendent elixirs called rouzhi and shihua [Daoists] deceive people in order to throw them into dis- order. To be amorous and touch one’s heart is something of which all people of the world are unanimously fond. Therefore, with the Yellow Book they

51c

control women, and falsely call themselves the earthly transcendent. The body that is ﬁrst vigorous and later weak is loved by all sentient beings. Hence, they value tears and saliva [as highly as] treasures in order to pour them onto the numinous root (i.e., a physical body). To avoid disaster, suf- fering, and disease is the constant concern of the people. Therefore, [Daoists] kill or bind evil spirits in order to make the people’s foolish minds feel happy. To rely on power and depend on military force is the traditional custom of the secular world. Therefore, with civil ofﬁcers, soldiers, and armed horsemen they stir up people’s shallow thoughts. Regarding the dissolute method to prevent calamities and the debauched way to control people by charms, the principles are vile and the words are disgraceful. I cannot convey them through writing. [Nevertheless,] since these issues ﬁt [the needs of] the pop- ulace, every household takes refuge in them and believes in them.

“Accordingly, Zhang Jiao and Li Hong exerted a harmful inﬂuence on society at the end of the Han dynasty. Rebellions led by Lu Song and Sun En ﬁlled the last years of the Jin dynasty. They have truly numerous followers wherever the aftermath extends. They are not lords in the ranks of the nobility, yet they imprudently established a register system of their followers. They have neither the tiger-shaped [copper tally to dispatch troops] nor the bamboo [tally to collect taxes] as a sign of their authority and rank, yet they recklessly collect taxes from [their followers]. They waste people’s property and ruin and delude men and women. When the vicissitudes [of the world] become a difﬁcult situation, they damage the country. When the world is peaceful, they gnaw at people. They destroy the government and foment rebellions. How could they be regarded to be the same as the Buddha?

“Moreover, how could the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra and the Mahāprajñā- pāramitā-sūtra be compared with the Inner Section of the Mysterious and Sublime (Xuanmiao Neipan) and scriptures of the Shangqing (“Supreme Purity”) school? Why would [the Buddha of] the golden form with the [thirty- two] excellent marks envy the [Daoist] room for spiritual beings (guishi) and the [Daoist] house of emptiness (kongwu; i.e., a place for cultivation, far away from towns and villages)? He who subjugated the devil king of Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven does not admire deceptive and vicious tricks. How could the pure cultivation and observance of the precepts be the same as the disgracefulness of [Daoist] tallies? To collect great vows in the mind

is better than to store up [a hundred and twenty spirits called] the Palace General (gongjiang) in the cinnabar ﬁeld (i.e., the abdomen). Is producing a clean and pure sound from a large bell similar to beating a heavenly drum with one’s lips and teeth (i.e., grinding the teeth)? If we compare [Buddhism with Daoism] in their forms and traces, their exquisiteness and coarseness are already far apart from each other. When we examine them with the ultimate principle, how could the truth and falsehood be hidden? If [Daoists] laugh at exquisiteness through its coarseness and slander truth with falsehood, this is precisely the same as the case of the blind man who says to Li Zhu, [who has very good eyesight,] ‘I can see clearly.’”

Response to the Discourse on the Triple Destruction, which Daoists Postulate

is Zhang Rong’s Composition (in Nineteen Articles)

by Shi Sengshun

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “Nirvana is precisely death. I have never seen a person who has learned about death and attained a long life.32 This is a teaching to extinguish the species.”

My explanation is, “Excessive endeavours to perpetuate life result in no life (i.e., death).33 People like Zhang Yi and Shan Bao are good examples of this.34 Accordingly, Confucianists say, ‘Everyone accounts death [as] a boon, and life [as] an evil.’35 Laozi says, ‘If I did not have a body, what great calamity could come to me?’36 Zhuangzi became ill and suffered from pain in his body. These three men are in a group of sages and virtuous men. They consider life to be trouble. If we want to seek no life, nothing is equal to nirvana; it is the sublime appellation of wuwei (nonaction). When the trace [of the Buddha] is spoken, there is a written record that [Śākyamuni was born in] a royal palace and [passed away under] twin [śāla] trees. When the reality [of the Buddha] is discussed, there is the doctrine, ‘eternality and everlasting bliss (changzhu changle).’ You, [however,] are now only transmigrating in the ﬁve realms of existence. How could you hear of the essential points of nirvana? There were once three blind men who handled an elephant; the one who touched the elephant’s ear insisted that an elephant is just like a winnower; another who touched the elephant’s nose disputed this and said that an elephant

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is like a pestle.37 Each one could know a part of the elephant, but they could not completely apprehend the actuality [or entirety] of the elephant after all. You say that nirvana is precisely death. You are truly like a blind man who touches only a part of an elephant.”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “The prince did not give up his wife and yet he causes others to cut off their posterity (i.e., remain unmarried and childless).”

My explanation is, “The sacredness [of the Buddha] is truly tranquil, but he manifested the traces. The prince took a consort as an heir [of the royal family] probably because he wanted to show the people that after he had ful- ﬁlled the way of human ethics, he was then simply able to abandon this great treasure (i.e., the throne) and forget his kindness and affection [for his family]. With regard to the facts: all the gods sent blessings from Heaven in the evening [when he was born]38 and he jumped over the castle [gate] astride a white horse [when he renounced the world];39 the reason for the ten epithets [for the Buddha] exists in these [events].

“Why should a wife and children be necessary? Moreover, children are the heaviest burden in the world. When one suffers from cold and hunger, he turns to thievery to make a living. When he has more than enough food and clothes, he becomes arrogant and extravagant. Therefore, when a leper woman delivers a baby at night, she hurriedly looks for a light to shine upon [the baby], anxious that the baby may, like herself, be a leper.40 A group of ordinary people is similar to a leper who delivers [a baby at night]. The [Nirvana] Sutra (Niepan jing) says, ‘All sentient beings have buddha-nature.’41 When we respectfully seek its purport, this refers exactly to those who have the seed of buddhahood. They give up their family, follow the [Buddhist] Way, reject evil, and take refuge in the Buddha. This is [the highest] bliss and beneﬁt. What else could be added to this? You are confused by the tenor of the secular world and stagnate in serious delusion. You are dreaming. How can you understand it?”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “The prince did not take the tonsure and yet he causes others to shave their heads.”

My explanation is, “Those who live with their family have their parents’ affection, while Buddhist monks have the valuable [instructions] of their strict teacher. Speaking of [parents’] love, one’s hair and skin are important.

Speaking of the strict [teacher], shaving the head is a difﬁcult task. Therefore, for [Buddhist monks] who are pleased to take the tonsure, who take long leave of their parents, and who wish to leave behind the deﬁlements of this world and approach the wuwei (i.e., nirvana) of that [world], it is still possible to give up their attachment to hair and skin. Why would they value highly things outside of themselves? If they do not think little of hair and skin, how could they respect the [Buddhist] Way? If they do not leave behind the rela- tions appointed by Heaven (i.e., familial relations), how could they follow their strict teacher?

“This can be compared to the mourning system: when one leaves [the family in which he was born] and becomes the head of his clan, he shortens [the mourning period] for his real parents and lengthens it for his adoptive parents. [This system] requires this person to assume the heavy responsibility of [maintaining] the ancestral temple of his adoptive family and cut off his love and care to [his real parents]. The fact that he is [in mourning] for his real parents for only one year is not because his gratitude [to his real parents] is weak. That [the mourning period] for his adoptive parents is extended to three years indicates the weight of his obligation indeed. The Book of Rites states: ‘The reason why one who leaves his original family must shorten [the mourning period for his real parents] is because what he receives [from his adoptive family] is greater.’42 This is an example of it. Sutras say that all heavenly beings offer swords and ascend to Heaven holding [Śākyamuni’s] hair.43 What do you mean by saying ‘[The prince] did not take the tonsure’? You are merely fearless in probing a matter to the bottom yet cowardly in seeking the purport. This is deplorable!”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “If a boy renounces the world ﬁrst and later his mother becomes a nun, she must bow down to her own son. This is extreme discourtesy.”

My explanation is, “Those who have renounced the world revere their teacher, value the Dharma, give up secular life, and follow the [Buddhist] Way. How could they be asked to act in the same way [as people in the secular world do]? Moreover, when the prince engaged in the learning, his father, the king, paid his respects to him. Gaozu, the founder of the Han dynasty, accepted the advice of the Household Prefect of his father, and considered his father to be his own subject.44 Lord Gaogui Xiang (i.e., Cao Mao, 241–260 C.E.),

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[the crown prince of] the Wei kingdom, revered the King of Qi [who had been dethroned] in his private chamber.45 Empress Dowager Chu of the Jin dynasty treated her father as a vassal in the Court.46 If we judge from these incidents, it is not strange [for a mother to pay her respects to her monk son].” The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “Those who take the ton- sure are of futu (“ﬂoating diagram,” the Chinese transliteration of Buddhism).” My explanation is, “Sutras say that the term futu means ‘sacred auspi- ciousness’ or ‘numinous diagram.’ Since it ﬂoated upon the sea and reached [China], it is called futu. The stone buddha image of the Wuzhong area had ﬂoated in the sea and suddenly came to [China].47 This historical fact is an example of this. At present, you drop the Chinese character tu (“diagram” or “drawing”) in the word tuxiang (“icon”) and replace it with the Chinese character tu (“to butcher”) in the word xingtu (“death penalty”). That is to say, Taibo [who left for Wu state in order to abdicate the throne for his brother, Jili] put on a ceremonial robe and cultivated the ceremonies [of the Zhou dynasty]. Consequently he had nothing of which to be ashamed in being defective in morality. [His younger brother,] Zhongyong, followed the customs [of Wu] by cutting off his hair and tattooing his body, and he educated [the natives].48 If they met you today, they would certainly fall under your disas-

trous barking at sounds.

“Among things, there are things that look the same and yet are not alike, and things that do not look alike and yet are alike. Non-Buddhist scriptures take Zhongni (i.e., Confucius) to be a sage, but the Chinese character ni [in Zhongni] is used to refer to a nun in Buddhist scriptures. If someone says Zhongni is a nun, would you believe it? This can be compared to the fact that the Chinese character tu (“butchering”) is a homophone for the Chinese char- acter tu (“diagram” or “drawing”). How are they different from each other?”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “The term sangmen (“gate of extinction,” i.e., a śramaṇa) refers to the gate of annihilation.”

My explanation is, “‘Gate’ means the origin, the entrance and exit of clear principles. Going in and out arises from the origin. There are the Dharma gate of nonduality (buer famen) in Buddhism and the gate of all that is subtle and wonderful (zhongmiao zhi men) in Laozi’s [teaching].49 [The Zuozhuan] says that there is no gate for fortune and misfortune.50 These are all the rich growth of gathering and going [of clear principles] and the profound house

of the subtle functions [of reason]. Buddhist monks understand the signiﬁcance of this.

“The Chinese character sang [in the term sangmen] means extinction. To extinguish deﬁlements and lead to spiritual relief are precisely what the term sangmen (“gate of extinction”) means. The Chinese character sang (“mul- berry”) [in the term sangmen (“gate of mulberry trees,” i.e., a śramaṇa)] should [instead] be the Chinese character sheng (“carriage”); this is simply the case of an incorrect character. The term shengmen (“gate of a carriage”) refers to the gate of Mahayana Buddhism. After extinguishing deﬁlements, [Buddhist monks] carry all the people they have encountered by this [over to the yonder shore]. Therefore, it was formerly called miemen (“gate of extinction”) and shengmen later. Furthermore, [in Buddhism] all eighty-four thousand [gates] are called the Dharma gate. Why would there be only the two gates called sangmen?”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “Barbarians do not believe in absolute vacancy (xuwu). After Laozi entered [the western region] through [Hangu] Pass, he intentionally established the teaching [to worship] the images [of buddhas and bodhisattvas] and ediﬁed them.”

My explanation is, “When we make inquiry into the origins of the estab- lishment [of worshiping] images, [we ﬁnd] that is not the original intention of the teaching; it is simply because after [Śākyamuni] passed away, [his dis- ciples’] attachment to and affection for him did not cease. It is also clear in the descriptions in the Buddhist scripture that they made an image [of him] from a fragrant tree, [gośīrṣa] candana.51 Furthermore, after Confucius passed away, his three thousand disciples remembered him forever and gave rise to deep attachment to him. Since Youruo’s (i.e., Youzi’s) facial appearance bears the strongest resemblance to that of Confucius, [the disciples] asked him to take the seat of honor in the lecture hall and deliver a talk. The adherents inquired and respected [Youzi] in the same manner they had formerly done [for Confucius]. Zeng Shen (i.e., Zengzi) was displeased about this and said, ‘You, stand up! This is not a seat for you.’ Inferring from this, we know that [disciples] think about and adore [their deceased teachers].

“Dharma teacher Kumārajīva was born in a foreign land. He was sharp and intelligent. He had profound and extensive knowledge. He was good at talking about the characteristics of all phenomenal things. He [came to China]

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carrying Buddhist scriptures on his back and circulated them in Guangzhong (present-day Shaanxi province) and the Sanfu area [near the capital Chang’an]. He explained the twofold designation of absolute and relative reality, and veriﬁed that both objects and the intelligence to discern them are tranquil. He aroused the lofty education of wuwei and urged the profound stream [of the teaching] to those who had not been awakened. This, as they say, is to drive away [deﬁlements] until there is nothing to drive away.52 You said ‘Bar- barians do not believe in absolute vacancy.’ This is really not a serious dis- cussion. Gentlemen [of the world] emphasize that there is superiority and inferiority in principles and they are not concerned with the existence of images, yet you talk about images. Isn’t this applying yourself to paganism?” The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “[The purpose of] the tonsure is originally not to seek the Buddhist teaching but to subjugate evil barbarians. Today Chinese people do not teach themselves by [following]

good gods but adopt the teaching of ignorant barbarians.”

My explanation is, “The six groups of barbarians to the west, the ﬁve groups of barbarians to the north, the four groups of barbarians in the east, and the eight groups of barbarians in the south do not know the inﬂuence of the monarch. Those who do not hear the Buddhist Dharma are compared to animals; their circumstances are alike the eight difﬁculties (ba’nan) in reality. The current sage [emperor] conducts more lofty state affairs than did the Three Augusts and the Five Thearchs. He clariﬁes the Dharma of the One Vehicle. Heavenly and human beings rejoice equally. All beings of the world are delighted. [Insects, creatures] that crawl around, and [birds] that take breath through a beak all rely on him. It is said that even insects that pant and wriggle are rightly placed. If you say this and that without ﬁrm thought, you should immediately shut your mouth. Why do I have to make effort to suggest this to you?”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “The term shamen (śra- maṇa) means ‘careful selection’ (shatai).”

My explanation is, “Those who concentrate their minds on one object and reach the origin are called śramaṇas. That is to say, to train one’s mind, to wash away ﬁlth, to go upstream, and to return to purity is the meaning of ‘careful selection.’ You intend to defame [śramaṇas], but their signiﬁcance

only increases. Truly, the more [Buddhism] is revered, the loftier it can become, and the more it is penetrated, the ﬁrmer it is.”53

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “[Buddhism] entered our country and destroys it.”

My explanation is, “The Sage (i.e., the Buddha) assuredly follows the affections in the minds of [sentient beings] and responds to them everywhere. From remote antiquity, when people kept records by knotting ropes, the people became faithless and their customs insincere. In the ediﬁcation of monarchs of latter generations, Yao and Confucius were exalted. As to places beneﬁted by the subtle Dharma, [Buddhism] certainly helps [a monarch of] the secular world and ediﬁes [the people]. [As a result,] the people spontaneously become sincere without being killed as a penalty, and they adopt the right Way without suffering from being whipped. The rulers of the Shi royal family (i.e., Shi Le and Shi Hu of the Later Zhao dynasty) had Fotudeng as their teacher and brought prosperity to their country. King [Rāmadatta] of ancient times consulted Bo in order to help the [Buddhist] Way ﬂourish.54 On what basis do you use the expression ‘[Buddhism] destroys our country’?”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “[Buddhism] comes into a family and ruins it.”

My explanation is, “Śākyamuni’s teaching completely has the virtue of the six kinds of cordiality; a father loves [his children]; sons are ﬁlial [to their parents]; elder brothers are kind [to their younger brothers]; younger brothers are respectful [to their elder brothers]; a husband is courteous [to his wife], and a wife is gentle [to her husband]. What point do you think is the unwholesomeness that can destroy a family? I hear only that Daoist monks of insigniﬁcant learning make the Red Writing in order to curse [others]. They disclose others’ personal secrets, go around the altar with disheveled hair, call out to Heaven, [kneel and] touch their foreheads to the ground, and scheme to get rid of each other and kill each other regardless of their relative degree of intimacy. This is precisely the way to destroy a family.”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “[Buddhism] enters one’s body and destroys it.”

My explanation is, “The body is a worse nuisance than shackles. Laozi considers the body to be dung and earth.55 Śākyamuni considers the three

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realms of existence to be [like] a house on ﬁre. Therefore, those who have renounced the world must leave behind luxury, give up fame and wealth, realize the difﬁculties of staying in [this world that is like] an inn (i.e., a tem- porary abode), and wish always for the bliss of complete extinction. Those who follow popular customs, on the contrary, seek the way to escape from death. It is exactly as [Zhuangzi] says: ‘What destroys life does not die, and what produces life is not produced.’56

“Recently a Daoist monk, who is fond of fame, said [with self-conﬁdence] that he surpasses others in the Way of the Divine Transcendents. He tried to ascend to [the realm of] immortals on a certain day and soar skyward in day- light. [Nevertheless,] before he reached several zhang in height, he fell vio- lently to the ground. When I went near him and examined him, [I found that he had used] none other than two wings of a large bird. He is truly the so- called one who cannot spread his wings and ﬂy away!57

“Analyzing the doomed fate of [Daoist monks] based on their present affairs, they will come to ruin [in a very short time]; they will be punished before they turn back. Zhang Ling of the Han dynasty falsely accused people and collected a high-rate tax from them. [His group] was called the Grain Thieves (mize). They were also wiped out. Regarding [your statement,] ‘enter- ing one’s body and destroying it,’ isn’t this something like the poem ‘The Bow Adorned with Horn (Jiaogong)’ [in the Book of Odes, which was com- posed as a satire of domestic discord]?”58

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “[Buddhism causes family members] to not join together in singing or weeping.”

My explanation is, “To weep when others weep is the ignorant behavior of common people. To be able to sing a song in the face of someone’s death indicates the calm and peaceful feelings of Buddhist monks. When Yuan Rang lost his parent he climbed a tree and sang a song. Confucius, who was passing by, did not blame him.59 This is also one aspect of the teaching on morality and ethics (i.e., Confucianism).”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “[Buddhist monks] do not go to the court [to be received in audience by the emperor].”

My explanation is, “Confucius said, ‘The scholar sometimes will not take the high ofﬁce of a minister of the son of Heaven, nor the lower ofﬁce of

serving the prince of a state.’60 Confucian scholars are a group of philistines, but they can still be like this. Needless to say, śramaṇas are people who are beyond this world. Formerly Bocheng and Zigao [in Yao’s time] and Zizhou and Zhibo [in Shun’s time] simply longed for profundity and adored the Way.61 Because of this they did not get involved in human affairs.”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “Those who take the ton- sure commit the sin of damaging their body.”

My explanation is, “My view regarding the hair and skin was completely explained in my previous answer. I will further brieﬂy speak of it. Generally speaking, regarding the issue, ‘not to dare to damage [one’s body],’ this is pre- cisely in order to prevent people from doing evil, offending the judicial consti- tution, being punished with the ﬁve penalties, and having an incomplete body. “Today śramaṇas keep the teaching of the Sage (i.e., Śākyamuni) in mind and stick to it. They seek the ten [bodhisattva] stages [toward enlightenment] in the distance. They shave their beards and hair and put on the Dharma robe. They do not go against [ﬁlial piety by] establishing themselves and becoming famous.62 When they attain the [Buddhist] Way they liberate their relatives as well. What is the negative point by which you place śramaṇas’ [tonsure]

under the sin of ‘damaging [the body]’?

“Those who stick to written language simply do not understand the purpose beyond what is written. Even the wheelwright Bian did not pass on his skill to his son [through teaching him with words].63 I have nothing more to say about this.”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “Among those who have renounced the world I have not seen a gentleman. This is because [the renun- ciants] are all escapees from corvée labor.”

My explanation is, “Alas! Why are you having such difﬁculty in making things clear? The Zuozhuan says, ‘Words are an embellishment of the per- son.’64 Zhuangzi says, ‘If words are not extensive, it is insufﬁcient to clarify the Way.’65 Although I would prefer not speaking, how would it be possible? “All those who have renounced the world have the stable root of the spirit from their previous existences, a very deep capacity for virtue, and profound intelligence. They have ﬁrm [faith] that cannot be uprooted. Therefore, their spirits are concentrated and their minds are led [to enlightenment]. Since

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they rise above the world, cherishing lofty thoughts, even the universe cannot examine what they have in their minds. Since they are tranquil and have nothing to commit, how could dust and dirt disturb their minds?

“They are removed from the valuable favor of their kind parents, give up the joy and love of their families; they empty the room in order to produce bright light (i.e., empty the mind in order to produce happiness),66 and they practice meditation, abiding by the profound [Way]. Some of them practice frugal living (Skt. dhūta) in a forest or wilderness, and give up their own bodies to hungry beasts. Some lead a calm and upright life and follow a veg- etarian diet. They dedicate themselves [to cultivation] without negligence. They delightedly seek the ten powers [possessed by the Tathāgata], leap over to the highest path, set the heavenly net free, melt away the earthen web, give rise to myriad merits before they fully manifest, and relieve ordinary people from [transmigration in birth and death for] ten thousand kalpas. This is truly the magniﬁcent plan of a great person, and not something you have had a chance to hear.

“What do you mean by saying, ‘[The renunciants are all] escapees from corvée labor’? Confucius wished to have a beak three chi long.67 Although words come out of the mouth, if a long tongue [that is fond of gossip] does not offend other people, your beak should be three zhang long.68 How deeply the people are hurt by your annoying statements about things that have nothing to do with you!”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “If two grownup men out of three [in a family] renounce the world, why does the [remaining] one have no chance for the providence [of the Buddha]?”

My explanation is, “[People who have] no chance for the providence [of the Buddha] were born under [the karmic condition of having] no chance for the [Buddha’s] providence. Those who have a chance for the providence [of the Buddha] come into existence precisely under [the karmic condition of having] a chance for the [Buddha’s] providence. How do I know this is so? “In the world there is a case where the whole family entered the [Buddhist] Way. Therefore it is said that they came into existence under [the karmic condition of having the] chance for the [Buddha’s] providence. [On the other hand,] there are those who have never heard about bhikṣus (biqiu) from the

time they were born. Therefore, it is said that they were born under [the karmic condition of having] no chance for the [Buddha’s] providence. “Sixteen princes renounced the world on the same day and entered the Buddhist Way, following their father.69 This is exactly a case in which the whole family was drawn by the [Buddha’s] providence and reached [the Buddhist Way] all at once. Why do you think only two grownup men [out of three in a family] should renounce [the world]? Those who have no chance for the [Buddha’s] providence accommodate themselves to the condition of having no chance for the [Buddha’s] providence and should simply seek to examine themselves. Just now you are in the Avīci Hell for a long time, while you anxiously discuss this. Don’t you want to put away your shield and spear? What I really hope for is that you can come back from [the world of] delusion.”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “The Daoist teaching raises virtue and makes the country great.”

My explanation is, “There are ninety-six kinds of teachings. The Buddhist [teaching] is the most esteemed [among them]. Brahmanic [teaching] is like a small hill. Even if the deities of mountains and rivers can produce clouds and rain, they are objects to be worshiped by the country and by families. In the point of raising virtue and making the country great, [these deities] have more or less efﬁcacy. Nevertheless, in saving [sentient beings] extensively and boundlessly, pulling them out of great afﬂiction, our vajra sage (i.e., the Buddha) alone loftily wins the victory.

“The Buddha already existed at the beginning of time, when the Grand Terminus was divided [into yin and yang], but at that time sentient beings’ causes and conditions were not yet active. Hence the name [“Buddha”] was hidden for the time being. Why do I say this? Inferring about the past before the Three Augusts, how could there be neither the Book of Rites nor the Book of Changes? That is to say, the two hexagrams qian and kun and the two lines li and yu conveniently arose together with Heaven and Earth. Even though it is said that they arose together [with Heaven and Earth], the reasons why these names did not arise [at the same time] are merely because [sentient beings’] faculties and receptivity had not begun, so the employment of [these names] had not yet taken place. Although the principles have always existed, their traces were not evident.

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“As for the two sages, one in China and the other in a foreign country (i.e., India), their principles are the same. Therefore, it is said in [the Scripture on the Clean and Pure] Dharma Practice (Qingjing faxing jing), ‘The three wise men (i.e., Māṇava, Guangjing Bodhisattva, and Kāśyapa) were ﬁrst sent [to China]. They gradually led [the people] to the secular teaching. Later, with the Buddhist scriptures they [instructed] the people to eliminate evil and follow the correct [path].’70 Li Lao’s school is a branch of Śākyamuni’s teaching. The Buddhist scriptures say, ‘[The Buddha] spoke here and there but his name varied,’71 and ‘Once he was the leader of the circle of Confucian scholars, the most reverent priest of the country, or a monk.’72 Or, he was tran- quil and inactive and yet he performed a Buddhist service. What the golden mouth [of the Buddha] expounds corresponds to [reality], just as [two pieces of] a tally ﬁt together precisely. Why do you leap around to the east and west, avoiding neither what is high nor what is low?73 Alas! Availing themselves of my wisdom and trusting to my supernatural powers, heretics consequently intend to bend and confuse the passages of my scriptures and destroy my teaching! A person who lacks conscience has come to such a pass!”

The Discourse [on the Triple Destruction] says, “The Way is material force (qi).”

My explanation is, “The concept of the Way takes the principles as a function. When we attain the principles we are complete in the Way. For this reason, a śramaṇa is called a person of the Way (daoren). The people of the Yangping area (present-day Shaanxi province) are called Daoists (daoshi). The Sage Śākyamuni attained the foundation of the Way. Penzu and Laozi occupy the end of the Way.74 For [Śākyamuni,] who attained the foundation of the Way, the Way is spontaneously revealed before he speaks of the Way. Those who occupy the end of the Way always talk of the Way, but the Way [of which they speak] is insufﬁcient. For instance, Confucius, who was deeply learned, did not make his name only for expertise in a special skill, but his disciples, such as [Zi]you and [Zi]xia, are regarded as [experts in] all four subjects [of learning] (i.e., virtuous conduct, speech, state affairs, and literature).

“Zhuangzi said, ‘Life is [due to the collecting of] material force. When that is collected, there is life, and when it is dispersed, there is death.’75 If we follow your statement, and if the Way is material force, the Way would then be collected and dispersed, as life and death. Your Way, then, is the law

of birth and death, not of permanence. I have heard that your Way also has the subject of uniting the yin and yang energies (i.e., sexual practices). I wish that you will not mention this really disgraceful issue. Moreover, Zhuangzi says, ‘The Way exists in excrement and urine.’76 It is possible that the Way that exists in excrement and urine is [the same as] your Way of uniting the yin and yang energies, isn’t it?”

End of Fascicle Eight of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Nine

The Record that the Emperor of the Great Liang Dynasty Sets Forth the Right Logic for Spiritual Intelligence and the Attainment of Buddhahood, together with the Preface and Annotation Composed

by Shen Ji of Wuxing

The Way of the Spirit is profound and obscure, and [hence] Xuanni (i.e., Confucius) certainly had nothing to say about it.77 Psychological operations are subtle, [therefore] the Archivist [of the Zhou dynasty] (i.e., Laozi) did not talk about it, either. This is not because the wisdom of these sages was not complete but it is difﬁcult to understand [this] with familiar feelings, and if it is explained in words it is abstruse. Therefore, great scholars of former generations left discussions about past karma, and eloquent speakers of later generations stammer when it comes to discussing one’s life to come. Without utmost discretion of the world, how can [these issues] be made clear? Therefore, when deluded people hear that the spirit does not cease to exist [at death], they all think that it is eternal; when they hear that thought (Skt. citta-carita) is not eternal, they all think that it becomes extinct. When it is said that [the spirit or thought] becomes extinct, people are confused about the issue of whether its nature is eternal; when it is said that [the spirit or thought] is eternal, they are deluded about the issue that its function ceases to exist. They are doubtful about the nature [of the spirit or thought] based on its function, and think that its nature can be extinguished; they are doubtful about its function based on its nature and think that the function is not inﬂu- enced. None [among them] is able to seek it exquisitely. Each person has a strong inclination toward [his or her own view]. They then cause their spon-

taneous nature of awakening to sink to the level of superﬁcial talk.

The sage ruler (i.e., Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty) received a profound auspicious omen and manages [the nation] from the imperial throne. He is

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aware that he should confer the law in advance of Heaven and provide teaching [based on] observing the people. He fears that incoherent sophistry makes its own logic and becomes rampant. Who can restore order through subtle descrip- tions of complicated traces? The literary forms of the teaching left behind by Śākyamuni are going to disappear. For this reason, [Emperor Wu] wrote this intelligent discussion in order to promote the most precious scriptures. I, Ji, thinking from early in my life that my body is empty, set the Buddhist teaching in my mind and I often appreciate the sound of the Dharma (i.e., the Buddhist teaching), and because of this I forget to eat and sleep. Never- theless, it is difﬁcult for me, having a stupid and dull temperament, to under- stand [the teaching]. [Every time] I come into contact with the doctrine I have many questions. Regarding the great meaning of buddha-nature, I lost my footing and was confused in the path of my mind (i.e., thought). Since the words of the emperor have pervaded over even distant areas, all the people equally receive comfort. Myriad nights have ended and eternal dawn has come to the darkness. Questions about various issues are now clear and com- pletely understood. Personally, I think that phenomena and principles proceed smoothly. If there is nothing, we do not recognize anything. Function follows

the Way and squares with it. How can the mind not discern this?

Consequently, hovering like ﬂoating clouds, we still sense the harmony of beautiful sounds; joyful, like a swimming ﬁsh, we still appreciate the har- mony of pure sounds produced with a stringed instrument. Moreover, the divine wonder is sent from the will of Heaven. This is why I dance, waving my hands and stepping about, and cannot stop myself. With superﬁcial per- ception I venture to respectfully make an annotation. Might this be an attempt to trace to the very source of the innermost of Heaven through the eye of a needle? I am probably confused. Therefore I make this explanation.

Practicing [the Buddhist Way] is based on the establishment of faith.

I, Ji, say, “Ignorant and dark people assuredly give rise to great intelligence. Intelligence does not arise suddenly; it surely arises through practice. Practice is not mastered for its own sake; it must be cultivated based on faith. Faith is [the attitude of] mind in reliance on a teacher and in conformity with reason without disobedience. Therefore, the ﬁve roots of wholesomeness (Skt. pañca- indriyā) take faith as the basis, and faith in the four objects (sixin) takes being

true to them as primary. Since primary faith is established, myriad wholesome deeds are spontaneously performed. To perform wholesome deeds and reach fruition is called practice.”

The establishment of faith derives from right understanding.

I, Ji, say, “If we do not know right from wrong, how can we attain faith? Consequently, the foundation of establishing faith is supported by right under- standing.”

When understanding is right, external wrong views (i.e., non-Buddhist teachings) do not disturb us.

I, Ji, say, “If the mind is right, myriad wrong views are extinguished. From this it is known that when we hold right views in our minds, external wrong views do not disarrange us.”

When faith is established, there are no doubts in the consciousness.

I, Ji, say, “Consciousness is the mind. Therefore, the Discourse on the Achievement of Reality (Chengshi lun) says, ‘The mind, thought, and con- sciousness are the same in essence though different in name.’78 Now that the mind has faith, of what are we doubtful?”

Nevertheless, what faith and understanding depend on has its foundation.

I, Ji, say, “To ‘depend on’ means to rely on. When there is the basis for having peace in the mind, minor issues and actions spontaneously follow [the basis]. It is evident in the following sentences that there is the basis.”

Why? Because when we examine the origin of the spiritual intelligence in which imperishability is considered to be exquisite, the exquisite spirit indeed returns to wonderful fruition.

I, Ji, say, “If there is a case where the spirit is exhausted, why is it called ‘spirit’? Therefore the sutra says, ‘When we see a dead [person], the body deforms and decays yet the spirit does not perish. According to the actions, good or bad, [the person made during his life,] fortune and misfortune spon- taneously follows him.’79 This is precisely the meaning of the imperishability and ceaselessness [of the spirit]. If the [spirit] decays just as do grass and

trees, could it be said to be exquisite? Because [the spirit] is free from ces- sation, it returns to the culmination of subtlety after all. When the mind is based on this ground, all principles that you touch become clear. When you are clear in numerous principles, what practice could you not achieve? The foundation of faith and understanding means this.”

The essence of the wonderful fruition goes to the end of eternity. The exquisite spirit cannot avoid impermanence.

I, Ji, say, “Regarding the wonderful fruition, the principle has already been sufﬁciently clariﬁed. Therefore, its essence simply extends to the end of eternity. The exquisite spirit takes part in practice and has not yet been completed. Hence, it must go through changes.”

Impermanence is to perish ﬁrst, arise later, and not stay even for a moment (chana).

I, Ji, say, “The term chana (i.e., “moment” or “instant”) is [the Chinese transliteration of] the Indian term [kṣaṇa], which designates an extremely brief [moment of time]. When [a being] arises and is then extinguished, how could there [be any possibility] of staying? Therefore, Vimalakīrti lamented, ‘O bhikṣus! We are born, grow old, and die in an instant.’”80

If the mind is employed as being affected by an external object (Skt. ālambana), the consciousness of the former [existence] must differ from that of the latter [existence]. In this case, [the mind] goes together with the circumstance. Who then would be able to attain buddhahood?

I, Ji, say, “The mind moves following the circumstance. This is its external operation. Even though the latter follows the former, this is not a discussion of reality after all. Consequently, it is known that the nature of the spiritual consciousness is quiet and calm and does not move. Since it is quiet and calm and does not move, it ﬁnally returns to the wonderful fruition.”

The sutra says, “The mind is the right cause and achieves the fruition of buddhahood after all.”81

I, Ji, say, “Brieﬂy speaking of the cause of attaining buddhahood, there are two meanings: one is the condition that causes [the attainment of buddhahood]

and the other is the right cause [for the attainment of buddhahood]. The con- dition [that causes the attainment of buddhahood] refers to all wholesome deeds, and the right [cause] means the spiritual consciousness. All wholesome deeds have the merit of helping to reveal [buddhahood]. Therefore it is called the condition [that causes the attainment of buddhahood]. The spiritual con- sciousness is the basis of the right cause. Therefore it is called ‘right cause.’ It has already been stated that [the mind] achieves the fruition of buddhahood after all. This clearly veriﬁes that [the mind] is ceaseless.”

Furthermore, [the sutra] says, “If ignorance is transformed it turns into intelligence.”82 According to this, the purpose of the sutra should be able to be pursued in reason. Why? The mind is the basis of function. The basis is one while its function varies. When the function varies, there are spontaneous rising and falling away, yet the nature of the basis, which is one, does not change.

I, Ji, say, “When deﬁlement is washed away, the fundamental consciousness becomes bright. The mutual shift between brightness and darkness is called ‘change.’ In the case where something leaves ﬁrst and another thing comes later, this is not called ‘change.’”

The basis, which is one, is nothing but ignorance and spiritual intelligence.

I, Ji, say, “Spiritual intelligence is based on darkness. Therefore, ignorance is considered to be the cause.”

Searching for what is called ignorance, it is not a category of the Grand Void. Soil and stone have no feelings. How, then, can it be said that they are ignorant?

I, Ji, say, “In distinguishing between good and bad, we have no ideas without the mind; in knowing clearly [what is] right or wrong, we have no recognition without feelings. Since the Grand Void has no feeling, it does not clarify either a fool or an intelligent [person]. Soil and stone have no minds. How could they discern understanding or delusion? Therefore it is known that understanding and delusion depend on the existence of the mind, and a fool and an intelligent [person both] depend on the existence of consciousness. When ignorance is mentioned, the meaning depends on the existence of the mind.”

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Consequently, it is known that while discerning thought should be intel- ligent, its essence is subject to delusion, and since deluded thought does not know, it is called ignorance.

I, Ji, say, “Intelligence is the real nature. Therefore, it must be intelligent. Consciousness is affected by external deﬁlement. Hence, delusion unavoidably enters it. Being deluded and not understanding is called ignorance. Based on this, the name was given. How could its purport be untrue?”

Accordingly, ignorance has arising and extinction in essence. Arising and extinction differ from each other in function. The meaning of the ignorant mind does not change.

I, Ji, say, “Inasmuch as there is essence, there is function. When speaking of function, it is not essence. When speaking of essence, it is not function. In function there are arising and falling away, but in essence there is no arising or extinction.”

I am afraid that if one sees that function varies, he will think that the mind is extinguished, following the circumstance.

I, Ji, say, “Deluded people are confused regarding essence and function. Therefore, they cannot break off doubts. Why? Essence and function sustain a relation of staying neither too close nor too far away. Apart from essence there is no function. Therefore, it is said [that essence and function sustain a relation of] staying not too far away. Since the meaning of function is not essence, it is said [that they sustain a relation of] staying not too close, either. When people see [that essence and function sustain a relation of] staying not too far away, they may become confused about [that essence and function sustain a relation of] staying not too close; when they are confused about [that essence and function sustain a relation of] staying not too close, they think that the mind is extinguished following the circumstance.”

Therefore, [in the ﬁve kinds of afﬂictions (wuzhudi huo)] the term zhudi (the place in which afﬂictions are entrenched) is added after the name “ignorance.” This shows that ignorance is precisely spiritual intelligence and the nature of the spiritual intelligence does not change.

I, Ji, say, “The reason to link the term zhudi to ignorance is probably to expel the deluded consciousness. Those who harbor afﬂictions have not [yet] perceived [the truth].”

How do we know this? If the mind formerly committed a heavy evil act which causes one to fall into Avīci Hell, and later the consciousness gives rise to the excellent wholesomeness of non-thought, good and evil are very far apart from each other in reason, and there is a big difference between the former and the latter. If in function there is really no basis, how then can the continuation like this happen?

I, Ji, say, “If there is no basis, function has nothing on which to rely. A deluded person sees that the similar categories are continuous and thus con- siders them to be the same. Therefore, the great wholesomeness is taken up in order to expel the confusion about this continuation.”

From this, it is known that the former evil is spontaneously extinguished, yet the deluded consciousness does not change; and even though the latter wholesomeness arises, the mind of darkness does not change.

I, Ji, say, “The arising and extinction of good and evil never damage the basis.”

Therefore, the sutra says, “What is accompanied by the bondage of deﬁlement is called ‘ignorance,’ and what is accompanied by all whole- some things is called ‘intelligence.’”83 Isn’t it that the nature of con- sciousness is one and it varies following conditions?

I, Ji, say, “If good and evil alternately arise, how can it then be said [that they are] ‘together’? Nevertheless, these words (i.e., “good” and “evil”) are constantly opposed to each other, and their purposes are always indistinct. Therefore, this important sentence is given in order to explain this to the many deluded people.”

Hence, it is known that the change of arising and extinction requites a past cause, and the alternation of good and evil arises in the present state of the mind.

I, Ji, say, “Arising and extinction are caused by actions one previously performed; it is not that they are caused by the present state of the mind. Good and evil arise in the current state of the mind; it is not that one’s actions done in the past cause them.”

Moreover, the mind is the basis. It never changes.

I, Ji, say, “Even though the function differs, the essence does not.”

Since the basis of the function is ceaseless, the law of the attainment of buddhahood is bright. Since it changes following the state of the mind, it is clear that birth and death can be brought to an end.

I, Ji, say, “That [the law of] the attainment of buddhahood is bright relies on the basis. That birth and death can be brought to an end is derived from the function. If there is function but no basis, one is extinguished and does not attain [buddhahood]. If there is basis but no function, one attains [buddha- hood] and there is nothing to extinguish.”

55a

Criticism of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit (Shenmie lun)

Preface by Xiao Chen

Fan Zizhen (i.e., Fan Zhen, 450–507?), the elder brother of my wife, wrote the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, in which he clariﬁed that there is no buddha. He says that he has defeated numerous people in argument and caused a thousand people to surrender in a single day. I am still unconvinced. I would like to examine some doubtful points and inquire about what I have not yet understood.

What the Discourse has maintained up to today is about the physical body and the spirit, and what it argues is [whether or not] the principle is exquisite. For instance, the fact that offerings are presented with ﬁlial piety at the ancestral temple in spring and autumn is considered to be for what the sages, in accordance with the Way of the Spirit, laid down instructions and rites and guarded against ignorance. [The disembodied spirit of] Du Bo [who was killed by King Xuan of the Zhou dynasty] fully drew a bow [to

shoot King Xuan].84 [A man dreamed that] Boyou, [who had been killed by a man of Zheng state, walked around] in armor.85 It is said that monsters spontaneously appear between Heaven and Earth; it is not that people who died became ghosts.

In this way, it is impossible to cross-examine with the Book of Odes and the Book of History or to compare with things that happened in the past. It is possible only to debate the separation and reunion of body and spirit. If body and spirit are one, and exist and are extinguished at the same time, then Fan Zi[zhen] will exult and rouse himself in an impregnable fortress in the distance. If spirit and body separate from each other and arise and go to ruin at different [times], I will overcome my enemy and attain superiority, and my task will be completed. Moreover, even though I make clear that there are buddhas, my treatment of [the term] “buddha” is not the same as that of other secular people. I will explain my real intention at the same time and attach it after the Discourse.

The Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit

The questions and answers are those between a guest and a host in the original text of the Discourse; the criticism is my present inquiry.

Question: “You say that the spirit is extinguished. How do you know it is extinguished?”

Answer: “The spirit conforms to the body and the body conforms to the spirit. For this reason, when the body exists, the spirit does, too. When the body withers away, the spirit is extinguished.”

Question: “The body is the name of what has no perception. The spirit is the name of what has perception. There are differences in conformity with phenomena between what has perception and what does not. In reason, it is not acceptable that spirit and body are one. That body and spirit conform to each other is not what I have learned.”

Answer: “The body is the substance of the spirit and the spirit is the function of the body. This means precisely that the body is the substance and the spirit is the function. It is impossible that body and spirit differ from each other.” Criticism: “The Discourse asserts that body and spirit are one. It should then give evidence for their inseparability. However, [the Discourse] simply

55b

says, ‘The spirit conforms to the body and the body conforms to the spirit. It is impossible that body and spirit differ from each other.’ This is debating without evidence. It is unlikely that this is your explanation.

Here I will testify on the basis of dreams that it is impossible that body and spirit are one. While someone is asleep, his body is an object that has no perception, but it has occasion to see something. This is because the spirit goes out [of the body] and makes contact with [other objects]. The spirit does not stand by itself; it must inhabit the body. It is just like that people do not live in the open air but need a house in which to live. The body is just a ﬁlthy and foolish thing, just as a house is merely a closed-up place. When the spirit returns to the body, the consciousness becomes slightly confused, and [in its confusion] what [the spirit] has seen becomes a dream. When people come back to their homes, their spirits are suddenly obstructed. Since [their spirits have suddenly become] obstructed, brightness turns to darkness. Sometimes in a dream people soar up into the deep sky or travel ten thousand li to a distant place. [In this case,] if the spirit does not travel [far,] does the body go? If the body does not go and the spirit does not separate from the body, how could a case like this be possible?

It is said that [a dream] is a manifestation of what one thinks. So when a person peacefully enjoys deep sleep, his body is like a piece of wood that lies ﬂat, and his breath is like cold ashes. Even when we call out to him, he cannot hear us; if we touch him, he does not feel it. If it is said that spirit and body are one, this means that both the outside and the inside are inactive. If a [sleeping person] does not have contact with sounds from the external world, how then could he give rise internally to thoughts? From this, it can be certainly known that even if the body is motionless the spirit moves swiftly. Furthermore, I have questions about dreams in general.

Some [dreams] meet with unexpected results.

Zhao Jianzi dreamed of a naked boy singing a song that could [be inter- preted] as meaning that the state of Wu would invade the state of Zou.86 One of the eunuchs of the state of Jin dreamed [in the morning] that he had ascended to Heaven carrying the marquis on his back, but [in fact, at midday on the same day] he had to carry the marquis on his back out of the privy [into which the marquis had fallen].87 These are examples of this.

Some [dreams] are unreasonable.

Lü Qi [of the state of Jin] dreamed that he had shot an arrow at the middle of the moon.88 The empress of Wu state dreamed that her intestines left [her body] and ﬂew around the Gate of Heaven (i.e., the front gate of a palace).89 These are examples of this.

Some [dreams] are precursors of things that have not yet happened.

Lü Jiang (i.e., Taigong Wang, Lü Shang) dreamed that Heaven named his son Yu.90 A man of Cao state dreamed that many gentlemen were plotting to ruin the state of Cao.91 These are examples of this.

Some [dreams] are pretexts of symbols.

Cai Mao attained an ofﬁcial rank after he dreamed that he had lost the rice crop [since the Chinese character zhi, “to attain ofﬁcial rank,” consists of the two Chinese characters: he, “rice crop,” and shi, “to lose”].92 Wang Jun had a dream about three swords and became a district magistrate of a province [since the Chinese character zhou, “province,” consists of three of the Chinese character dao, “sword.”].93 These are examples of this.

Some [dreams] have nothing that conforms to reality.

A man of the northern tribe [who lives in a desert] dreamed of a boat. A man of the Yue region [in southern China, where river boats are a major means of transportation] had a dream of riding a horse. These are examples of this.

Some [dreams] later come true, and some do not.

The head of the Yin dynasty (i.e., Emperor Wu Ding) obtained Fu Yue, [a sage who was later promoted to Prime Minister by Wu Ding,] in a dream.94 Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 B.C.E.) of the Han dynasty dreamed that he obtained Deng Tong.95 [These are examples that] testify [to dreams that later came true]. Since there are too many examples of dreams that never come true, I will not dwell upon them [here].

All of these indicate that the mutation of the spirit is vague and uncertain, and [the relation between] the unseen world and this world is unpredictable.

This is easy to understand in brief but difﬁcult to discuss thoroughly with logic. If it is not accepted that the spirit goes out [of the body], all [explana- tions] must be sought within the body. I am afraid [you think] that a piece of the hidden spirit is cut off from seeing the external world. Although you lean on [the divination of] the six kinds of dreams96 or try to aid [your dis- course] with [Buddhist terms such as] conception (Skt. saṃjñā) and cause, it is impossible [to verify your discourse] in reason.”

Question: “The spirit is originally not the substance and the body is orig- inally not the function, either. Why is it impossible that [spirit and body] differ from each other?”

Answer: “Their names differ from each other, but their essences are one.”

Question: “Their names already differ from each other. Why is it possible that their essences are one?”

Answer: “[The relation] between spirit and substance is similar to that between sharpness and a sword. [The relation] between body and function is similar to that between a sword and its sharpness. The word ‘sharpness’ is not the sword; the word ‘sword’ is not sharpness. There is, however, no sword apart from its sharpness, and there is no sharpness apart from the sword. I have not heard that when a sword disappears its sharpness remains. How could it be possible that the body is lost yet the spirit remains?” Criticism: “The sharpness that a sword possesses is due to the effect of the [sword having been] sharpened on a whetstone. Therefore, it can slice iguanodons and dragons in water and cut rhinoceroses and tigers on land.97 If its sharpness is used up thoroughly and its function comes to an end, the sword’s tip and edges will certainly break and the sword becomes blunt. Just like this, sharpness is lost, yet the sword remains. Namely, the spirit is lost yet the body remains. Why do you say there is no sword apart from sharpness and the words ‘sword’ and ‘sharpness’ differ from each other but their essences are one? Since a sword and sharpness are not extinguished together, body and spirit do not perish together, either. Even though you are capable of making an example from familiar things, it goes against reality in reason.” Question: “[The relation between] a sword and sharpness is probably as you say, but the signiﬁcance of [the relation between] body and spirit is not the same as this. Why do I say so? The substance of a tree has no perception, while the substance of a human being has perception. A human being already

has substance, as does a tree, yet [the human being] has perception that a tree does not have. Isn’t it that a tree has one [characteristic] (i.e., substance) but a human being has two (i.e., substance and perception)?”

Answer: “This sounds strange! If a human being has substance, like that of a tree, that is considered to be the body, and he has perception, which a tree does not have, that is regarded as the spirit, then it might be as you say. Now, regarding the substance of a human being, this substance has perception. As for the substance of a tree, its substance has no perception. The substance of a human being is not [the same as] that of a tree; the substance of a tree is not [like] that of a human being. Is it possible to have a substance like that of a tree combined with perception, which a tree does not have?”

Question: “The reason the substance of a human being differs from that of a tree is because [the former] has perception. Would a human being who has no perception be any different from a tree?”

Answer: “A human being does not have substance without perception. It is just as a tree does not have a body that has perception.”

Question: “Isn’t the dead body [of a human being] a substance without perception?”

Answer: “Yes, it is a substance without perception.”

Question: “If that is the case, a human being surely has a substance like that of a tree, as well as the perception that distinguishes [him or her] from a tree.”

Answer: “A dead body has substance like that of a tree, yet it does not have the perception that distinguishes [a human being] from a tree. A living person has this perception that distinguishes [a human being] from a tree, yet he or she does not have a substance like that of a tree.”

Question: “Isn’t the skeleton of a dead body the same as that of a living person?”

Answer: “A living body is not a dead body; a dead body is not a living body. The distinction between them is already evident. How could a person who has the skeleton of a living person have the skeleton of a dead body?” Question: “If the skeleton of a living person is not the same as that of a dead body, the [deceased’s] skeleton must not derive from that of a living person. If [the deceased’s skeleton] does not derive from the skeleton of a

living person, from where does this [deceased’s] skeleton come?”

55c

56a

Answer: “It comes from the skeleton of a living person, which changes and becomes the [deceased’s] skeleton.”

Question: “Even if the skeleton of a living person changes and becomes the [deceased’s] skeleton, wouldn’t there be death on the basis of life? So, it is known that a dead body is still a living body.”

Answer: “If a leafy tree changes and becomes a withered tree [with no leaves], how could the substance of the withered tree be same essence as that of the leafy tree?”

Question: “The essence of a leafy [tree] changes and becomes the essence of a withered [tree]. The essence of a withered [tree] is exactly the [same] essence as that of a leafy [tree]. It is just like the essence of very ﬁne thread that changes and becomes the essence of twisted yarn; the essence of the twisted yarn is exactly the same essence as that of the very ﬁne thread. Is there anything faulty in this?”

Answer: “If a withered [tree] is exactly a leafy [tree] and a leafy [tree] is nothing other than a withered [tree, a tree] should then appear withered when it is ﬂourishing and bear fruit when it is withered. Moreover, a leafy tree should not change and become a withered tree. Since a leafy [tree] is exactly a withered [tree], no further change can happen to a withered [tree]. In addi- tion, if a leafy [tree] and a withered [tree] are the same, why isn’t a tree ﬁrst withered and leaﬂess, only later does it have leaves? Why is it ﬁrst leafy and later withered [and leaﬂess]? Very ﬁne thread and twisted yarn [made of that thread] are [essentially] the same [substance]. It is impossible to compare them to [a tree].”

Question: “When [a person’s] life leaves his body, [his life] should be suddenly and completely exhausted. Why does his dead body remain for a long time?”

Answer: “There must be a sequential order in the essence of arising and extinction. Therefore, what arises suddenly must be extinguished suddenly; what arises gradually must be extinguished gradually. What arises suddenly are such things as a cyclone or a sudden rainstorm. What arises gradually are such things as animals or plants. There is sudden [arising and extinction] and gradual [arising and extinction]. This is the law of phenomena.”

Criticism: “The Discourse says, ‘The substance of a human being has perception while the substance of a tree has no perception.’ Isn’t this because

a human being recognizes when it is cold or hot, he knows pain and itchiness, he lives when he is nourished, and dies when he is [seriously] injured? A tree is the same. It is leafy in spring and withered in fall. When it is planted it must grow, but when it is pulled out [at the root], it must die. Why do you think [a tree] has no perception?

Here now the substance of a human being is just like that of a tree. When the spirit stays [in the body], the body arises; when the spirit leaves [the body], the body is exhausted. [The body that] arises is precisely like a leafy tree, and [the body that] is exhausted is exactly like a withered tree. Why do you assert that this is not the perception of the spirit and say that substance has perception? Myriad things are all perceived by the spirit; they are not perceived by the substance. The nature of grass, trees, and insects is, however, to simply be aware of ﬂourishing, withering, arising, and extinction. The consciousness of a human being distinguishes safety from danger, or advantage from disadvantage. Why do you say it is not that [a human being] has substance like that of a tree, which becomes the body, and has perception that distin- guishes [a human being] from a tree, which becomes the spirit? This would mean that body and spirit exist as two [elements] that can be distinguished from each other. Trees merely receive the partial energy of yin and yang, while human beings bear the exquisite intellectual function of the numinous being. In consciousness, both [human beings and trees] are probably the same, but they differ from each other in spirit. In the discussion on the skeleton [of a dead body] and that [of a living person], and in the explanation for giving and receiving death and life, judgment has already been previously settled. The issues are absurd, as well. Why must we debate about them in detail?”

Question: “In the case where the body conforms to the spirit, are [body parts,] such as hands, considered to be the spirit, too?”

Answer: “All are parts of the spirit.”

Question: “If all are parts of the spirit, then just as the spirit ought to be able to think, hands and other body parts should be able to think, too.” Answer: “Hands and other body parts have perception [of such feelings as] pain and itchiness, but they have no faculty of thinking to judge right or wrong.”

Question: “Are perception and thought the same or different?”

Answer: “Perception is precisely thought. What is shallow becomes per- ception and what is deep becomes thought.”

56b

Question: “If this is so, there ought to be two kinds of thoughts. Since there are two kinds of thoughts, are there then also two kinds of spirits?”

Answer: “The body of a human being is only one. How could it be possible to have two kinds of spirits?”

Question: “If there cannot be two kinds of spirits, why does [a human being] have perception [of such feelings as] pain and itchiness as well as the faculty of thinking to judge right or wrong?”

Answer: “Even though hands differ from feet, they all are [parts] of a per- son, and even though right and wrong, or pain and itchiness, differ from each other, they all are of the spirit.”

Question: “If the faculty of thinking to judge right or wrong is not con- cerned with hands and feet, with what should it be concerned?”

Answer: “The faculty of thinking to judge right or wrong is taken charge of by the heart organ.”

Question: “The heart organ is the heart of the ﬁve internal organs (i.e., heart, liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys), isn’t it?”

Answer: “Correct!”

Question: “What distinction is there among the ﬁve internal organs? Does only the heart have the faculty of thinking to judge right or wrong?”

Answer: “What difference is there among the seven apertures in the human head (i.e., eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth)? Their functions are not equal. Why?”

Question: “Thought has no set pattern. How is it known that this is taken charge of by the heart organ?”

Answer: “When the mind becomes ill, the faculty of thinking falls into disorder. From this, it is known that the heart is the basis of thought. ”

Question: “How do you know that [the faculty of thinking] does not lodge in other body parts, such as the eyes?”

Answer: “If the faculty of thinking can lodge in the eyes, why does the faculty of sight not lodge in the ears?”

Question: “Since the essence of thought has no basis, it can lodge in the eyes. The eyes have their own basis and they do not borrow other body parts [in order to function].”

Answer: “Why do the eyes have the basis? Why does thought have no basis? If [thought] has no basis in my body and it can lodge anywhere else,

it is possible that Zhang Jia’s mind lodges in Wang Yi’s body, or Li Bing’s nature lodges in Zhao Ding’s body. Is this the case? No, it is not.”

Criticism: “The Discourse says, ‘Body and spirit do not differ from each other. [All body parts] such as hands are of the spirit.’ This indicates that the spirit takes the body as the essence. When the essence is complete, the spirit is complete, too; when the essence is injured, the spirit becomes deﬁcient.98 What is spirit? It is discernment and thought. Now, even if a person receives a cut on his hands and feet, or his skin and ﬂesh are damaged, his wisdom does not fall into disorder. It is just as Sun Bin, who suffered the punishment of having his feet severed, became clearer in strategy, or Lu Fu, who had had his arm amputated [because of a disease] remained solely serene in Con- fucian scholarship.99 These are appropriate testimonies that the spirit separates from the body, and even if the body is injured the spirit is unharmed.

“The spirit simply employs wisdom in order to do things and it lodges in the organs in order to facilitate the intellectual function. Each of the visual, audio, olfactory, and gustatory senses has what it takes as a basis, and thought and consciousness belong to the heart organ. It is similar to dwellings, which have a gate on the east to invite wise people, a balcony on the south for views, a window on the north to take in fresh air, and carved windowsills on the west that project the moon; [in such a dwelling] the host uprightly occupies the middle of the room and conducts all his business.

“If the issue is just as your discourse says, each of the [sense organs of the] mouth, nose, ears, and eyes has its part of the spirit. Then, if an eye becomes ill, the spirit of the visual sense will be damaged and both eyes ought to go blind together; if an ear becomes ill, the spirit of the auditory sense will be harmed and both ears ought to go deaf together. [Nevertheless,] this is not actually the case. From this, it is known that the spirit is considered to be the organ, but is not considered to be the essence.

“Moreover, [the Discourse] says, ‘The heart is the basis of thought. Thought cannot lodge in other parts.’ In regard to the mouth, eyes, ears, and nose, this view is correct. If, however, it is concerned with other people’s minds, this is not so.

“Although the ears and nose work together with one body, they cannot be mixed together. It is because what each of them has control of differs from the other organs and the function of each organ differs from that of the others.

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Even though other people’s minds exist in each of their bodies, it is possible to communicate with one another. This is because the principles of the mind are equally ingenious, and discernment and thought are equal in achievement. Therefore, the Book of History says, ‘Open your mind and pour it into my mind,’100 and the Book of Odes says, ‘What other people have in their minds I can measure by reﬂection.’101 Lord Huan of Qi state followed the plans of Guan Zhong.102 Emperor Gaozu of the Han dynasty employed Zhang Liang’s strategy.103 These cases all show that one can lodge in another’s mind [while] based in one’s own body. Why do you say that Zhang Jia’s mind cannot lodge in Wang Yi’s body, or Li Bing’s nature cannot lodge in Zhao Ding’s body?”

Question: “Sages’ bodies are similar to those of ordinary people, but there is a difference between ordinary people and sages. Hence, it is known that body differs from spirit.”

Answer: “This is not so. Pure gold can shine while impure gold cannot. Could there be a case where pure gold, which can shine, has the essence of impurity, which cannot shine? Moreover, could there be a case where the spirit of a sage lodges in the body of an ordinary person? There is no case where the spirit of an ordinary person lodged in the body of a sage, either. Therefore, [Fang]xun (i.e., Yao) had [eyebrows of] eight variegated colors, and [Zhong]hua (i.e., Shun) had eyes with double pupils. Xuan[yuan] (i.e., the Yellow Emperor) had a forehead resembling that of a dragon, and Gao [Yao] had a mouth like that of a horse.104 These are differences in physical appearance. In Bi Gan’s heart seven apertures stand side by side.105 Boyue’s gall was as large as a ﬁst. These are differences in the heart and internal organs. Therefore, it is known that the characteristics of sages always differ from those of ordinary people. It is not only that their way is more remarkable than that of sentient beings; the bodies of sages also go beyond those of all creatures in the world. I dare not be content with [the view that] ordinary people and sages have the same physical bodies.”

Question: “You said that sages’ bodies must differ from those of ordinary people. I venture to ask you: Yang Huo looked like Confucius and [the eyes] of Xiang Ji (i.e., Xiang Yu) resembled those of Emperor Shun. Between Shun and Xiang [Ji] or between Confucius and Yang [Huo] there are differences in intelligence even though they were similar in appearance. What is the reason for this?”

Answer: “The stone called min resembles jade, but it is not jade; the bird called ju looks like a male phoenix, but it is not a male phoenix. In things there really are such cases. [The case of] human beings is originally not exceptional. The features of Xiang [Ji] and Yang [Huo] are similar [to those of Emperor Shun and Confucius, respectively], but the former are not [Emperor Shun and Confucius] in reality. It is because the heart organs [of Xiang Ji and Yang Huo] are not equal [to those of Emperor Shun and Con- fucius]. [The resemblance of] their physical features alone is meaningless.” Question: “You may say that ordinary people and sages differ from each other; their bodies and internal organs are not the same. Sages are completely perfect, and they are peerless in reason. Confucius, however, did not look the same as the Duke of Zhou, and King Tang’s appearance differed from that of King Wen.106 Spirit has nothing to do with appearance. It is more evi-

dent here.”

Answer: “Regarding the issue that sages are equally sages, they are equal in sacred ability, but this does not mean that their bodies must be the same. It is just like horses whose coats vary in color run equally fast, or jade stones that are diverse in color are still equally beautiful. Therefore [the jade produced in] Chuiji of Jin state and [the jade of Bian] He of Chu state are as valuable as ﬁfteen cities.107 [The horses called] Hualiu and Daoli could both gallop a thousand li [in a day].”108

Question: “I have already heard that body and spirit are nondual. That the spirit is extinguished when the body withers should be indeed so in reason. I dare ask you: the Canon [of Filial Piety (Xiaojing)] says, ‘They prepare the ancestral temple and make offerings to serve the spirits of the deceased.’109 What does this mean?”

Answer: “The sage’s teaching is exactly so. The reason is to cause people to follow their ﬁlial minds and oppress thoughts of slighting [their ancestors]. [There is a passage in the Book of Changes], ‘God is the one who clariﬁes it.’110 This is the meaning.”

Question: “Boyou (i.e., Liang Xiao of Zheng state), [who had been killed by Gongsun He, appeared] clad in armor [and killed Si Dai and Gongsun Duan]. Pengsheng, [who had been executed for murdering Lord Huan of Lu state,] appeared as a boar.111 These incidents are recorded in ancient books. Why are these exerted only for the teaching?”

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Answer: “Things about ghosts are vague; they may or may not exist. There are many who die an unnatural death, yet not all of them become ghosts. Why would only Pengsheng and Boyou do so? Now he is a man, now a boar. It is not necessarily the case that [a ghost] is the son of the lord of Qi state or Zheng state.”

Question: “The Book of Changes says, ‘Thus it is known that the condition of spiritual beings is similar to the law of Heaven and Earth, and there is no difference between these two.’112 Furthermore, it says, ‘There is a carriage full of ghosts.’113 What do these [statements] mean?”

Answer: “There are birds and animals. There is a difference between them: [birds] ﬂy and [animals] run. There are people and disembodied spirits. There is a difference between them: people live in the world of the living and dis- embodied spirits exist in the world of the dead. I do not know that someone who died became a disembodied spirit, or the disembodied spirit that was extinguished became a person.”

Criticism: “The Discourse says, ‘Could there be a case where the spirit of a sage lodges in the body of an ordinary person? There is no case where the spirit of an ordinary person lodges in the body of a sage, either.’ [Never- theless,] Yang Huo looked like Confucius and Xiang Ji resembled Emperor Shun. These are precisely [examples] that the spirit of an ordinary person can lodge in the body of a sage.

“The stone min and jade, or the bird ju and a male phoenix, cannot be used as parables [in this case]. The stone min has its own name, min; jade is truly called jade; the full name of the bird ju is designated as yuanju; a male phoenix is called the divine phoenix. The names already differ from each other and their features differ from each other in reality as well. Shun had the eyes with double pupils and Xiang Ji also had eyes with double pupils. This is not the case of having two different names, min and jade. We simply observe the similarity: [both Shun and Xiang Ji had] double pupils.

“Furthermore, there are other examples, such as that Nüwa had a body like a snake and Gao Yao had a mouth like a horse. [These cases show] not only that the spirit of a sage can enter into the body of an ordinary person, but also that the spirit can subsequently lodge in the body of an insect or ani- mal. From this, it is more evident that body and spirit differ from each other, and brightness and darkness are not the same.

“If body and spirit are uniform and the cause of the former existence is cut off in reason, only a sage ought to be born to a sage; a worthy person must give a birth to a worthy person; and a brave person, a coward, an ignorant person, and an intelligent person are all supposed to resemble their parents [in their dispositions]. In considering what body and spirit [as uniform] shape and create, and what a single kind of material force [of the universe] nurtures, it is impossible that Yao, who is wise and clever, yet [his son Dan]zhu is silly, or that [Gu]sou is ignorant but [his son,] Shun, is a sage.

“The Discourse further says, ‘Sages are equal in sacred ability. This does not mean that their abilities must be the same. It is just like horses whose coats vary in color run equally fast.’ Here, are the horses’ coats the abilities that run fast? Among horses whose coats are the same color, old, worn-out horses and [young] ﬁne horses may differ [in their abilities to run fast]. In this way, the color of the horse’s coat has nothing to do with the characteristic of running fast. This is because in body there is no sacred ability. In the body of a human being there is no difference between an ordinary person and a sage, but there is a difference between being strong and being weak. Therefore, a patient spirit stays in a profound body, while an impatient spirit dwells in an approachable body. In short, everything merely comes down to this point. Regarding the bodies of sages mentioned previously by [Fan Zhen], he directly refers to the bodies of Confucius and Shun but he does not say that their bodies have sacred intelligence. If [your view] is not contradictory to mine, do not approach this delusion.”

Question: “If I know that my spirit is extinguished, what advantage is there [in knowing this]?”

Answer: “Buddhism is harmful to state affairs. Śramaṇas ruin popular customs. Just as ﬁerce winds blow and fog arises, [Buddhism] spreads out widely, without stopping. I lament its baneful inﬂuence and intend to save those who indulge in [Buddhism]. People use up their wealth in order to go to Buddhist monks, and they go bankrupt in order to follow the Buddha, yet they neither sympathize with their relatives nor feel pity for poor and destitute people. Why? It is really because they have the deep feeling to favor them- selves and a shallow intention to save others. Therefore, when they give a very small amount of grain to a poor friend, they have a stingy expression on their face, but when they send a thousand zhong (about 5,540 bushels) of

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grain to rich Buddhist monks, their great joy is expressed in their entire body. Isn’t this because they expect a great reward from the Buddhist monks but [little or] no repayment from their friend? When they make a donation, they are not concerned in helping the distressed, yet [they are concerned that] the merit attained [by donating to monks] must come to themselves.

“[Buddhist monks] delude people with obscure words, frighten people with [stories of] torment in Avīci Hell, decoy people with preposterous talk, and make people joyful with [promises of] happiness in Tuṣita Heaven. Therefore, [Confucianists] take off the Confucian robe and put on a Buddhist monk’s robe. They abandon the sacriﬁcial stand and pot [for Confucian rites] and arrange vases and bowls [for Buddhist services]. In every family, people give up attachment to their family members. Every one cuts off his offspring. As a result, [Buddhism] causes soldiers to lose courage in military affairs, ofﬁcials to absent themselves from government ofﬁces, [stores of] grain to be used up because of people’s laziness, and commodities to be exhausted because of construction projects. Therefore [Buddhist monks] are thieves and robbers. [Nevertheless,] voices praising the Buddha’s excellence are still powerful. This is all because of [Buddhism]. This tendency continues without stopping, and the harm goes on limitlessly.

“If we know that the creation [of all things] is endowed from Nature, that phenomena of the universe change equally by themselves, that everything suddenly comes into existence and suddenly disappears, and that arising canot be controlled and disappearing cannot be stopped, then each of us will be content with our nature, availing ourselves of the laws of nature. [Then] the common people are satisﬁed with [working in] their ﬁelds and gentlemen remain calm, being free from avarice. If people till the land and obtain food, we will not run short of supplies of food. If they raise silkworms in order to obtain [thread for] clothing, we will not run out of clothes. When people of the lower classes have a surplus they will offer it to those of the upper class. People of the upper class maintain wuwei and wait for the common people [to offer food and goods to them]. Then people can fulﬁll the entire course of their lives, attend their parents with devotion, manage themselves, act for the sake of others, do things for the good of the country, and make their ruler powerful. [All of this will be achieved] if they act in this way.”

Criticism: “The existence of the Buddha depends on whether or not the principles of the mind exist. I have already spoken about this previously, but I would like to brieﬂy speak of it again here. From now I will point out the gains and losses [of Buddhism] and speak of its advantages and disadvantages in order to correct your excessive discussion.

“You say that śramaṇas ruin popular customs, damage ediﬁcation, waste [a great amount of] money and property, and reduce [the number of those who do] military service. Some monks do so, but this is not the Buddha’s fault. When the Buddha established the teaching, its basis was to be fond of life, to abhor killing, to practice good deeds, and to be engaged in almsgiving. To be fond of life is not only limited to the wish that birds and animals should multiply but also to consider that the numen of a human being is important. Could it be possible that to abhor killing means to suspend a sentence, forgive a criminal, or let a criminal abscond? This refers to investigating criminals and judging them with sympathy. To practice good deeds does not necessarily mean to revere [a buddha image that is] one zhang and six chi tall. It is to consider faithfulness and honesty as superior. To be engaged in almsgiving does not at all mean to use up one’s wealth for construction projects. It means to consider that helping those who are in distress is virtuous. If everyone were to cut off his offspring the Dharma seed (i.e., the Buddha’s teaching) would certainly never be transmitted. If Buddhist temples are built side by side there would be no land to sow and plant. Even ordinary people understand this. Needless to say, it is unlikely that our Benevolent One (i.e., the Buddha) would be happy about this.

“At present, if Buddhist monks who ‘wait by the stump,’ [hoping other hares will come by that same spot because they once caught a hare at that place] and confused, petty people see someone [shivering] with cold, they do not give even a poor article of clothing to him, or if they encounter a starv- ing man they do not give even coarse food to him.

Nevertheless, [laypeople] vie with one another in gathering Buddhist monks who lack insight, and compete with one another in making many buddha [images]. They abandon their relatives and never think of them. They abolish offering sacriﬁces [to the gods and ancestors] and never practice moral cul- tivation. They tear up good silk fabric [to ornament] Buddhist temples and

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scatter cinnabar and gold under pagodas. They think such acts are all for a ﬁeld of merit (Skt. puṇyakṣetra) and expect a reward. This is all because their comprehension of the Buddha is not deep and their understanding of the Dharma is not excellent. Even though they call the Buddha the Buddha, do they understand the purpose of taking refuge in the Buddha? They call a Buddhist monk a Buddhist monk, yet how could they reach the [true] meaning of following Buddhist monks? In this condition, divine beings do not bless them. I can do nothing for them, either.

“In the ways of the six schools of philosophy, each has had a long-accu- mulated evil effect. The Confucian school has the fault of being biased; the Mohist school has the fault of being extreme;114 the Legalist school has the fault of being too severe; the Nominalist school has the fault of being sophistic. This is entirely because the founders [of these schools] lost the [correct] trans- mission [of the teachings] and came to fall into the mire. You now take up the fault of being biased or extreme, but you do not criticize the founders Confucius and Mo [Di]. You pick up the fault of being too severe and sophistic but you do not blame the founders Han [Fei] and Deng [Xi]. Yet you punish only our Tathāgata and disparage his right, perfect enlightenment. This is similar to becoming angry at wind and waves and destroying a ship [in a fury]. “Rebels and villains presently deceive the ruler and their parents who are

in a superior social position, and they are cruel to people of the same class in an inferior social position. Some do not fear the brilliant law [of the coun- try], but are suddenly afraid of the government ofﬁce of the netherworld. They shrink from King Yama’s ferocity and fear the brutality of the ox-headed wardens of hell. Consequently, they repent their evils and reform themselves. This is an advantage [of Buddhism]. Moreover, the law of evil acts and mer- itorious deeds [in Buddhism] cannot differ from that of the worldly teaching, and should not go against human feeling. If there is someone who serves the ruler with loyalty, earnestly attends his parents with ﬁlial piety, and is trusted by his friends, it never happens to such a person that if he commits a fault that squanders his virtue he is disdained and abandoned, or if he commits the sin of killing insects or ﬁsh he falls into hell.

“No one surpasses Yi Yin, [a minister of the Yin dynasty,] in loyalty, and no one is above Zeng Shen in ﬁlial piety. Lord Yi slaughtered an animal in

order to nourish King Tang.115 Zengzi (i.e., Zeng Shen) cooked a fowl in order to nourish [his father] Dian. Both of these men, however, went to the hell of intense heat (Skt. tapanaḥ), [just as other ordinary people do,] and to the hell of sharp-pointed swords together. This is because a great achievement may be canceled out by a minor fault: they served their superiors yet they were against beneﬁting their inferiors.

“Formerly, Mi Zi[xia] made a false statement and rode a carriage [of the lord of Wei state because he was rushing to his sick mother], but he was spared from execution because of his great generosity.116 Alas! I once thought that the numinous artisan (i.e., the Buddha) is not as good as the lord of Wei state. Therefore, it is known that this [teaching] (i.e., Buddhism) is a precaution for merciless people and not an admonition for kindhearted people. If we thoroughly examine its deviation and arbitrariness, the fault does not lie in the Buddha. When we observe fortune and misfortune, we realize that the teaching was given in order to lead [people to the right path].

“If one stops thinking trivial matters in order to respect the basis, does not uproot the basis in order to make an exhaustive investigation of trivial matters, thinks of forgetting about himself in order to propagate the Dharma, and does not put off the Dharma in order to beneﬁt himself, then even though he may say that he has not yet been a Buddhist, I certainly think that such a person is a Buddhist.”

Criticism of Secretariat Fan’s Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit

by Cao Siwen

The Discourse says, “Spirit conforms to body, and body conforms to spirit. For this reason, when the body exists, the spirit does, too. When the body withers away, the spirit is extinguished.”

Criticism: “Body does not conform to spirit and spirit does not conform to body. These [two] are united and then they perform functions. Accordingly, uniting is not conforming. While one is alive, [his or her spirit and body] are united and perform functions. At the time of death the body still remains but the spirit departs. On what basis do I say so? In former times Zhao Jianzi was ill for ﬁve days, during which he did not recognize people [around him],

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and Lord Mu of Qin state came to his senses seven days [after he lost con- sciousness].117 Both of their spirits traveled to the place of the Celestial Thearch, where the Thearch had magniﬁcent music played for them in Juntian (Melody Heaven, one of nine heavens). Is this an example that the body remains while the spirit departs? If the spirit is extinguished when the body perishes, as the Discourse says, then body and spirit should certainly be together, just as a shadow [follows its form] or echo [follows its sound]. If this is so, when the body is ill the spirit would also be ill. How, then, could only the spirits [of Zhao Jianzi or Lord Mu] travel to the Celestial Thearch and be delighted by the magniﬁcent music of Juntian, while their bodies [were ill and] they did not recognize the people [around them]? This means that the spirit (hun) communicates with others while one sleeps. Therefore, the spirit (shen) [of Zhuangzi] became a butterﬂy and ﬂew around.118 That is to say, his body and spirit separated from each other. When he awoke his body began functioning, and he became the veritable Zhuangzi. Namely, his body and spirit were united. There is both separation and unity of spirit and body. When they are united they become one entity; when they separate from each other, the body perishes and the spirit departs. Therefore, when [Jizi of] Yanling (i.e., Jizha of Wu) buried his son, he said, ‘The bones and ﬂesh return again to the earth but the spirit in its energy (hunqi) can go every- where.’119 This exactly means that even though the body perishes, the spirit is not extinguished. If this is so, then the clear testimonies found in the scrip- tures and history books are of uncommon brilliance. [The issue] is just like this. How could it be that when the body perishes the spirit is extinguished?” The Discourse says, “The questioner says, ‘The Canon [of Filial Piety] says, “They prepare the ancestral temple and make offerings to serve spirits of the deceased.’ The explanation says, ‘It is not that there are spirits of the deceased. This is because the sage’s teaching is exactly so. The reason is to cause people to follow their ﬁlial minds and oppress thoughts of slighting

[their ancestors].’”

Agriculture) at the border altar in order to enshrine him as the correlate of Heaven, and he honored King Wen in the Brilliant Hall in order to enshrine him as the correlate of the Supreme Thearch.’120 If body and spirit are extin- guished together, who then was enshrined as the correlate of Heaven, and who was enshrined as the correlate of the Supreme Thearch? Moreover, when [Zilu falsiﬁed a case in which Confucius] had vassals, even though he had no vassals, Confucius said, ‘Is it possible to deceive Heaven?’121 If the spirit of [Hou]ji did not exist and yet he is enshrined as the correlate [of Heaven], does this mean that Zhou Dan (i.e., the Duke of Zhou) deceived Heaven? If [Hou]ji did not really exist and yet he was vainly enshrined as the correlate of Heaven, this is precisely to deceive Heaven, and it also deceives the people. This would indicate that this sage’s teaching guides the people with deception and falsity. How could one who establishes a teaching on the basis of deception and falsity cause people to master the mind of a ﬁlial child and oppress thoughts of slighting [their ancestors]?

“Seeking for the purpose of the Discourse, its prerequisite is that the spirit does not exist. I will try to question closely again.

“Confucius offered a small amount of vegetable soup and melons in sac- riﬁce at his ancestral temple.122 The Book of Rites says, ‘We welcome [the spirits of ancestors] with joy and send them off with sadness.’123 If there is no spirit, what are we supposed to welcome in reception? If there is no spirit, what are we supposed to send off at that time? If [Confucius] was happy when he welcomed [nonexistent spirits], it would be false happiness that appeared on his face. If he was sad when [nonexistent spirits] departed, the tears he shed from his body (i.e., eyes) would be false. If this [was the case, then] in the religious services Confucius performed deception ﬁlled his mind, and his ancestral temple was full of falsity. Could the sage’s teaching be like this? Nevertheless, you say, ‘The sage’s teaching is exactly so.’ Why?”

I, Siwen, speak. I personally read Fan Zhen’s Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, in which he made himself the guest as well as the host. Conse- quently, there are more than thirty articles. Without thinking of my ignorance, I, Siwen, slightly criticized only two articles of the important points of the Discourse. I earnestly desire to break the root [of the Discourse] with this. I will sincerely take risks to submit it to Imperial hearing. My nature is

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shallow and deﬁcient, and I am afraid that I cannot refute this peculiar writing (i.e., the Discourse). When I look up I disgrace a blessing from Heaven, and when I look down I tremble in fear as a consequence of [my criticism].

Humbly, yours.

[Imperial Response]

The two articles you criticized will be separately read in detail. I proclaimed my response to you above.

Response to Office Manager Cao’s Criticism of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit

[by Fan Zhen]

Criticism: “Body does not conform to spirit and spirit does not conform to body. These [two] are united and then they perform functions. Accordingly, uniting is not conforming.”

Answer: “If [body and spirit] are united and perform functions, it is clear that they have no function unless they are united. It is just like the animal called qiong[qiong] and the animal called ju[xu] depend on each other; if one of them becomes disabled, the other cannot [survive]. This is exactly essential evidence for the extinction of spirit, but it is not a right conclusion for the existence of the spirit. Your intention is basically to force a ﬁght on me. Will you, however, become reinforcement for me?”

Criticism: “In former times Zhao Jianzi was ill for ﬁve days, during which he did not recognize people [around him], and Lord Mu of Qin state came to his senses seven days [after he lost consciousness]. Both of their spirits traveled to the place of the Celestial Thearch, where the Thearch had mag- niﬁcent music played for them in Juntian. Is this an example that the body remains while the spirit departs?”

Answer: “Regarding the issue that Zhao Jianzi became a distinguished guest [of the Celestial Thearch] and Lord Mu of Qin state traveled to the Celestial Thearch, since it is said that they enjoyed [the magniﬁcent music of] Juntian with their ears and made themselves easy tasting all sorts of food and drink with their mouths, it is possible that they paciﬁed their bodies in a grand mansion, their eyes were delighted with a good view of the universe,

they wore beautifully embroidered robes, and they ‘bit and reined’ (i.e., rode) a dragon. Therefore, it is known that what the spirit expects does not differ from what people do. Each of the four limbs and the seven apertures in the head [of the spirit] is equal to those of the [human] body. Since it cannot go far with a single wing, it ﬂies with both wings. This is adapted to the spirit, without doubt. How then could [the spirit that] goes by the body become independent?”

Criticism: “If the spirit is extinguished when the body perishes, as the Discourse says, then body and spirit should certainly be together, just as a shadow [follows its form] or echo [follows its sound]. If this is so, when the body is ill the spirit would also be ill. How, then, could only the spirits [of Zhao Jianzi or Lord Mu] travel to the Celestial Thearch and be delighted by the magniﬁcent music of Juntian, while their bodies [were ill and] they did not recognize the people [around them]?”

Answer: “If the issue is just as you think, then when the body is ill the spirit is not. When one is injured, he suffers from pain. [Under your logic,] in such a case the body would feel pain but the spirit would not. When one has an afﬂiction, he is anxious. [Under your logic,] in this case the body has anxiety yet the spirit does not. If anxiety and pain have already been experi- enced by the body in this way, how could the spirit be bothered for nothing?” “I, Cao [Siwen], think that [body and spirit] are united and perform func- tions while one is alive; they share pain and disablement. When one dies, the body remains and the spirit travels. Therefore [the spirit] that traveled to

the Celestial Thearch is different from the body.”

Criticism: “[This means that] the spirit communicates with others while one sleeps. Therefore, the spirit [of Zhuangzi] became a butterﬂy and ﬂew around. That is to say, his body and spirit separated from each other. When he awoke his body began functioning, and he became the veritable Zhuangzi. Namely, his body and his spirit were united.”

Answer: “This criticism can be said to be a thorough argument, but it can- not be said to be [the ideas of] the one who has mastered the principle. You say, ‘The spirit [of Zhuangzi] became a butterﬂy and ﬂew around.’ Did [Zhuangzi] truly become a ﬂying insect? If so, when in a dream someone becomes a cow, he would then bear the shafts of another person’s cart on his

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back, or if he becomes a horse in a dream, he would then be ridden by other people. [In this case,] the next morning there would be a dead cow or a dead horse [where the person had been asleep]. However, there is no such thing. Why not? Moreover, [the empress of Wu state dreamed that] her intestines ﬂew around the Gate of Heaven (i.e., the front gate of a palace). She should have died instantly. How could she continue to live after losing her liver and lungs? Furthermore, the sun and moon have their places in the sky, and land stretches a thousand li between east and west as well as between south and north. It is unlikely that [the moon] comes down and enters into the bosom of a common woman.124 Dreams and phantasms are unreal. There is no base from which they arise. It is too extraordinary if we were to take them to be real. If we unite ourselves with intelligence and ponder over the sky, we can travel all around the sky from our seats. If our spirits are confused within us, we untruly see peculiar things. How could it be that Zhuangzi [became a butterﬂy] and really disported himself in the south garden, and Zhao Jianzi truly ascended to the Gate of Heaven? My cousin Xiao Chen at Ying also keeps grumbling about this based on dreams. I wonder who wants to take a look at it.”

Criticism: “[Therefore, when Jizi of] Yanling buried his son, he said, ‘The bones and ﬂesh return again to the earth, and the spirit in its energy can go everywhere.’ This exactly means that even though the body perishes, the spirit is not extinguished.”

Answer: “When a human being is born, the energy is provided from Heaven and the body is received from Earth. Therefore, [when he dies,] the body vanishes down into the earth and the energy extinguishes into Heaven. Since the energy extinguishes into Heaven, it is said that ‘it can go every- where.’ That ‘it can go everywhere’ means simply that it is unfathomable. Is it necessary that [the energy] has spirit as well as perception?”

Criticism: “What the Discourse says is completely a sentimental expression, not the sage’s purpose. Please let me quote a passage from the Canon [of Filial Piety] in order to testify to the sage’s teaching. The Canon of Filial Piety says, ‘Formerly, the Duke of Zhou sacriﬁced to Houji at the border altar in order to enshrine him as the correlate of Heaven, and he honored King Wen in the Brilliant Hall in order to enshrine him as the correlate of

the Supreme Thearch.’ If body and spirit are extinguished together, who then was enshrined as the correlate of Heaven, and who was enshrined as the cor- relate of the Supreme Thearch?”

Answer: “If everyone is equally a sage or a very wise person, the teaching originally does not exist. The reason for the foundation of the teaching lies in the people. The people’s feeling usually values life and despises death. [If they believe that] there is a numinous being after death, a feeling of awe increases, but [if they think that] there is nothing to know after death, they give rise to disrespectful thoughts. Since sages were aware of [the people’s feeling] like this, they made ancestral temples, raised altars, and cleared the ground around them [for the performance of sacriﬁces] in order to cause the people to deepen their sincere minds; they spread out bamboo mats and arranged stools [for worship] in order to cause the people to completely compel themselves [to worship]; they cause the people to respect their ances- tors and offer exhaustive sacriﬁces to Heaven; and they cause the people to revere their fathers, enshrine them as the correlates of Heaven, and offer sac- riﬁces to them in the Brilliant Hall.

“Furthermore, faithful and honest people have the foundation of their minds, while rufﬁans are awestruck on this point. The reason the imperial cultural education shines in the upper social class and customs are simple and sincere in the lower social class is because this way is employed. There- fore, the Canon [of Filial Piety says], ‘They make the ancestral temple where they present offerings to disembodied spirits.’125 That is to say, by employing the way of disembodied spirits we perform this ﬁlial offering. [Furthermore, the Canon of Filial Piety says,] ‘In spring and autumn they offer sacriﬁces, thinking of [their ancestors] as the seasons come round.’126 [The sage] clariﬁed that he encourages people to honor their ancestors [with sacriﬁces]; it is for- bidden that one who dies in the morning is forgotten in the evening.

Zigong asked, ‘Does a person have cognition after death?’ Confucius said, ‘If I say that a person has cognition after death, a ﬁlial son may slight his life and immolate himself [when his parents die]. If I say that a person has no cognition after death, an unﬁlial son will abandon [his parents] and never bury them.’ When Zilu (i.e., Jilu) asked about serving the spirits of the dead, the Master (i.e., Confucius) said, ‘While you are not able to serve people,

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how can you serve the spirits?’127 [Zilu] precisely spoke of offering sacriﬁces to the spirits. Why did [Confucius] not allow [Zilu] to serve them? It is because if a person has cognition after death, [a ﬁlial son will] slight [his own] life and immolate himself [when his parents die]. Why did [Confucius] not clearly say that [cognition] exists [after death] and why did he give such an evasive answer? Examining its meaning, it is already discerned that cognition does not exist after death. Ancestral temples, a sacriﬁce to Heaven in winter, and a sacriﬁce to Earth in summer are all expedients of the sages’ teachings. The way of the unvarying principles ( yilun) simply cannot be abolished.” Criticism: “Moreover, when [Zilu falsiﬁed a case in which Confucius] had vassals, even though he had no vassals, Confucius said, ‘Is it possible to deceive Heaven?’ If the spirit of [Hou]ji did not exist and yet he is enshrined as the correlate [of Heaven], does this mean that Zhou Dan (i.e., the Duke of Zhou) deceived Heaven? [If Houji did not really exist and yet he was vainly enshrined as the correlate of Heaven,] this is precisely to deceive Heaven, and it also deceives the people. This would indicate that this sage’s teaching guides the people with deception and falsity. How could one who establishes a teaching on the basis of deception and falsity cause people to master the mind of a ﬁlial child and oppress thoughts of slighting [their ancestors]?” Answer: “A sage is the one who manifests benevolence, who stores up his functions within, who thoroughly comprehends the spirit, and who com- pletely knows the processes of transformation. Therefore, it is said that ‘The sage masters his principle, while the wise person keeps to his principle.’128 Could it be possible to seek only the means [to attain the goal] and limit the

teaching by words?

“Deception merely refers to impeding ediﬁcation, corrupting customs, and leading the people to injustice. If it is possible to stabilize the upper class of the society, to govern the people, to improve public morals, and to have the brightness of the sun, moon, and stars above, and the happiness of the common people below, what deception is there?

“Please let me ask you a question. King Tang, [founder of the Yin dynasty,] banished King Jie, [the last ruler of the Xia dynasty,] and King Wu, [founder of the Zhou dynasty,] attacked King Zhou, [the last ruler of the Yin dynasty]. These cases are of killing a sovereign, aren’t they? Nevertheless, Mencius

said, ‘I have heard that [King Wu] put the fellow Zhou to death, but I have never heard that he killed a sovereign.’129 You do not blame the sages’ conduct of banishing [a sovereign] or committing regicide. Nevertheless, you make strenuous efforts regarding the issue that offering a sacriﬁce to [Hou]ji is absurd, don’t you?

“The southern suburbs of a city [where Heaven is worshiped on the summer solstice], the round mound [where Heaven is worshiped on the winter solstice], and the Brilliant Hall where the emperor performs sacriﬁcial offerings to Heaven and Earth are exactly the headquarters of Confucianists; they are not for endless disputes about the signiﬁcance of body and spirit. Why do things come to this?”

Criticism: “[The Book of Rites says,] ‘We welcome [the spirits of ancestors] with joy and send them off with sadness.’ And so on.”

Answer: “The signiﬁcance of this issue is naturally understood without thorough explanation. I will not waste words on a useless issue. There are many statements about this in the Book of Rites. I recently try to write about this section, but regret a bit that I have not [yet] completed it.”

I, Siwen, speak.130 I read for the ﬁrst time the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, composed by Fan Zhen in response [to the Imperial edict]. He still holds fast to his previous delusion. I, Siwen, tried to speculate about his logic and principle and charged forward with the four demonstrations. I will respectfully report this to the Throne. I am, however, ignorant and shallow in feeling and intelligence, and I have nothing with which to refute his vigorous discussion. When I look up I cover the sacred mirror with dust, and when I look down I tremble in fear as a consequence of [my criticism].

Humbly, yours.

[Imperial Response]

The matter has my understanding in all its particulars. [Fan] Zhen already established the meaning by going against the scriptures, and he delivered a talk that opposes the truth. It is difﬁcult to upbraid with sacredness those who have lost sacredness, and it is difﬁcult to berate with the truth those who oppose the truth. If the situation is like this, on the whole it is all right to stop debating [about this] in language.

Above is the Imperial response. 59c

The Second Criticism of Secretariat Fan’s Discourse on the Extinction

of the Spirit [by Cao Siwen]

The Discourse says, “If [body and spirit] are united and perform functions, it is clear that they have no function unless they are united. It is just like the animal called qiong[qiong] and the animal called ju[xu] depend on each other; if one of them becomes disabled, the other cannot [survive]. This is exactly essential evidence for the extinction of spirit, but it is not a right conclusion for the existence of the spirit. Your intention is basically to force a ﬁght on me. Will you, however, become reinforcement for me?”The Discourse again says, “[The relation] between body and spirit is similar to that between a sword and its sharpness 131 I have not heard that when a sword disappears its sharpness

remains. How could it be possible that the body is lost yet the spirit remains?” [The Discourse] furthermore says, “[Jizi of] Yanling said that the body vanishes underground and the spirit extinguishes into Heaven. Therefore, it

is said [that the spirit] can go everywhere.”

[The Discourse] also says, “That [Hou]ji is enshrined as the correlate of Heaven does not deceive Heaven. It is just like when King Tang banished [King Jie] and King Wu attacked [King Zhou]; these are not cases of killing a sovereign. You do not blame the sages’ conduct of banishing [a sovereign] and committing regicide. Nevertheless, you make strenuous efforts regarding the issue that offering a sacriﬁce to [Hou]ji is absurd, don’t you?”

Criticism: “The [example of the] animals qiong[qiong] and ju[xu] is evi- dence only for the case that functions are made of what are united; it is not evidence for the issue that when the body dies the spirit immediately perishes. The reason I say this is because the animal qiong[qiong] is not the animal ju[xu], and the ju[xu] is not the qiong[qiong]. If the qiong[qiong] is now killed, the ju[xu] does not die, and if the ju[xu] is beheaded, the qiong[qiong] does not perish. They do not conform to each other. At present, you refer to [the example of] these [animals] as keen evidence and good reinforcement regarding the issue that body and spirit perish together. This is as if you were to give someone a spear that points toward yourself and you then seek a way to survive. How sad! This is nothing but the ﬁrst testimony for the issue that the body dies yet the spirit is not extinguished.

“You say in the Discourse, ‘[The relation] between body and spirit is similar to that between a sword and its sharpness I have not heard that

when a sword disappears its sharpness remains. How could it be possible that the body is lost yet the spirit remains?’

“The ground of your discourse on the issue that body and spirit perish together is merely this single point. An ignorant person has a delusion. Why? Spirit and body, the two things, are united and perform functions. Namely, as you refer to in the Discourse, the qiong[qiong] and ju[xu] that depend on each other are [an example of] this. A sword and its sharpness are simply two different names for the same thing. In this case, since a thing has two different names, if the sword is abandoned its sharpness does not exist; since two different things are united and function, when the body dies the spirit departs. At present, you refer to a thing with two different names and try to prove [by this] that two different things are united and function. This looks like a hairbreadth’s difference, but in fact it is a difference of thousands of li. This is also the second testimony for the issue that the body dies yet the spirit is not extinguished.

Furthermore, [the Discourse] gives the statement of [Jizi of] Yanling, ‘The body vanishes underground and the spirit extinguishes into Heaven.’ The Discourse says that body and spirit are one entity and they conform to each other. If the body dies here, then the spirit should also perish in the body. How could it be said that ‘the body vanishes underground and the spirit extin- guishes into Heaven’? How can it be said, furthermore, that ‘[the spirit] can go everywhere’? This is also the third testimony for the issue that the body dies yet the spirit is not extinguished.

Moreover, [the Discourse] says, ‘That [Hou]ji is enshrined as the correlate of Heaven does not deceive Heaven. It is just like when King Tang banished [King Jie] and King Wu attacked [King Zhou]; these are not cases of killing a sovereign.’ Is this supposed to remove evils by expedients? The rulers Tang [Yao] and Yu [Shun], however, had no trouble in banishing or attacking [their immediate predecessors]. It is understandable in this case, the era was not peaceful; it was the last period of the three ancient dynasties (i.e., Xia, Shang, and Zhou), and the teaching was established as an expedient in order to relieve the people temporarily; therefore [Hou]ji was enshrined for the time

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being as the correlate of Heaven and King Wen was enshrined temporarily as the correlate of the Supreme Thearch. Nevertheless, when Yu [Shun] ruled over the empire, he performed the imperial sacriﬁce for the Yellow Emperor once every ﬁve years, offered sacriﬁces to Emperor Ku, and worshiped Zhuan[xu] as the remote ancestor and Yao as the originator. [In his time] the simple and sincere customs and traditions had not yet come to an end, and there was no need for expedients. Now Heaven has been deceived and the Supreme Thearch has been slandered. Why? What has been quoted to support [the Discourse] is like this. This is again the fourth testimony for the issue that the body dies yet the spirit is not extinguished.

These four testimonies have already been established, and the root [of the Discourse] has spontaneously collapsed. The remaining various side issues will be dispersed before the wind blows away.”

The Discourse says, “[The Book of Rites says,] ‘We welcome [the spirits of ancestors] with joy and send them off with sadness.’ The signiﬁcance of this issue is naturally understood without thorough explanation. I will not waste [words] on a useless issue. There are many statements about this in the Book of Rites.”

[The Discourse] further says, “Deception merely refers to impeding edi- ﬁcation and corrupting customs. If it is possible to stabilize the upper class of the society and govern the people, what deception is there?”

Criticism: “I said in my previous criticism, ‘If [Confucius] was happy when he welcomed [nonexistent spirits], it would be false happiness that appeared on his face. If he was sad when [nonexistent spirits] departed, the tears he shed from his body (i.e., eyes) would be false.’ In fact, the scaling ladder (i.e., a means) of my vulgar criticism and the sharp point of my weak reason lie in these words. You, the respondent, however, have not understood them well, and say only, ‘[The signiﬁcance of this issue] is naturally under- stood without thorough explanation.’ Please let me explain it again.

“According to the purport of your discourse, you already admit that Con- fucius had false happiness and false tears. In addition, you admit that [Hou]ji was enshrined as the correlate of Heaven indicates pointing to nonexistence and considering it as existence. Confucius said, ‘Having not and yet affecting to have, empty and yet affecting to be full. . . , [it is difﬁcult with such char- acteristics to have constancy].’132 This is not something that can be divined

with diagrams; it is something kept away from wise sayings. If this practice is employed in order to instigate [the people for ediﬁcation], how could it be possible that [ediﬁcation] is not damaged and customs are not corrupted? You, however, say, ‘[If] it is possible to stabilize the upper class of the society and govern the people, [what deception is there?]’ Why? The Discourse says, ‘It is already understood [without thorough explanation],’ but an ignorant person (i.e., Cao Siwen) has not yet understood it. I will again send an inquiry in a humble way. I would like to learn something from you directly.”

End of Fascicle Nine of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Ten

The Emperor of the Great Liang Dynasty’s Imperial Response to His Subjects: [The Examination of ] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit

In order to make an argument in the current situation, there must be a formality. If you would like to talk about the nonexistence of the Buddha, you should establish host and guest, make the points of argument clear, distinguish the strong points from the weak points, refute the Buddhist doctrine that your opponent asserts by means of the Buddhist doctrine that you understand. Then, the reason supporting the existence of the Buddha falters and the Dis- course on the Extinction of the Spirit spontaneously prevails. Is it appropriate to recklessly put forth a heretical view without seeking out others’ thoughts, to utilize the veiled mind, to wag your tongue, to vainly draw suffering, and to aimlessly slander?

Insects speciﬁc to a season (i.e., summer) are fearful and apprehensive of the changes [of the four seasons]; a frog in a well regards vastness as nonsense.133 Why is this? It is because [the insects,] engulfed in ignorance and idleness, struggle for life that is as brief as a breath, and [the frog] has been badly informed of the world and waits by the parapet of the well. How could [these creatures] know the eternity of Heaven and Earth and the vastness of the dark sea? Mencius said, “What people know is not so much as what they do not know.”134 This is true! Observing the teachings founded by the three sages (i.e., Confucius, Laozi, and Śākyamuni), they all speak of the imperishability [of the spirit]. Since their writings regarding this are extensive, it is difﬁcult to record them all. I will take up only a couple of examples [here] and try to

make a statement.

The “Chapter on the Meaning of Sacriﬁces” (Jiyi) [in the Book of Rites] says, “Only ﬁlial sons can perform a sacriﬁcial ceremony for their parents,”135 and the section on “Ceremonial Usages” (Liyun) says, “After three days’ puriﬁ- cation, one assuredly sees those to whom his sacriﬁce was to be offered.”136

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60c

If it is said that one offers a sacriﬁce to someone to whom he is not supposed to offer and sees those he is not supposed to see, this is to go against proper principles and rebel against his parents. This is unspeakable. The Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit is something I do not understand.

Letter Given by Dharma Teacher Fayun at Zhuangyan Temple to Lords, Kings, and Noble Courtiers and their Responses

[Letter Given by Dharma Teacher Fayun (467–529)]

Here I send you His Majesty’s [Imperial] Response to His Subject: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

What is marvelous and tranquil can be known but cannot be explained. The signiﬁcance of this has not been explained even from [the time of] Confucius, and the principles have been unclear since [the time of] the Duke of Zhou. His Majesty becomes Heaven, shines upon the foundation, conforms to the Way, instructs people according with their faculties, and bestows his response [to the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit] to his subjects. His purpose and instruction are attentive to every detail. The rite of ﬁlial offering is already evident. Even [a person as ferocious and cruel as] King Jie, [the last ruler of the Xia dynasty,] will hold in mind devotion for his parents, just as [ﬁlial and upright men such as] Zeng [Shen] and Shi [Yu] did. The speech of the three periods of existence (i.e., Buddhism) is also clear. Even [a person as tyrannical as] King Zhou, [the last ruler of the Yin dynasty,] will follow the feelings of Sadāprarudita, [a bodhisattva who laments aloud the suffering of sentient beings]. Among all those who are not trees or plants, who would not sing praises of [His Majesty]? I hope you will accept

the moral education and greatly praise him together.

Submitted by Shi Fayun.

The Answer of the King of Linchuan

I received the Imperial Response [to His Subjects: The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit that you sent to me. I humbly read its profound gist. The argument is accurate, and the composition is perfect. The ways of the two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Confucianism)

are agreeable for modern times. The teaching of the three periods of existence (i.e., Buddhism) carries weight in the present age. [This writing] is good enough to cause those who go astray to return to the right path by themselves, and to make the wondrous purport even brighter. One of these days I will write a response in which I will show my analysis completely.

I, Xiao Hong (473–526), bow (Skt. vandana).

The Answer of the King of Jian’an

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. His Majesty’s insight shines over distances, and his thoughts are deeply expressed. I humbly read what is subtle, and truly realize I am ignorant. You intimately showed it to a vulgar man [like me]. I deeply appre- ciate your generous consideration.

I, [Xiao] Wei (477–534), bow.

The Answer of the King of Changsha

You have kindly shown me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. His Majesty’s discretion profoundly coheres, and his intelligence shines deeply over dis- tances. This can be a tool for people of deluded views to attain enlightenment; it teaches and leads on those of ignorant minds. I study this intensively with respect, read it repeatedly, and cleanse my worldly thoughts. You intimately showed it to me. I greatly appreciate your favor.

I, Xiao Yuanye (479–526), bow.

The Answer of Shen Yue (441–513), Director of the Imperial Secretariat The spirit is originally immortal. This is what I have believed for a long time. The assertion [given in] [the Discourse on] the Extinction of the Spirit really startled me. Recently, when Dharma Teacher [Hui]yue (452–535) came out of the palace, I also received a copy of the Imperial Response to His Sub- jects[: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit]. I happily received it, paying my respects, and scrutinized it tirelessly. This [writing] not only subdues the heterodoxy but it also can destroy demons eternally. Hereupon [the teachings of] Confucius and Śākyamuni are equally promoted. This is truly the imperishable wondrous purport and [will serve

61a

as a] ferry for all ages. I, your disciple, have also recently completed and presented [in public] my doubts and examinations about the Discourse [on the Extinction of the Spirit].

I, Shen Yue, bow.

The Answer of Fan Xiu (460–514), Grand Master for Splendid Happiness and Current Commandant of the Right Guard

of the Crown Prince

I, Xiu, bow.

I humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

His Majesty’s instruction is profound, and he discerns the very beginning of a movement. Referring to a non-Buddhist text, he promotes Buddhism, illuminates and enlightens ignorant people, and teaches and leads on those who have not yet awakened. Just now he causes all the people of the world to respectfully look up at him, all the beings of the ten directions to praise him, those who have different views to hold their tongues and say nothing, and both the Buddhist clergy and laypeople to be happy together. I attentively learn this through recitation night and day, and write it on the end of the sash of my ceremonial gown, [so that I will not forget whether] waking and sleep- ing. You kindly showed this to me. I deeply appreciate your favor.

I, Fan Xiu, bow.

The Answer of Wang Ying, Governor of Danyang

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly read the signiﬁcance of the Imperial statement that the spirit is immortal.

His Majesty’s perspicacious thought is resourceful and deep. His affections [toward his subjects] are observed just as clouds grow. [This writing] shows reason and clariﬁes instances. [My doubts] have been dispersed, just as ice melts away. [The way] to indicate the issue and make a statement is as clear as if it were illuminated by the sun. This will enlighten the ignorant and carry those who lack ability [to the goal]. There is no one among all sentient beings who will not take this and keep this in mind. I will respectfully write this on the end of the sash of my ceremonial gown [so that I will not forget], and I will revere this throughout my life.

I, your disciple Wang Ying, bow.

The Answer of Wang Zhi (460–513), Secretariat Director

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly read the Imperial Response to His Subjects: [The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. The purport is lofty and the meaning is extensive. It shines upon me as if enlightening the ignorant.

I, your disciple, have followed Buddhism from my early days. It has been a long time of practicing and following the teaching I learned a long time ago. I not only echo [His Majesty’s] very lofty [views], but also praise and encourage his purport. Moreover, the two interpretations he showed graciously in his response are calming to my mind, and beautifully illuminate what I have learned. I do not know how he could expound and propagate his deep plan and gloriously display his sacred account any more than this does. Fur- thermore, it disables a purposeless person (i.e., Fan Zhen) from distorting the truth. There will be no chaotic obstruction either within or outside [the country]. I would really like to clap my hands in joy.

I am humbly favored by your instruction. I will deeply keep your favor in mind.

I, Wang Zhi, bow.

The Answer of Yuan Ang (461–540), Right Chief Administrator

[I received] your gracious letter. Together with it, I humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I respectfully read [the Imperial Response] repeat- edly. I suddenly awoke from my binding in confusion. The spirit is imper- ceptible and tranquil. It is hard to get at the principle. Alas! How could I, an ignorant man, explore it?

Taking an example from familiar matters, I do not know all about the body that I still use every day, not to mention the principle of profound and obscure [things], which is often incorrectly understood. Respectfully inquiring about it in the sacred books, they clearly state that [the spirit] is not nonexistent. I must simply revere the teaching and take refuge in the position of the exis- tence [of the spirit]. Even if we follow the position that [the spirit] exists and speak of its existence, we are still unable to reach the [original] nature. Con- sequently, we discuss nonexistence from the position of “not nonexistence.” This means we may be further away [from the truth].

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Except for someone whose understanding towers above others and whose wisdom is peerless, how could we subtly infer the statement that [the spirit] is not extinguished, and how could we deeply comprehend the purpose that [the spirit] continues from one life to the next? Also, [His Majesty] cites two illustrations. I see precisely that the existence of the spirit is obvious. Seeking this in the three periods of existence, the doctrine of the immortality [of the spirit] is more evident. It can be said that “When I try to penetrate it, it seems to become ﬁrmer; when I look up to it, it seems to become higher.”137 [His Majesty’s examination] will surely clear away all delusions and vice, and cause those who are misguided to return to the right path. I will humbly recite this tirelessly, dancing with great joy.

I, your disciple Yuan Ang, bow.

The Answer of Xiao Bing, Chamberlain of the Court for the Palace Garrison

[I received] your gracious letter. Together with it, I humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. Even though [the law of] the three periods of existence is evident, the teaching of the One Vehicle is profound. Some people have the obscuration of biased views and still adhere to strange doctrines. Our sage emperor explored what is hidden, searched out what is subtle, focused on the spirit in the metaphysical world, probed into the very root of the principle, reached the [original] nature, and embraced Heaven and human beings. He discussed and analyzed both the Buddhist teaching and non-Buddhist teach- ings. The main purpose and intention of his composition is profound. Might [his examination] cause all sentient beings to disperse their delusions? Truly it may also cause even an icchantika to immediately awaken. Surely this will be enhanced in the world, and this model will be handed down to future ages.

You kindly sent me the information. I deeply keep it in my mind.

I, a man bereaved of his father, Xiao Bing, lower my head to the ground and bow.

The Answer of Xu Mian (466–535), Imperial Secretary of the Ministry of Personnel

According to the Imperial decree, the Imperial Response to His Subjects:

[The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit was brieﬂy

shown to me one day. [I received] your gracious letter, together with [this writing that] you sent to me. I humbly studied and read it closely. It probes into the very root of the principle and reaches tranquility. The nature and reasons of the issue are minutely investigated and the inscrutable essence is penetrated. Both the writing and its meaning are clear. It profoundly transcends the secular world. When I respectfully go into the details of [the doctrine of] the three periods of existence, its brightness is like enlightening the ignorant.

I will not only recite and sustain this sincerely, but also always distribute it to those who have not yet been awakened. You kindly showed this to me. I received your great favor.

I, your disciple Xu Mian, bow.

The Answer of Lu Gao (459–532), Palace Cadet of the Crown Prince

I, Gao, bow.

I humbly read the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

[Vimalakīrti] followed the doctrine that being free from any thought of attachment (Skt. apratiṣṭhāna) is the foundation.138 He kept silent [about entering the gate of nonduality] and cut off thinking.139 What is concealed in the collection of [words spoken by] the Tathāgata is mysterious and absolute. It is difﬁcult to express it in words. Therefore, it caused Zhongchu (i.e., Yu Chan) to propose the assertion of the allegory of ﬁrewood and ﬁre [to explain the relationship between body and spirit], and Huiyuan to disseminate the criticism [of the assertion that the spirit is extinguished, just as ﬁre consumes ﬁrewood].140 Questionable assertions have been conveyed and discussed by many people. We have wasted years, sunken in incongruity.

His Majesty’s brightness was endowed by Heaven. His sacred intelligence is innate. Understanding the faculties of the people, he bestowed medicine to us. He made use of expedients according to the object. Consequently, he straightened out propriety and corrected faults. He points out ﬁlial piety and shows one corner of the aspect [so that the people will be aware of the remaining three corners].141 This is truly because confusion arises from vulgar learning. He caused the people to cleanse themselves of confusion and bestowed the [Buddhist] Way on them. Delusion is supported by com- positions of non-Buddhist teachings. [His Majesty] then accommodated himself to the non-Buddhist teachings in order to clarify the Buddhist teaching.

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He freely made statements and prevailed by surprise. Based on what is in accordance with the principles, he ﬁxed [the doctrine of] the three periods of existence as ﬁrmly as a city that is defended by moats, and sustains sentient beings. If [his examination] breaks ignorance in the present and rends [evil] nets into pieces in the future, at what point would his writing not be beneﬁcial? How could the advantage of these few words presented by him be minor? [His Majesty] was born on the basis of celebration of the former existence, and simultaneously he has the highest virtue.

I took part in receiving a share of his discussion with respect. I am happy to pay respects to him. You kindly showed this to me without forgetting me. I deeply appreciate it.

I, Lu Gao, bow.

The Answer of Xiao Chen (476–512), Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary

I, your disciple Chen, bow.

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, which wondrously surveys [the relation between] people’s faculties and the spirit, and which brings ethical education into full play. This is really good enough to cause the pure Dharma to increase its brightness and Confucianists to respect their studies. The people will attain liberation without a teacher’s guidance, and the public will admire the Way of ﬁlial piety. Here the basis of the principles of human relationships is more clariﬁed. One who goes against the scriptures and who introduces disorder into the public customs will spontaneously destroy him- self. I recite this, clapping my hands in joy, and overwhelmingly pay respect. My brother (i.e., Fan Zhen), who is stupid and incompetent, invited faults and now faces his trial. He is tormented and fearful in public and private, and his feelings and thoughts increase his terror. Therefore, he has no com- posure from which to respectfully praise [His Majesty’s] magniﬁcent plan and properly acclaim its essential signiﬁcance. He received [His Majesty’s] ediﬁcation with respect and heard his guidance. He can only prostrate himself,

feeling frightened and ashamed.

You deeply show your favor and encouragement to me. I will remember with admiration your kindness and guidance.

I, your disciple Xiao Chen, bow.

The Answer of Wang Bin and Wang Jian, Attendants-in-Ordinary

[We received] your gracious letter. We humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

His Majesty’s thought profoundly coheres, and his logic is preeminent. When he argues about the three periods of existence, he clearly explains the doctrine. When he cites two instances, the Way of ﬁlial piety is easily under- stood. [This writing] will block the path made by someone who deeply studies [scriptures on his own], and close the mouth of the heretic. This is good enough to cause the devil’s low fences to fall down eternally and the rightful peak to be lofty for a long time.

We, your disciples, respectfully receive the highest path and observe the law of Heaven. How could our joyful minds be commonplace?

Wang Bin and Wang Jian bow.

The Answer of Lu Xu, Secretariat Drafter of the Heir Apparent

I received your very gracious letter. I humbly looked at His Majesty’s [Imperial] Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

I bent and lifted my head, and kneeled and worshiped this. I loitered about and bowed. I have heard in private that sages simply have a single principle [to govern the world],142 but Tang [Yao] and Yu [Shun] have previously made no such remarks. To know an omen just as a god does is only to receive with respect the edict of the Liang dynasty today. When the Way is carried out [properly], all beings keep out their corruption and delusion. When virtues last long, the world praises the illuminative guidance. [The emperor’s exam- ination] can precisely help the people, nourish his own virtue, save sentient beings equally for a hundred years, care for the people, make the people active, and bring every being into submission eternally.

You, the Dharma teacher, have deep knowledge and determination. You sustain it (i.e., Buddhism) and keep all [teachings] faithfully. Your determi- nation is great and you are well versed in many things. You understand the essence of the spirit very well.

I, Lu Xu, bow.

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The Answer of Xu Gun, Gentleman of the Palace Gate

I, Gun, bow.

[I received] your gracious letter together with the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit that you sent to me. I humbly read the profound purport, which removed obstructions from my mind and washed away my troublesomeness.

I personally think that it is difﬁcult to seek the basis of profound reason, and the origin of the subtle and esoteric teaching is not seen. Only a superior sage can talk about the foundation. How could a man who does not have supreme intelligence lead [the people] to its apex? His Majesty probes into the very root of the spirit, masters the mysteries of tranquility, examines the Way, and abides in the subtle state. When he gives virtuous utterance, [the law of] the three periods of existence spontaneously becomes evident. When he expresses virtuous words, even [people as far away as] a thousand li receive his inﬂuence. His sincerity accords with propriety; his righteousness moves both human beings and deities; his reasoning stimulates the profound ways [of Buddhism]; and his virtue covers both the unseen world and this world. The long darkness of the vast great night suddenly [disappears at] dawn. Foolish and ignorant sentient beings become awakened by themselves overnight. They exert themselves for the secret merits [made by the Buddha] in the Deer Park (Skt. Mṛgadāva), and saturate their daily lives with the stream of the [Buddhist] Dharma. The great reputation spreads eternally and the majestic reality goes swiftly to all directions. Those who are confused and hindered will know to return to [the right path]. Those who have sunk in doubt will spontaneously [have their doubts] come to an end.

Since I, your disciple, returned to [Buddhism] early and believe in it deeply, I am much happier about [the Imperial Response]. I will always follow it and make it my course of action. I will not venture to say anything against [its purport]. I, however, [have little insight, just as if] I were to try to determine the amount of water in the sea by using a calabash, or try to view [the sky] through a pipe. I am simply worried all the time that I may fail.

I, Xu Gun, bow.

The Answer of Wang Jian (477–523), Palace Attendant

It is very kind of you to take the trouble to send a letter to me. Together

with [your letter] I respectfully read the Imperial Response [to His Subjects]: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

His Majesty’s purport is profound and illuminating. It educates and enlight- ens many ignorant people. The signiﬁcance exposes the delicate issue, and the principle propagates the tranquil and profound matter. The Canon [of Filial Piety] speaks of the signiﬁcance of the corpse, and Section One of the Great Appendix [in the Book of Changes] describes the issue of the wandering spirit.143 What I, an ignorant man, have recognized is that [the spirit] is not extinguished.

Furthermore, His Majesty’s thought is magniﬁcent and extensive. He has completely mastered the principles and traces to the very source of subtlety. Referring to writings, he testiﬁes with books. [Our confusion] is evanescent like ice that is melting away. Those who have vulgar eyes will respectfully turn around, and those who have the deﬁlement of delusion will reform their insecure minds. [His Majesty] disclosed the past clearly and instructs us for the future. I will humbly follow the profound teaching. I cannot stop stamping my feet in glee.

I, Wang Jian, bow.

The Answer of Liu Yun (465–517), Palace Attendant

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: [The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinc- tion of the Spirit.

There is no dualism in a concourse where all points meet; the main purpose is originally one. That [the spirit] continues from previous existences without cessation is the great law of the Buddha’s teaching. To enter into the hall [of the ancestral temple], [to see] the faces [of the dead], and [to hear] their voices are the profound purpose of [Confucius’] great teaching. [The purposes of] these two sages, one in China and the other in a foreign land, match each other just as shadow [follows its form], or an echo [follows its sound]. Even though the truth exists without a doubt, suspicions [about the immortality of the spirit] and the deep attachment to it were equally divided. I will humbly follow the profound purpose [of His Majesty], which illuminates, as if enlight- ening me in my ignorance. [His Majesty] indeed comprehends the profound tenor, traces to the very source of the spirit, and understands tranquility. There is a similarity between [His Majesty] and Heaven and Earth in completely

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surveying the characteristics [of the spirit]. The unresolved doubts of the past thousand years melt away along with the spring ice. A lifelong perverted mind is opened together with a drifting cloud.

I will simply recite [the Imperial Response] repeatedly, in order to be released from suffering eternally. I appreciate your concern for me. My sadness is truly paciﬁed.

I, your disciple Liu Yun, stated above, bow with my head to the ground.

The Answer of Liu Cheng (d. 513), Attendant-in-Ordinary

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. The profound purport is abstruse, and the reasoning traces to the very source of deep points.

I personally think that in cultivating causes [for the future] and going toward fruition, the spirit does not have two consciousnesses; in attaining emancipation through the [Buddhist] Way the buddha-nature is only one. In the Yin dynasty they [used sacriﬁcial vessels and] showed the people that [the dead] have perceptions.144 Confucius sacriﬁced to the spirits, as if they were present.145 Reason is always transmitted to those who have the subtle awakening, and justice is made clear to those who have life and perceptions. Yang [Zhu] and Mo [Di], however, put these into confusion; they offered far-fetched explanations meaninglessly. Hindrances went on and Confucian- ism, in particular, was concealed.

His Majesty’s mind profoundly discerns [the true state of things], and his testimonies are faultless. He completely grasps the outline, and unfolds and displays details. He praises and censures the three dynasties (i.e., Xia, Yin, and Zhou), and he leads all to the same conclusion. Both reality and unreality are clear, without hindrance.

I will humbly read this with respect over and over again so that both my doubts and parsimonious thoughts will be exhausted. Your letter and con- sideration for me are greatly appreciated.

I, Liu Cheng, stated above, bow with my head to the ground.

The Answer of Wang Mao, Supervisor of the Household of the Heir Apparent

I, Mao, bow.

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly looked at the Imperial Response [to His Subjects: The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, to which I pay my respects. I am very happy and I cannot but dance about, clapping my hands.

The mysterious law is extensive and vast. Even though it is not something of which we speak thoroughly, it is luminously revealed in the writings left behind by various sages. There is no one who does not clap his hands in glee, who does not respectfully straighten himself, and who does not follow the established rules. How could it be possible to recklessly speak unfounded statements and falsehoods, and bring a heavy false charge against the imperial mandate that was previously made? If one thinks that he has no expectation for the cause and condition of the life to come, and abandons the utmost pro- priety he is offered, then the wrong path is boundless for him; it is uncertain whether he will be able to return to the [right] path. Once visited by suffering and emptiness he will repent [of his sin], but it will be too late.

His Majesty bears intelligence, embodies sacredness, and wondrously discerns the truth and the untruth. He expresses righteousness, illuminates expressions, and navigates for those who are drowned [in delusions]. Would only heavenly and human beings praise and respect him? Truly all buddhas also emit light for him.

I, your disciple, have from early in my life basically relied on the Pure Land to ease my mind. Fortunately I have lived a long time and met with this prosperous world. I will surely accumulate [good] causes for my next life and educate myself with this merciful guidance for a long time. The sin- cerity of my joy is not only for today. I cannot simply express it. I always deeply appreciate your outstanding favor to me. I will visit you one of these days. I have no more words for now.

I, Wang Mao, bow.

The Answer of Yu Yong, Chamberlain for Ceremonials

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me His Majesty’s Imperial Response to His Subjects: [The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

Before I humbly ﬁnished reading this, [my foggy thoughts that are like] smoke and mist were again removed. I personally think that wormlike animals

have perception but trees and plants have no consciousness. Groundless dis- course, such as [the Discourse] on the Extinction of the Spirit, intends to equalize those [living beings] that have perception with those that have no consciousness, and asserts that omniscience (i.e., enlightenment) is extin- guished together with the body [at death]. In reason, this is really sad. Except for one whose virtue matches Heaven and Earth, who is one of the four great ones in the universe (i.e., the king),146 who belongs to the sun (i.e., the ruler in the human world) that can go against convention, or who has the oppor- tunity to secretly edify [the people], no one would be able to receive the theory of the twofold truth (i.e., absolute and conventional), and the discussion of the three periods of existence would almost come to an end.

His Majesty feels pity for those who are born from the four modes of birth and evidently sink in the six realms of existence. He examined and compared the teaching of Confucius with that of Śākyamuni, and gave evidence drawn from both [teachings]. He enabled those who live in the land [that is farthest from the sea] to know about the sea, and those in hell to see the sun. These words of utmost importance are as bright as the autumn sun. Numerous doubts disappear just as does the spring ice. Even though [I knew that His Majesty] issued the discussion to propagate the Way and I openmindedly appreciated his virtue, I was furthermore given his instruction and guidance. I bow down, delighted with [the good] acts I performed in my previous life. You, the Dharma teacher, keep the Dharma gate (i.e., the Buddhist teaching)

in mind and stick to it. You will deeply agree with my joy in this. I respectfully appreciate [the Imperial Review] with praise. I will recite this throughout my life tirelessly.

I, your disciple Yu Yong, bow.

The Answer of Xiao Ang (483–535), Acting King of Yuzhang

[I received] your gracious letter. You have extensively circulated the Impe- rial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

His Majesty’s purport and the analysis he gave are able to make deluded people bright. The immorality of the spirit is apparent in the circulated books. Since reason is abstruse, people are confused. His Majesty’s discernment is illuminating. He examines by knowing [the character of] coming events, and

goes beyond what is stored up in all past [experiences]. He wields wonderful thought beyond the laws of nature, and criticizes the heretic’s wild assertion. Moreover, he refers to the scripture of rites (i.e., the Book of Rites), and exam- ines truth and falsehood. The Way of ﬁlial piety is surely propagated here.

I, a man bereaved of his father, Xiao Ang, lower my head to the ground and bow.

The Answer of Yu Tanlong, Superior Grand Master of the Palace

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly looked at His Majesty’s [Impe- rial] Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, which enlightens the ignorant brightly and illuminates them clearly.

The utmost truth is abstract and tranquil, and the tenor of the teaching is abstruse. The superior sage (i.e., the emperor) is extremely intelligent. There- fore, he traced to the very source of wondrous reality. Ordinary people who live in the impermanent world (Skt. sahā) do not recognize profound matters by themselves. I have heard that for making an assertion, the instructions given in scriptures are all traces of the teaching. Regarding the Buddha, foreign books state peculiar things. It is difﬁcult to expect reasoning for them. This is beyond description. I rely on the work and the sacred thought of His Majesty. He analyzed and explained various situations for his subjects. Are we not glad with praise? I will imprint the clear purport in my mind and keep this throughout my life.

I feel more greatly obliged to your instructions, my Dharma teacher. I, your disciple Yu Tanlong, bow.

The Answer of Xiao Mi, Frontrider of the Heir Apparent

You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Exam- ination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

Before I had even ﬁnished reading it, my heart became as delighted as if clapping my hands in glee. His Majesty is attentive by nature. With his sacred- ness and various abilities, he does not sever the heart of language and yet his expressions overﬂow with implications. Since the testimony of the meaning is fully provided from classical scriptures, the frame of mind of ﬁlial piety is manifested here. Because [His Majesty’s] purport is supported by Buddhist scriptures, his mind of great benevolence is even greater. I will respectfully

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63a

keep this [writing] at my elbow, spread it out on a desk or near my pillow, and read it thoroughly, day and night. I will write this on the end of the sash of my ceremonial gown for eternal use and show it to everyone.

Your great consideration is really appreciated. I, your disciple Xiao Mi, bow.

The Answer of Wang Sengru (465–522), Palace Aide to the Censor-in-Chief

[I received] your gracious letter. [Together with it] you kindly sent and showed me His Majesty’s response to all the ofﬁcials who respectfully inquired about the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I humbly read this over and over again, deeply received it, and studied it with respect. It enlightens the ignorant and dispels hindrances. I became clear just as the clouds open. I personally think that it is difﬁcult for the culmination of things to take shape, and that no one but a sage can make this clear. Since the truth is tranquil and obscures its location, the ignorant become deluded. Except for one whose spirit goes beyond the implications of language, and whose thought transcends [the condition] prior to [receiving] an omen, how could anyone illuminate these sublime words? When we hear the sound of metal and stone (i.e., a piece of good writing) and see through the subtle state like this, there is no wild path. [His Majesty] taught this, certainly recommended it, and showed it to us as if it exists [in front of our eyes]. He causes the person who presented the discourse to not end up in the long muddy wheel tracks, and those who have exclusively fallacious views to not sink into the sea of delusion eternally.

I took part in receiving his profound plan with respect. Who would not be pleased and pay their respects to this? I will end my response here; I will not go on tediously.

I, Wang Sengru, present this and bow.

The Answer of Wang Yi, Gentleman Attendant at the Palace Gate

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

Heaven is profound and tranquil; it is originally beyond discussion. It is assuredly difﬁcult to hear about human nature and the Way of Heaven.147

[His Majesty’s] benevolence in fostering [the people] with tender care moves them according to each one’s place, and the teaching with which he guides them is bestowed along with each incident. He is sympathetic toward the frog that stays at the bottom of the well, and feels pity for the cicada that lives only a very short time. Thoughts come from the depths of his heart, his words are subtle, and his reasoning is clear. When he refers to classical scrip- tures, his composition is simple but his purpose is profound. When he con- centrates on a tranquil and abstruse issue, he can go through it by a single reason. Ancient books are numerous, yet he embraces them in one sentence. He reveals the hidden purport of various sages. He has ﬁnally brought long- standing stagnant delusions to an end. Thanks to this, the issue of whether or not [the spirit] is extinguished is understood. Based on this, the Way of ﬁlial piety ﬂourishes. This is truly good enough to warn and admonish those who are seriously confused, and to serve as a model for a hundred generations. As it is said, “A sage’s course of action is vast and great. Fine words are quite evident.”148

I, your disciple, am ashamed of [my inadequacy in] discerning reason; I am weak in my ability to judge others’ intentions. I successfully participate in hearing the moral instruction. I was bestowed with the subtle writing. Thus I am rejoiced at this even while occupying the lowest seat. I am forever grateful for the sacred rule.

I, your disciple Wang Yi, bow.

The Answer of Wang Tai, Gentleman Attendant of the Ministry of Personnel

One day, having been invited to a banquet, I took part in hearing Secretariat Fan [Zhen]’s writing, the discourse on the spirit and the body that are extin- guished together. This person is quite different from others and not familiar with human feelings. Since I am merely of inferior ability, I have not been able to break the horns of Wulu [Chongzong] (i.e., Fan Zhen).149

[I received] your gracious letter. You showed me His Majesty’s purpose. He subtly refers to the Way of ﬁlial piety and enhances the profound principle [of Buddhism]. I will always recite this sincerely and rid myself of ignorance and delusion.

I, your disciple Wang Tai, lower my head to the ground and bow.

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The Answer of Cai Zun (467–523), Palace Attendant

[I received] your gracious letter. [His Majesty] declared the Imperial instruction of responding to [the people’s] inquiries about the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

The mysterious law is profound and wondrous. It is really difﬁcult to completely discern it. Even though former sages spoke cordially, talented people in later generations are still deluded. His Majesty’s purpose is accord- ingly explained and the ignorant are brilliantly enlightened. Assuredly he rises above all past generations and exclusively possesses wondrousness. He awakens [the people of] the future and immortalizes [the teaching].

I humbly received the imperial message with respect. I am extremely happy to retain this. I will sincerely copy it on the end of the sash of my cer- emonial gown and rid myself of confusion and hindrance eternally.

I, Cai Zun, bow.

The Answer of Wang Zhongxin, Director of Jiankang

I, Zhongxin, address you.

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: [The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinc- tion of the Spirit. I humbly read this profound and beautiful [writing], and I cannot stop clapping my hands and jumping with joy.

His Majesty’s divine sagacity is innate and his sharp faculty is outstandingly profound. The ﬁve kinds of ceremonies (wuli) shine on his outward appearance and the three transcendental knowledges sparkle within him. When the golden [Dharma] wheel slowly revolves, the [Buddhist] Way saves the whole world. When jade libation cups are already arranged, ﬁlial piety ﬂourishes in the seven imperial shrines. The sun of wisdom (Skt. jñāna-divākara-prabhā) reveals in the sky of China, and the Dharma cloud hangs down in the trichil- iocosm. The meaning of [worshiping] as if [spirits] exist [in front of our eyes] was made clear again this morning. That the eternality [of nirvana] is evident is everlastingly testiﬁed through all coming kalpas. For this reason, [His Majesty’s] virtue surpasses that of a hundred kings and his reputation will be supreme eternally.

[The mind of] your disciple (i.e., my mind) rests in the Dharma gate and worships the great teaching (i.e., Buddhism). My sincere [joy], [evidenced

by] the motions of the hands and the stamping of the feet is simply greater than that of a wild duck [that obtains] pond weeds.

I, Wang Zhongxin, bow.

The Answer of Shen Ji, Adjutant of Outer Troops of the King of Jian’an

I, your disciple Ji, bow.

You showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: [The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I am humbled and dance in joy.

I, your disciple, personally think that teaching is not spontaneously spread, but is truly spread by people. People need the consciousness and the con- sciousness desires the position. Doesn’t this mean what is said in the Book of Changes, “What is great treasure for the sage is to attain the [highest] posi- tion”?150 Nevertheless, there may be a case when there is a position and yet someone is not suitable for the position. In another case there may be a [good] person yet the position is not suitable for him. Reasonably speaking, it is the most difﬁcult to ﬁnd all three elements (i.e., a person, consciousness, and a position) together. Therefore Confucius concluded the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu jing) with the record about the capture of a unicorn called lin,151 and Mencius turned back to the title Nobility of Heaven.152 It is really because they had no positions [suitable for them]. Alas! Genuine ediﬁcation is about to go down and disappear!

His Majesty occupies the position of the most august with [the virtues of] benevolence, sacredness, majesty, and brightness. A mountain range may be moved by a blast of hot air, but the harmonious sound [made by the blast] is not affected; the toll of a bell and the sound of a drum may be disturbed by the rooster crowing and the hogs grunting, but all the sounds cannot be blocked. As for saving frightened people from a long night [of spiritual dark- ness], except for [His Majesty,] whose virtue matches that of Heaven and Earth, who else would be able to do so?

I, your disciple, bask in the marvelous teaching from the early days. So I have already heard about this (i.e., the immortality of the spirit). Nevertheless, a group [of petty people, like a ﬂock of] swallows and sparrows, still confuse each other, and [unstable people, like] ﬂying dried mugwort, compete with each other. His Majesty’s purpose was accordingly bestowed. The expressions

63c

are lofty and the principle is delightful. He encourages the wholesomeness of human and heavenly beings and admonishes people for their gravest pun- ishments (i.e., impious conduct). He gives the instruction in a brief writing that clariﬁes [it for] both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. If a child were to fall into a well, even ordinary people would be heartbroken, not to speak of His Majesty, who governs the people with mercy. He certainly considers sympathy to be the essence. [The sophistry that] refers to that a white horse is not white is still seen to be inferior position to [the teaching of His Majesty, who has mastered] the golden mean.153 Regarding [His Majesty’s] mind, which he has received beyond the law of nature, and his determination to promote ediﬁcation, evil spirits and monsters will destroy their own cheeks and tongues [and shut up]. How can this be adequately expressed? His mar- velous writing is as noble as Heaven, and this cannot be originally inferred.

You forthwith showed it to me. I feel quite ashamed of myself for having little virtue.

I, your disciple Shen Ji, bow.

The Answer of Sima Yun, Gentleman Attendant of the Ministry of Sacrifices

[I received] your gracious letter. At the same time you showed me the sig- niﬁcance of the Imperial Response to His Subjects: [The Examination of the Discourse on] the Extinction of the Spirit. I humbly read it completely, and sang and danced with joy.

Consciousness and thought are deeply hidden; the numen is obscure and subtle. They cannot be caught up with by walking with short steps, and they cannot be surveyed by the minds of ordinary people. Sages of non-Buddhist teachings are aware of this, and so they repressed [this teaching] and did not talk about it. Therefore, even after Confucius, the issue is still unclear; after the Duke of Zhou this still remains obscure. Nevertheless, mediocre people forget reason, believe [only] in what their eyes perceive, dig [the earth] with an awl, and view [the sky] through a pipe. This causes different opinions to rise with irresistible force. They momentarily seek fame [with the sophistry of] “separating the hardness [of a stone from its white color],”154 and conse- quently they are confused about the reality of diligence. When ignorance and delusion become to this point, we should feel deeply sorry for this.

Our emperor’s way pierces this world as well as the unseen world, and is brighter than the sun and moon. He investigates thoroughly the apex of Heaven and Earth, and searches the innermost part of things from beginning to end. He hates the manner in which a foul-smelling water plant called you overpowers [a pleasing] fragrance and a purple color (i.e., a compound color) takes away the luster of vermilion (i.e., a primary color). He is angry when the stone min that resembles jade hinders jade and a pheasant disturbs a phoenix. Thereupon, he revealed sincerity and bestowed this graceful purport, which is truly good enough to exalt subtle awakening and deliver [people from a condition that is like being] sunk in mud. He illuminates the culmination of the mind as a familiar case, and clariﬁes the basis of the virtue of ﬁlial piety as a profound case. Truly he causes those who learn heathen ways to cut off their evil minds and those who lean toward honesty to make ﬁrm their admiration.

I fortunately happened to receive with respect [His Majesty’s] ediﬁcation. I receive favors and kind considerations from you. So I jump with joy. I am obliged to you, and my gratitude to you becomes even deeper.

I, Sima Yun, bow.

The Answer of Shen Gun, Adjutant of the Personnel Evaluation Section of the King of Yuzhang

I, Gun, bow.

I, your disciple, personally think that in the way to exchange what is sought, there must be equal give and take. Regarding the case of “not instruct- ing so as to create annoyance to the ignorant,”155 this vainly results in rest- lessness. A sudden idea would almost come to end. Therefore, I stopped receiving consultation for myself. I am sincerely ashamed of myself for not examining highly profound things. I have only vague knowledge about the mechanism of causality. I genuinely hope that if I [am able to] walk on hoar- frost without falling backward, [eventually] stronger ice will come.156 You, the Dharma teacher, have a mind as broad as hills and valleys and with which, fortunately, even evil people can be accepted. Though I do not have the rank to ascend to the court, you invited me to join the group [study- ing] the Buddhist teaching. Du Yi [of the Jin dynasty] said, “If a person wants to call a thirsty horse to a water fountain, the horse comes even if [the person] does not use a horsewhip.” You showed me His Majesty’s [Imperial] Response

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to His Subjects: [The Examination of] the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I humbly read it morning and night tirelessly, without sparing myself. [His Majesty] established this Dharma hall and leads the confused group

of people. The relationship between father and son (i.e., the Way of ﬁlial piety) is already mentioned and [the law of] the three periods of existence is explained. The conditions of the spirits can be pursued here. It is said that the sea is vast, but who can know how vast it is? It is said that the sky is high, but it is impossible to measure its height. His Majesty’s sacred discourse probes profound issues, and its purpose goes beyond the world of language. With my ignorant mind I am incompetent to comment on this. I imprint in my mind the instruction I received, and I will study this intensively with respect through my life.

I, your disciple Shen Gun, bow.

The Answer of Wang Qi, Officer of the Personnel Evaluation Section of the King of Jian’an

You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Exam- ination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

I personally think that the spirit is obscure and quiet. Successive sages have not preached anything about this. It is said that even Confucius did not talk [about the spirit].157 Zhuangzi ﬁctitiously made up the words [of the spirit]. When I seek [these things] in records, my grief and vagueness cross each other and deepen.

I chanced to see [His Majesty’s] present discussion. His thought arose from the profound point, his sublime purpose was deeply settled, the truth is already spread, and the vital point of ﬁlial piety is concurrently investigated thoroughly. Truly this is enough to step beyond eternity and to illuminate both present and future.

I, your disciple, was born in the great time, and I am able to take part in seeing His Majesty’s writing. [Doubts] I had had in my mind disappeared, just as ice melts away. Truly I realized with what I had been carelessly deluded. Who among all those who have a mind would not study this intensively with respect? Needless to say, I, an ignorant man, am especially deeply impressed with this.

I, Wang Qi, bow.

The Answer of Wei Rui (440–520), Right Guard General

The truth is abstract and tranquil. It is difﬁcult to argue about what is pro- found and obscure. When one says it exists, it seems it does not. When one says it does not exist, in fact it exists. This issue is subtly expressed in Laozi’s sayings and exquisitely revealed in Śākyamuni’s teaching. The words [of the truth] are luminous in Daoist scriptures. The history of writings [of the truth] is of long standing in Buddhist and Daoist scriptures.

His Majesty’s way embraces the universe and is as bright as the sun and moon. The mechanism of appearance and disappearance is assuredly illu- minated, and a vital point of existence and nonexistence is already seen. Con- sequently, [His Majesty] handed down the brilliant discourse, with which he responded with analysis to his subjects. His guidance is already deep, and his logical explanation of the meaning is surely harmonious. Who among all those who have a mind would not rejoice? I was shown His Majesty’s writing, which I attentively read. My deﬁlements have disappeared, just as clouds are dispersed. Concurrently I clapped my hands in joy.

You, the Dharma teacher, have a good stroke of fortune; the karma you created in your previous life caused you to meet the Dharma in this life. You parted from the ﬁve desires, entered into the eight kinds of meditation for liberation, left behind the three realms of existence, and follow [the teaching of] the One Vehicle. I could again happily hear your virtuous voice and come to praise you more. I beneﬁt from your kind letter. My gratitude to you is really deep.

I, Wei Rui, bow.

The Answer of Xie Chuo, Chief Minister for Law Enforcement

I, Chuo, bow.

[I received] your gracious letter. I was shown the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I humbly read the profound plan, which puriﬁed my mind.

[His Majesty] has already rejected shortsighted discussion and truly explains various doubtful points.

I personally think that [of all creatures] a human being is the most highly endowed, and his spiritual function is inexhaustible. People of the best class know [the character of] coming events and store up all past [experiences],

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and people of the next class nearly attain [the standard of perfection].158 From this viewpoint, there is in reason no possibility [for the spirit] to be extin- guished. Therefore, Confucianists explicate ceremonies of sacriﬁce [for the spirits], and Buddhists are engaged in great benevolence and illuminate the condition of birth [and death]. The Buddhist and non-Buddhist teachings become clear [in this issue]. It is already enough to relieve us from hindrance. Moreover, His Majesty’s instruction is patient and his references and information are more extensive. He promotes what supports and begins [all things] to the people, and offers a guideline about discernment and studying to those who are smart and openhearted. He assuredly taught the ignorant and drew them out of hindrances. From his seat he surveyed the extremely profound issue. Heretical beliefs have already been cut off and the right path has returned. Disputants will feel ashamed of themselves for having stuck to [heretical beliefs]. Mr. Fan [Zhen] will become aware that he has been [suffering from] an incurable disease. Who among those who are delighted

with being sentient would not give praise by clapping their hands?

I, your disciple, however, think that I have studied in the school of the Sage in vain. I was entirely ignorant, restricted in vision, and shallow in understanding. I received [your letter] with respect, jumping with joy. I am eternally delighted by your protection and guidance.

I, Xie Chuo, bow.

The Answer of Fan Xiaocai, Libationer of the Minister of Education

I, your disciple Xiaocai, bow.

I was shown the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

I personally think that when Pengsheng became a boar [after he was killed by a man of Qi state] and stood up,159 disaster fell upon the Lord of Qi state, and the incident in which [Zhang] Yuanbo put on a ceremonial cap [and appeared in Fan Shi’s dream] is well known in the history of the Han dynasty.160 Moreover, when we take account of parables of murderous schemes, we know they mean that [the spirit] must exist. The tenet of the immortality of the spirit pierces through the Buddhist clergy and laypeople equally. If we intend to destroy the spirit, the Buddhist and non-Buddhist teachings will both be lost. This is like the case where someone steals a glance of the height of the sky through a pipe. How could he distinguish west from

east? If someone were to attempt to measure the blue sea with a calabash, how could he gain even a rough estimate of the amount of the water? His Majesty’s purpose is broad and deep. He is attentive to the subtle Way.

His sacred mind is compassionate by nature and absorbed in sacriﬁcial cer- emony and worship. He not only makes the [Buddhist] scriptures and teaching ﬂourish, but truly he also causes ignorant people to become awakened in the [Buddhist] Way.

You show deep concern for me. I am obliged to you for handing down [His Majesty’s composition]. I will imprint this instruction and guidance on my mind, which brims with [joy].

I, your disciple Fan Xiaocai, bow.

The Answer of Wang Lin, Attendant-in-Ordinary

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Most August’s [Imperial] Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I sincerely went to the limit of my mediocre ability and respectfully read His Majesty’s composition.

His voice brims with the sound of metal and stone, his reasoning penetrates the deep spring, his righteousness penetrates the six lines of a hexagram, and his statement completes [the law of] the three periods of existence. This is sufﬁcient to cause those of biased learning to know the ultimate law of nature and those who have gone astray to remember returning [to the right path]. Fortunately I, your disciple, was born in a happy and brilliant [time]. I am favored by your great kindness. Moreover, I was able to read His Majesty’s composition. I rubbed my eyes and took a good look at his wondrous writing.

The sincerity of my pleasure is as boundless as that of a wild duck [that obtains duckweed].

You bestowed on me various favors. I do nothing but imprint this in my mind repeatedly and jump with joy.

I, your disciple Wang Lin, reply to you.

The Answer of He Jiong, Gentleman of the Bureau of Provisions

I, Jiong, bow.

You graciously bestowed on me your letter, and showed me [the Imperial] Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

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I have personally heard that one sacriﬁces to the spirits as if the spirits were present.161 Even though I seek [this meaning in the words of] previous monarchs, they did not fathom it. [The spirits] dwell in the eternal world; they do not change. I keep this in mind and stick to this, and only then does [the meaning] become clear to me. The profound mystery I had studied inten- sively with respect disappears, just as ice melts away. Therefore I come to know that vast and profound traces of sages do not derive from a single way. Different actions and responses basically follow the times. Today the perﬁdious ﬂow has already come to an end. The ignorant will become enlightened. Peo- ple possess faculties; [His Majesty’s] teaching simply puts them in motion. He ﬁrmly establishes the signiﬁcance of ﬁlial piety and clariﬁes the tenor of the Enlightened One (i.e., the Buddha). Who among those who possess a mind would not rejoice at this? How could even Emperor Yan and Emperor Shaohao [Jintian] vie with [His Majesty] for superiority? Even Xuan[yuan] (i.e., the Yellow Emperor) and [Tao] Tang (i.e., Emperor Yao) could not com- pete with him. His lofty, highest virtue cannot be named, either. His clear and Great Way hereupon reaches its apex.

I, He Jiong, bow.

The Answer of Wang Yun (481–549), Recorder of the King of Yuzhang

I, Yun, bow.

[I received] your gracious letter. You showed me His Majesty’s [Imperial] Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

I have personally heard that “one will seem to see [the deceased] in the place [where his spirit tablet is]” is a maxim in the canon of rites.162 It is now the great tenor of Buddhism that [the spirit] is not extinguished. Nevertheless, the wondrous characteristics [of the Way] are evanescent and profound, and the working of the spirit is extremely tranquil. Except for those who have mastered the Way, how could anyone understand in his heart the ultimate Way of nature? Without one who knows what produces all things, we have no way on which to depend to meet responses from the unseen world.

His Majesty has thorough knowledge of the myriad matters he manages, his mind roams in the seven factors of wisdom in order to cultivate superior wisdom, he feels compassion for sentient beings and warmly raises up the common people,

cleanses deﬁlements, encourages [the people] with the wisdom of realization, relieves them from ignorance and delusion, and causes them to ascend to the state of the long-lived virtuous. He truly is great! He excels in transcendental wisdom. My family respectfully follows the great Dharma from generation to gen- eration, and transmits the teaching of the [Buddhist] Way. I, your disciple, however, am of a shallow learning, and of impolite manner. My deﬁlements are still arising. I have already received [His Majesty’s] teaching and heard his great guidance. I am able to understand with his single voice. All wholesomeness can be within my whole body. My great pleasure is beyond comparison.

I, your disciple Wang Yun, bow.

The Answer of Sun Yi, Gentleman of the Granaries Section

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I humbly received this with respect and am delighted with it. I cannot stop rejoicing.

Large rivers and seas are deep and vast. This is not something of which a frog in a well can be aware. We [Buddhists] set our minds at ease and enter into meditation. How could a heretic perform [this practice]? Without moving even a single hair [in meditation], all evils will be dispersed, and by crossing over on the ship (i.e., the Buddhist teaching) we will go beyond to the yonder shore. His Majesty keeps the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth) in his body, his virtue combines those of the three dynasties (i.e., Xia, Shang [i.e., Yin], and Zhou), by means of the marvelous plan, he manages the ultimate Way of nature, and he takes charge of supreme wisdom in order to regulate the people. When he issues an order, [the people obey him, just as] the grass bends when the wind blows. When he sits upon the throne and governs the nation, he keeps silent but his ediﬁcation moves just like that of a god. He raises the Five Thearchs and follows their tracks. His method is eternal, beyond myriad kalpas. Moreover, by ringing [a stone and tolling] a large bell he [instructs us as easily as if he were to] point to his own palm. He sends down wondrous ideas and enlightens the ignorant. His logic is admirable and deep, and his purpose penetrates the issue and goes further. He is equal to a precious jewel beyond price, and equiv- alent to an undeﬁled lotus ﬂower. Filial reverence covers the people, and his instruction and examples glorify previous sages. Even slowly moving creatures

65a

recognize this pleasure together with us, and living things that ﬂit, ﬂy, or crawl are all happy about this blessing.

I greatly appreciate that your letter was distributed even to me, one who occupies the lowest seat. I received this with sincerity, and will write it on the end of the sash of my ceremonial gown. This will instruct my ignorant and deluded mind eternally.

I, your disciple Sun Yi, bow.

The Answer of Xiao Misu, Aide to [the Magistrate of] Danyang

[I received] your gracious letter. Together with it, I humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. It is said that when human nature and the Way of Heaven are spoken of, reason is cut off. By great fortune I was graciously granted [this] wondrous instruction. I received it in the manner like throwing myself at your feet. I will keep joy and respect in my mind.

I personally think that the Way of the Spirit is quiet and silent, and it is difﬁcult to see the edge of the sea of the Dharma. Therefore, even though we accumulate knowledge, as if piling up hemp and reeds, we cannot survey it. Our consciousness understands objects sensed as visual color or form, but they are still ambiguous. How could an ignorant person be aroused and look up at them? Nevertheless, it has been a very long time since the cloud of wis- dom was gradually transmitted to the east [from India] and the boat of treasures crossed over to the south. The sound of the Dharma has spread into remote areas. While wise rulers and good premiers have believed in [Buddhism] from generation to generation, I, rather unexpectedly, have not heard about the one who personally grasped the profound origin and himself realized the subtle goal (i.e., enlightenment). Hence, [Buddhist doctrines such as] the twofold truth and the eight kinds of meditative powers that lead to liberation are entirely lacking in the emperor’s statement. The nine kinds of Buddhist scriptures and the Tripiṭaka are bent to and mixed up with the national learning (daxue, “great learning”). Alas! What a deplorable matter this is!

I personally examined the origin of the extinction of the spirit; [I found that] a man called Ulūka started this idea, in a scripture called the Vaiśeṣika (Weishi). Although his assertion was refuted by Āryadeva, his inﬂuence has not yet ceased. Therefore, it causes people of different learning, who have

numerous doubts, to establish various views. If we had not received the teach- ing of the one who apprehended this issue in the past, we would really have ended up in confusion even in the next life.

His Majesty’s way beneﬁts the world, and his faculty penetrates everything without any set pattern. He inspects both the [White] Tiger Library (Baifuguan; i.e., Confucianism) and the Dragon Palace (Longgong; i.e., Buddhism), and he leads [people] equally by the highest virtue [of Confucianism] and the ulti- mate reality [of Buddhism]. Therefore he is in accord with the secular teaching and ascertains the way of the truth; that is to say, he follows the teaching of ﬁlial piety and propagates the teaching of the nature of awakening. He illumi- nates the distressed ignorant people hereupon and removes the net of their doubts. Though Śākyamuni speaks skillfully with ﬂexibility and Confucius is good at inducing people by means of extensively studying all learning and keeping himself under the restraint of the rules of propriety, how can that be compared with this? How lofty is [His Majesty]! He has already performed the ten wholesome acts, and is not far from [attaining the status of] the golden wheel king (Skt. cakravartin) [who rules the four continents of the world]. You, the Dharma teacher, received the wisdom to discern emptiness by nature, and have received training and learned much [about the Buddhist teach- ing] in this world. When you turn the Dharma wheel, the eight kinds of gods and demigods who protect Buddhism gather like clouds. When you speak sub- lime words, heavenly beings accept them. Therefore, you can spread the incense of the precepts in the private quarters of the imperial palace, and embellish His Majesty’s abode with the ﬂowers of realization. How truthful you are! You

can cause all the people to listen to the voice of the Buddhist Way.

I, your disciple, have no recollection of Śākyamuni’s scriptures, and I have not reached the gate of the Confucian school. Although I wish to hear [the teaching] in the morning, I end the day feeling ashamed of myself for frivolously squandering [my life]. I simply hope to follow the boundless Dharma and beneﬁt other people as well as myself. I am suffering from a disease, and my mind and thought are confused with fear. I have sincerely done my best to state my thoughts. I do not know whether or not I have arranged this in [good] order. I look forward to visiting you to ask questions and intimately receive the greatest teaching from you.

I, your disciple Xiao Misu, lower my head to the ground and bow.

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The Answer of Fu Jing (462–520), Secretariat Gentleman

I was graciously shown the Most August’s [Imperial] Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I humbly received the profound purport, and was able to dispel many doubts.

His Majesty’s mind shines alone, and he is apart from others in looking at the issue for his wondrous examination. Therefore, this is not something ignorant people would be able to penetrate and look up to. Nevertheless, ordinary scholars of narrow views, [like me,] personally sought a distinguished opinion. Now we have again received these tenets [from His Majesty]. I looked for the doctrine extensively in the scriptures; the doctrine is exactly founded on the tenets [given by His Majesty]. This is truly just like when two pieces of a tally match.

You, the Dharma teacher, publicized and exalted His Majesty’s astute and discreet principles, and greatly praised his sacred words. You precisely cause the two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Confucianism) to come to the same [teaching], and the absolute and the relative [truths] (i.e., the Buddhist Way and secular ways) to square with each other. Fortunately I was able to par- ticipate in receiving the favor of your instruction and guidance. I am inﬂuenced and molded by the highest ediﬁcation. I clap my hands in glee, [while occu- pying] the lowest seat. Yet I truly dance at the same time. I am looking forward to meeting you to ask questions in the near future. I will exhaust my sincerity on that occasion. While writing this, I feel happy and grateful. I do not know how to [adequately] express my thoughts.

I, Fu Jing, present this.

The Answer of He Yang, Erudite of the Five Classics

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

I studied this [composition] intensively with respect, recited it, and enjoyed it again and again. Therefore I know that [His Majesty’s] wonderful [wisdom] encompasses the origin of what produces all things, his business is apart from what ordinary people can recognize, his spirit concentrates on the mean- ing beyond language, and his principles excel ordinary people’s minds. His Majesty’s astute and discreet discernment profoundly reaches human nature

and the Way of Heaven. Therefore his faculty is outstanding and profound, and he realizes [the truth] by himself, transcendently and deeply. He gives an account of the three sages in order to lead those who have not yet under- stood. He shows the two issues in order to remove biased delusions. Hence, the purpose of the perpetuity of ﬁlial duty is even more clariﬁed, and the ultimate law of causality is more easily understood. The perfect scriptures expounded [by the Buddha] on Vulture Peak (Skt. Gṛdhrakūṭa) manifest here again. The clean teaching [established by Confucius on the bank of] the Zhu River becomes clear again at this point. Even if compared to the sun and moon, there is nothing that can go beyond this.

I, your disciple, am stupid, confused, and very ignorant, yet I, an unworthy man, receive the maxim with respect. I will research the wonderful tenor. I feel as if I am still dancing with joy.

You, the Dharma teacher, publicized and exalted the highest Way and made the great plan clear and bright. You bestowed [the Imperial Response] on me, an incompetent person. I am even more impressed by you.

I, your disciple He Yang, present this.

The Answer of Liu Qia, Secretary of the Heir Apparent

[I received] your gracious letter. With respect I looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I humbly opened the letter of white silk, and respectfully looked at the profound account.

The composition is as harmonious as the music of Emperor Shun and Emperor Yu, and the meaning surveys the [sixty-four] hexagrams and the Great Appendix [of the Book of Changes]. [The Imperial Response] encom- passes all scriptures and covers all writings. [His Majesty] spreads the authen- tic teaching, which is handed down to us in written form. The profound reason is outstanding; it is difﬁcult to have the opportunity to hear [it]. [His Majesty] takes [the teachings of] wise people and sages into consideration, and analyzes even extremely small points. He understands thoroughly both Buddhist and non-Buddhist paths. His words surpass the ultimate of heavenly and human beings. Except for those who have mastered the highest virtue like his and whose thoughts match the virtuous spirits, would it be possible to deeply clarify the essential points of the Way that the human intellect hopes to attain?

65c

I will prudently write this on the end of the sash of my ceremonial gown, and wear it eternally. Now that the [His Majesty’s] pure guidance has entered into me, it shines as if to enlighten me, an ignorant man. I will visit you on purpose to study [the Buddhist Way] one of these days, and explain more about this.

I, your disciple Liu Qia, bow with my head to the ground and present this.

The Answer of Yan Zhizhi (457–508), Erudite of the Five Classics

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

The body is separated [from the spirit] and engages in coarseness. Moreover, [the spirit] is abstruse and mysterious; it is difﬁcult to comprehend. Needless to say, the principle of discernment is minute. How could those of confused views understand this? Therefore, the view that life ends with death and the view that life is permanent intersect and arise, and competition based on the difference [between these two views] occurs quickly. If we keep the Middle Way (i.e., the principle of nonduality) in mind, we can come back to [the right path] when we are swayed by desire. If you pay attention only to the two [oppo- site] ends of a matter, you will be unable to reach the yonder shore forever. In discussions on the extinction of the spirit, this obstruction is really heavy. I respectfully rely on His Majesty, the chief support of the highest teaching.

The brilliant imperial instruction was accordingly issued. The issue has been clariﬁed, just as clouds disperse. [This imperial instruction] not only pro- foundly tallies the books authored by sages and virtuous emperors of ancient times, it also deigns to promote the signiﬁcance of ﬁlial piety. [His Majesty] has most likely wonderfully reached the origin of life and deeply mastered the basis of conduct. He consolidates even more the moral character to main- tain the rules of propriety and [a feeling of sadness that he cannot help when] he treads on hoarfrost and dew.163 With the knowledge of examining the spirit, he respects the joy of practicing meditation and enhances his mind. Everyone should learn the mind of determination (Skt. dharma-kṣānti) in the path of wisdom and force back the tide of the sea of delusions.

I, your disciple, try to establish my pure mind from early days, but I have not yet known how to cross over to the yonder shore. I humbly read [the

Imperial Response] and my body and mind were ﬁlled with jubilation. You kindly think of me and encourage me. I deeply appreciate your favor.

I, Yan Zhizhi, present this.

The Answer of Cao Siwen, Houseman of the Eastern Palace

You graciously sent the Imperial message to me. I, your disciple, recently received the point of this argument with respect in person, too. It is truly lamentable that Secretariat Fan became confused and cornered [with the Dis- course on the Extinction of the Spirit] in this way. His Majesty was deeply afraid that people would be deluded. Therefore he bestowed the instruction of compromise. Once this imperial instruction is practiced, even those of ignorant mind will understand that the spirit is immortal.

I, your disciple, recently criticized somewhat [Fan’s Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit] following [the teachings of] the Duke of Zhou and Confucius,164 which I now enclose in this letter. Please be so kind as to take a look [at it] and refute [Fan’s] strange points against [Buddhist] scriptures. Since I do not probe deeply, [please tell me the points] to restrain or to expand. I will not talk of many things here.

I, your disciple Cao Siwen, bow.

The Answer of Xie Ju, Vice Director of the Palace Library

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

I have personally heard the [old] saying, “When all things are in disorder, they are examined with celestial phenomena, and when various words are confused and chaotic, they are judged with the sacred principles.” This is clear from past events, and energetically shown here [in His Majesty’s writing]. I humbly appreciate His Majesty’s instruction bestowed in written form. The instruction deeply molds and fashions [the people]. Except for those who investigate thoroughly the signiﬁcance of words and symbols, who can rec- ognize such subtle matters?

The Imperial reason is profound to the utmost degree. It effects the complete development of [every] nature, and makes an exhaustive discrimination of the spirit. [His Majesty] feels pity on [those who] have the six coverings (liubi),165

66a

and feels sorrow that they have the four kinds of evil attachments (a heretical doctrine of the ninety-six non-Buddhist schools). He dispels the insigniﬁcant assertions that cause confusion about the Way. He delivers those who are on a narrow path to the Great Way. The purpose is unrestrained and yet myste- rious, and the meaning is gentle yet clear. Extensively studying all learning and keeping himself under the restraint of the rules of propriety ﬁll [the world] greatly. Wide comprehension and great scope are all embraced here. With a single sound of his voice and his chanting of half a gāthā (four-line verse) he manifests his outstanding realization. Sunlike wisdom and a mind like [clear] water remove deﬁlement and confusion here. This causes the heart of the ultimate Way to have a place to which to return, and teaching others and thinking of oneself to have a place [in which to settle down]. Het- erodoxy naturally ceases, and false accusations against wholesomeness spon- taneously come to an end. [His Majesty] concentrates on the world beyond language before written language was made, and he directs the ﬂow of med- itation in the sea of suffering. Can he bear only the Tripiṭaka and cover the seven [non-Buddhist] books?

I, your disciple, am fortunate to abide in the best of times and secretly receive correct guidance. I receive a special favor from you, and clap my hands in joy. I will follow [the Imperial Response] with respect and write it on the end of the sash of my ceremonial gown.

I, Xie Ju, bow.

The Answer of Ma Yuanhe, Chamberlain for the National Treasury

[I received] your gracious letter. You bestowed on me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

I have personally heard that the purpose of the crucial point [His Majesty] showed is not studied by ordinary people, and the pivot that tallies with a wonder is mastered only by the virtuous. Therefore, various teachings go around, but the principle comes to sincerity and wholesomeness. Numerous scriptures state full details, yet the main point comes down to deliverance. I humbly think that by natural endowment His Majesty forms the people, masters the Way, and regulates ediﬁcation. His principle transcends language and his consideration extends beyond the phenomenal world. He attacks and

blocks heterodoxy, and expounds that [all teachings] are united into one. All things in the universe know the ultimate law of nature. Human and heavenly beings look up at him and follow him. He is truly like a bridge formed of ships aﬂoat on the blue sea or the sun and moon in the dark sky.

Discussions on the extinction of the spirit do not convince me. Why? When past sages spread teachings, they forced them on [the people] or guided [the people] to them, in different ways. In short, the principle is in fact not dual. The Book of Changes says, “The family that accumulates wholesomeness is sure to have superabundant happiness, and the family that accumulates evil is sure to have superabundant misery.”166 The Canon of Filial Piety says, “Parents are content with [their sons] while living, and when they are wor- shiped after death their disembodied spirits enjoy [offerings].”167 Although [in these two scriptures the law of] the three periods of existence is not evi- dently discussed, the tenor is apparent. When ﬁrewood is completely burned up the ﬂame dies out. This is an expedient teaching of Hinayana Buddhism. The wondrous existence (i.e., existence beyond nonexistence) is transparent. This is the proﬁcient assertion of the ultimate. If one conforms to the principle on the basis of his feelings, the principle is indeed reliable. Moreover, if we pay careful attention to performing the funeral rites for parents and the cer- emonies of sacriﬁce to ancestors, the people’s virtue will deepen. The suc- cession of a state and a family from generation to generation is derived from this. The treasures of the three powers are marked by various changes and movements. Discussions on the extinction of the spirit are frequently harmful to political affairs. “Those who refute sages have no law in their minds, and those who object to ﬁlial piety disown the principle of affection toward par- ents.”168 If one fails in these two issues, it will be difﬁcult for him to conduct himself in the world of His Majesty.

I, your disciple, am ignorant and inexperienced in the highest Way. You

deigned to send a letter to me, an ordinary man of shallow learning. I am ﬁlled with awe indeed. There is no place in this world for me.

I, your disciple Ma Yuanhe, bow.

The Answer of Wang Jing, Court Gentleman for Evaluations

You showed me His Majesty’s [Imperial] Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

66b

I humbly think that His Majesty [administers state affairs,] letting his robes fall down and folding his hands, at the Imperial Court, while in his mind he enjoys making a trip to eternity. He lives without wasting even a single day. His way is distinctive and he is simply sharp. Thereupon he made inquiries to his subjects, and extensively promoted the meaning of ﬁlial piety. His Majesty’s writing is profound; the ingenious principle is deep and bound- less. Except for a sharp and smart ruler, or a sunlike monarch whom we follow, or clouds we gaze upon from afar, could there be someone who can analyze profound and tranquil issues and who can clarify them in an elegant discussion? [His Majesty] elucidated the great sacred [teaching] in an instant, and right away settled ordinary people’s doubts. This is not only because in reason he thinks with the deep mind, but also because in meaning he is close to his subjects. In a country where the harmonious energy is held and where love is kept, and in a region where the society remains peaceful even though the ruler does not do anything special and where customs are simple, there is no one who does not bow in appreciation of kindness and who is not favored by the customs handed down from Tang (i.e., Emperor Yao).

I, your disciple, am a lonely man from the area between the Yangzi and Huai Rivers. I have no learning and no skill. Even though I have followed a teacher and have had an audience with the emperor, I am not versed in even a single scripture. Even if I were to try to recall an old composition, how could I remember anything closely resembling this?

The Five Classics are vast and profound, and the categories of items are broad and abundant. As for the purpose of spiritual intelligence, there is a great variety of meanings. Regarding the music from instruments made from metal, stone, string, and bamboo, and the story that the Duke of Zhou [swore an oath to the spirits] on behalf of King Wu, are they not meant to be for His Majesty’s purpose? Furthermore, when we speak of the “Chapter on the Meaning of Sacriﬁces” [in the Book of Rites], there is particularly clear evi- dence. If it is said that the spirits do not exist, then it would be possible that sages do not exist either. If it is approved that sages exist, there should also be the spirits. The law of the spirit is luminous. How could it be allowed that [the spirit] is extinguished?

My, your disciple’s, view is stupid and shallow. I have nothing with which

to publicize and exalt His Majesty’s kindness. Since I was asked, I frankly expressed my opinion.

I, your disciple Wang Jing, bow.

The Answer of Lu Ren, Gentleman Cavalier Attendant, and Lu Chui (470–526), Secretariat Drafter of the Heir Apparent

[We received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed us His Majesty’s [Imperial] Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

Formerly when people of different schools argued about the path, Mencius took upon himself the Duke of Zhou’s way.169 When Hinayana Buddhists put the [Buddhist] Way into confusion, Nāgārjuna explained the [authentic] teaching of Śākyamuni. Thus, in circles of Yangzi and Mozi, every time they moved their tongues their mouths stiffened. Regarding followers of the six leaders of non-Buddhist teachings, their chariots were in disorder and their banners dropped (i.e., they were completely routed).

It can be said that those who assert the extinction of the spirit are biased in learning and inﬂexible. [They are similar to] those who travel south while seeking the Yan region [of the north], or those who head toward the Chu area [in the south] while steering the shafts of the carriage toward the north. If one travels a thousand li on roads in this way, he will be farther away [from his destination].

His Majesty feels pity on those who go astray. Thereupon, he exerted him- self to create this Imperial composition, in which he investigated what lies deep and attained what is distant. He completely comprehends the processes of transformation and knows what the spirit is. He causes the ignorant equally to disperse their doubts, just as ice melts away, and he explains the essential points of the Way as brightly as the moon shines.

We, your disciples, are both mediocre, yet we beneﬁt from your kindliness. Wearing a cap, we [serve] at the imperial court that corresponds to Heaven. We have heard the discussion to examine and study ancient matters. We sin- cerely feel happy about this guidance; our joy increases more and more. You graciously distributed [the Imperial composition] to us. We will respectfully write this down on the ends of the sashes of our ceremonial gowns.

We, Lu Ren and [Lu] Chui, present this.

The Answer of Wang Sengshu, Vice Commandant

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

How great is the right Way! How can we see it through a tiny pipe? How can those who speak of human nature learn this? [His Majesty,] however, excellently treats the issue following each category. I am happy and contented with the fact that my ignorance has dispersed. I will respectfully follow and sustain [the Imperial Response] and take a course of action. I will recite this in due order.

You, Dharma teacher, are outstanding in virtue today, and your reputation is remarkable throughout all generations. You speak in every assembly of knowing the whole [of a thing from a single bit of information].170 You cer- tainly reward people with a wealth [of wisdom] to enlighten the ignorant. I think that you clarify and propagate His Majesty’s purpose. The cloud [of doubts] will disperse luminously.

I, your disciple, feel ashamed of myself for studying under adversity and being unable to see the whole of a matter with my [poor] discernment. How could I revere with praise the great brightness and publicize and uplift the wondrous model? The advocate [of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit] sticks to a single delusion and complies with singlemindedness. It is indeed impossible for him to speak of the right path. How could he know of the certain danger of becoming stuck in a hitch when he has gone too far. The principles of this world and of the other world are bright and errorless.

Cause and effect arise mutually and have no independence in relationship. When the body perishes, it naturally belongs to a class of trees and plants, but the spiritual intelligence always exists following conditions. Therefore, there is a story in the Zuozhuan that Pengsheng appeared as a boar,171 and we ﬁnd this passage in the Book of History, “Ancestors have arrived.”172 The Rites of Zhou (Zhouli) says, “If music changes nine times, human and spiritual beings can know this. You should observe ceremonies.”173 [In the Zuozhuan there is an episode of] by tying up grasses [someone] repaying a favor he has received.174 How could [the spirit] consequently be extinguished? How could it be possible that the spirit does not exist in what was dreamed by Yuan Gui?175 The immortality of the spiritual intelligence is written in the

Buddha’s golden sayings. In the statements of Confucius there is more evi- dence of this. Even though [Laozi composed] the Five Thousand Words (Dao de jing) and there are three hundred cantos in the Book of Odes, if we attain their principle it may spontaneously be embraced in a single sentence. There- fore we do not have to trouble ourselves to extensively seek for testimonies of [the immortality of the spirit].

The three sages established brilliant teachings, and the various schools of thinkers permanently established great doctrines, but those who are ambi- tious and too hasty still strikingly make compositions and study [strange doctrines] again and again. His Majesty has presently clariﬁed the essence and illuminated what is hidden and tranquil. His discernment penetrates both the Buddhist and non-Buddhist teachings. Since [the teachings of] ancient sages are eternal and His Majesty ﬁnds that heresy recklessly arises, he greatly gives rise to [favors] herein and bestows a piece of writing with love. This causes even icchantikas to attain realization immediately and consequently attain the fruition of buddhahood, and it openly and clearly cleanses persistent delusions in Jambudvīpa. Moreover, the beneﬁcial cause for gentlemen of the ofﬁcial class is great.

I, your disciple, have enjoyed the [Buddhist] Way without any order, but you, Dharma teacher, have given me a bamboo basket full [of favors]. Con- sequently I was nicely allowed to share His Majesty’s writing. You caused me to be able to delightedly receive the cool breezes. I pay respect to this, dancing with joy. There is nothing with which my joy can be compared. I will keep [your favor] in mind deeply and much more.

I, your disciple Wang Sengshu, lower my head to the ground and bow.

The Answer of Ming Shanbin (443–527), Erudite of the Five Classics

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. Its foundation is deep and its purport is profound. How could [an ignorant being like] a deer or rabbit investigate them? One understands things following one’s own faculty. Probably each person will be happy about what he sees. I will make my course of action following [His Majesty’s com- position]. I cannot stop dancing with joy.

You, Dharma teacher, are outstanding in learning in the present time, and [you have] accorded with the Way for a thousand years. [The ability] to

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enlighten the ignorant is truly within your brilliant virtue. I think that you propagate [His Majesty’s] subtle purpose without missing anything.

I, your disciple, have excused myself from focusing on Buddhist scriptures for [spiritual] cultivation, and I am not proﬁcient in knowledge. How can I respectfully give an account of the profound Way and glorify the teaching? The advocate limits [his view] to what he sees and hears. How could he reach what is vast and profound? He can see what happens in a hundred years, and he will be deluded throughout the three periods of existence. He says that since the physical body perishes, the spirit is extinguished together with the body. This is already against what is stated in Buddhist scriptures and it also goes against the teaching of Confucius. How can we argue about

the highest Way and speak of the wondrous doctrine with him?

In this world we have ceremonies and music, while in the other world there are spiritual beings. Therefore, when Confucius gave an instruction, he responded to [Jilu’s] question, [“While you do not know life, how can] you know about death?”176 King Wen of the Zhou dynasty established a teach- ing; [he made an oath] that he, a man of versatile talent [who is able to serve the spirits], will die instead of [King Wu].177 The Book of Odes says, “The Three Augusts reside in Heaven.”178 The Book of History says, “Ancestors have arrived.”179 Moreover, the famous man who roamed on a bridge spanning the Hao River (i.e., Zhuangzi) wrote the Discourse on the Coexistence of Opposite Views (Fangsheng zhi lun).180 The Archivist of superior intelligence (i.e., Laozi) said, “The manes of the departed do not manifest their spiritual energy.”181 When one puts ﬁrewood forward [toward the ﬂames as the force of the ﬁre weakens], the ﬂames are transmitted [and increase the ﬁre’s inten- sity].182 [People become] very close to each other and are reborn. All these stated and recorded in the classic books are evident and clear matters. Since conditions ( yuan) are transient, they are extinguished. Because karma is something to be made, it is impermanent. Therefore, even when the ﬁve skandhas (Skt. pañcaskandha) unite and become things, they end up in nothingness, just as smoke vanishes in the air. Even when the four small elements (siwei) are groundlessly formed together, they disappear, just

as a ﬁre is extinguished.

I personally think that the Way of Spiritual Intelligence is neither karma nor conditions. Since it is neither karma nor conditions, although it moves,

it is not extinguished. Since it is the subject that can perceive the object and also karma, the subject of activities, there are differences in the reward and retribution of joy and sorrow. This is Śākyamuni’s wondrous assertion, at which the gentry lower their heads [in respect]. Even though there are different paths of teaching, the truth returns to one. At present [Fan Zhen] has aban- doned the original texts of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, and goes against Śākyamuni’s genuine statement. I do not know what he is going to become when he is like this. Even when the True Dharma was practiced in the world, there were still [two different] assertions: at death the world is extinguished and life ends (Skt. uccheda-dṛṣṭi), and both the world and life are eternal (Skt. śāśvata-dṛṣṭi). Moreover, after entering into the period of the Semblance Dharma there could be no situation in which there is no heretical view. Regarding the issue that the spirit exists and is not extinguished, the three sages have the same tenor. This is clearly written in books but many years have passed [since the time the books were written], so wise Confucian schol- ars and the erudite have not completely encountered this meaning.

His Majesty’s intelligence is complete in the doctrines of emptiness and existence, and his intellectual function investigates thoroughly the origin of the spirit. Accordingly, he gave rise to the sacred sincerity and personally wrote this composition. He promotes the highest teaching and enlightens those who are seriously confused. He relieves learned people from their doubts forever. His favor has reached everyone throughout the world. You caused me to be able to have a chance to appreciate His Majesty’s teaching and to receive his favor. I pay my respects to you and I am truly

delighted with [His Majesty’s teaching].

I, Ming Shanbin, bow.

The Answer of Yu Qianlou, Court Gentleman for Comprehensive Duty The Canon of Filial Piety says, “Parents are content with [their sons] while living, and when they are worshiped after death their disembodied spirits enjoy [offerings].”183 The “Chapter on Records of Music” (Yueji) [in the Book of Rites] says, “In this world there are ceremonies and music, while in the other world there are spiritual beings.”184 The Book of Odes says, “[The music] is majestic, peaceful, and harmonious. The spirits of our ancestors will hear it.”185 The Zong Boshi section [in the Chunguan of] the Zhouguan (i.e., Zhouli), says, “If music changes nine times, human and spiritual beings

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can know this. You should observe ceremonies.”186 The “Chapter on the Meaning of Sacriﬁces” [in the Book of Rites] says, “When we go into the hall [of the ancestral temple] [the spirits] heave a sigh, and we certainly hear their sigh of lamentation.”187 The Book of History says, “If you, Three Kings, truly bear the responsibility for [the illness of] Heaven’s great son (i.e., King Wu), [please let me, Zhou Dan (i.e., the Duke of Zhou, who can serve spiritual beings), be a substitute for his person].”188 The Zuozhuan says that the spirit of Gun (i.e., the father of the legendary ruler Yu) changed into a yellow bear, Boyou became a ghost, and Pengsheng appeared as a boar.189

Above are seven items [regarding the immortality of the spirit].

I, your disciple, was born within the past hundred years. I heard [the law of] the three periods of existence from my early years. I have examined numerous scriptures and sought various ancient facts about this. The evidence that spiritual beings exist is already shown in Chinese books. The fruition of the highest wisdom is also indicated in the studies of the western region (i.e., India). The sacred teachings [of China and India] tally with each other on the point that the spirit has no end. While their expressions may differ, their principles are found to be the same.

[The Way of] the Sage’s (i.e., the Buddha) ediﬁcation is, however, based on thoroughly understanding the people’s receptivity. This means to praise or censure people following an urgent case and to give or take away in accor- dance with each person’s faculties. What the people do not understand is not spoken, and what is spoken must be accomplished. [The Buddha] does not respond to [the people] when it is not the appropriate time, and when he responds to them he alone saves them.

The reward and retribution of karma, however, varies. Consequently, the path of acceptance differs from the path of refusal. The conditions of going and coming gather together, and the mind that sinks [in delusion] and the mind to be awakened are in opposition to one another. Those who are intimate with a little knowledge remain in darkness about this great tenet, and those who stick to familiar information do not discern what is profound and subtle. This is similar to the case where [a cicada and a little dove, which are only capable of ﬂying over] an elm or spindle tree, laugh at [the great bird called peng that can soar ninety thousand li [into the sky],190 or the case where [the people of] China are amazed at [the vastness of] the trichiliocosm. Originally

this is a natural consequence. People like these thereupon scheme far-fetched explanations, control [people] with sensational statements, make false asser- tions, and instigate the uneducated people. This is called heresy, which for- merly Confucius considered to be harmful.

Our emperor succeeds the Three [Augusts] and the Five [Thearchs], attends to all state affairs, and succeeds to the seven hundred [wise people who gath- ered in the second meeting for compiling the Buddhist teaching] in order to control the six elemental energies of the changing [seasons].191 His achieve- ments are immeasurable and his way [of teaching] is pure at the same time. He has the virtue of great ability to govern the universe, and the brightness that is just like having the sun on his left and the moon on his right. This is something that former emperors and kings did not distinguish, that many sages do not possess, that all the people should thoroughly understand, and that we will certainly achieve in the future. There is no one who is obstructed to receive [His Majesty’s] profound wave and does not attain his deep point. I humbly read the wondrous discussion, which completely covers absolute and relative reality. The three powers are clearly recorded. All the people of His Majesty’s territories ( jiufu) are attracted to [this discussion]. Even slowly moving creatures and wormlike animals know of this and dance with joy, not to mention [the rejoicing of] people. Who cannot beat time with one’s hand?

I, your disciple, am young and wanting in reading thoroughly the meaning of writings. I am particularly ignorant in logic. Since [His Majesty’s discus- sion] matches my long-cherished intention, I secretly dance with deep joy. Regarding the extent of various schools of thinkers, their statements are quite numerous. When we look for the issue of spiritual beings, there are many clear testimonies. Moreover, the scriptures of prajñā originally clarify this meaning (i.e., the immortality of the spirit). Because [these scriptures] are rejected by evil people, I will not quote anything from them. Except for correct words, what else could correct [their mistakes]? I have brieﬂy men- tioned the seven items, all quoted from [Chinese] scriptures. These are just like if very tiny things were to lean against the Five Peaks, or a snail were to cling to the emperor’s six military corps. I dare to state just a little bit of my view, and surely break into a cold sweat [with anxiety].

I, your disciple Yu Qianlou, bow.

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The Answer of Yin Jun (484–532), Household Provisioner of the Heir Apparent

Recently [I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me His Majesty’s Imperial [Response to] His Subjects: The Examination of the Dis- course on the Extinction of the Spirit.

Human nature and the Way of Heaven cannot really be heard. His Majesty simply observes the twofold truth and concurrently understands [the teachings of] the three sages thoroughly. He clariﬁes both of these in a few words and explains what is subtle in simple writing. He teaches that sentient beings [should] live within the ﬁve kinds of ceremonies, and his purpose is inclusive of the universe outside the limits of the human world. This can be compared to how a river and the sea both lead to land, or how the sun and moon ride high in the sky.

I humbly read [the Imperial Response] and am very happy; I rejoice both in body and mind at this. Why? I, your disciple, have been inﬂuenced by the profound ediﬁcation from early in my life, and now, when I have become old, I have never lost [faith in Buddhism]. I am always afraid that my dis- cernment and study have not been extensive and I may yet turn back halfway in vain. When I sit straight and contemplate quietly, my mind wanders about and scatters, or when I give a statement or set up a discourse, I am sometimes daunted by eloquent and sharp people. The Great Way is very smooth, yet common people love the byways. This is entirely due to the [inﬂuence of these eloquent and sharp people].

At present I humbly received the wondrous purpose with respect. I was illuminated as if my ignorance has been enlightened. I always carry this with me and chant it. I will eternally take this as my treasure. I have been involved in public and private matters for the past several days, and was also laid up with illness, so I was unable to respond to you immediately. I cherish your favor more deeply.

I, Yin Jun, bow.

The Answer of Zhang Mian (490–531), Assistant in the Palace Library In my search, [the law of] the three periods of existence is bright and the two effects (i.e., reward and retribution) [in the law of cause and effect] lumi- nously reveal themselves. How is it possible to be deluded by the six dusts

(Skt. ṣaḍ viṣayāḥ), to not be awakened, to be confused in the ﬁve realms of existence, and to sink [in delusion] for a long time? I think that “when the body withers, the spirit is extinguished” or “when a skeleton perishes, the consciousness decays” are the wrong views of a heretic. How could [a heretic] control Gautama’s True Dharma? In my sense, this is compared to a case in which a man easily deploys a brigade to oppose a powerful vanguard [of his enemy], or a case of a man arbitrarily making an old, worn-out horse and a legendary ﬁne horse that is capable of covering one thousand miles a day race at the same level of speed. I am afraid that at the end of a long kalpa [the day when a heretic] leads insects will certainly arrive. The body dies and decays, and again another body is received, but the exquisite spirit does not change. Human beings and animals comply with [causes and] conditions. [This tenet is found in] the brilliant composition of the Nirvana Sutra and the valuable sayings in the [Taizi] ruiying [benqi jing].192

His Majesty sacredly illuminates what is tranquil and profound, and clearly examines what is deep. Comparing to the two phrases regarding sacriﬁcial offerings [quoted from the Book of Rites], he understands that the spirit is not extinguished. He makes clear that the reckless conduct [of the heretic] goes against one’s parents. His justice, woven into [in his composition], fol- lows the eightfold holy path to enlightenment (Skt. ārya-aṣṭāṅgika-mārga). It is difﬁcult to be able to hear [His Majesty’s] words, just as [Confucius’ discourse about] human nature and the Way [of Heaven] cannot be heard.193 I, your disciple, visited the Ruo River when I was young. I received the precepts in the area of Fan and Deng (present-day Henan province), and stud- ied under Dharma teacher Qi at the White Horse Temple (Baimasi). [Dharma teacher Qi] frequently talked to me about the profound tenor of birth and death, and spoke often of the subtle purpose of the exquisite spirit. From that time on, I have taken refuge in [the Buddhist teaching] and cut off all doubt

about these issues.

I again see that this judgment has destroyed the devil’s path to a greater extent. This not only causes us to experience [Buddhism] in this world, but also to establish a relationship with [Buddhism] in the next existence. I know only to take refuge in [Buddhism], and tacitly compare myself to Seeking Fame (Qiuming) [described in the Lotus Sutra].194

67c

You graciously beneﬁted me by showing [the Imperial Response] to me.

I deeply appreciate your favor.

I, your disciple Zhang Mian, bow.

The Answer of Lu Lian, Erudite of the Five Classics

I, Lian, address you.

I received your letter. You graciously showed me the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I humbly read His Majesty’s purpose, which clearly illuminates my deﬁlement and ignorance.

My, your disciple’s, entire clan believes in the Three Treasures. From the time of my youth I have followed the Buddhist teaching. Even though I sin- cerely take refuge in the highest teaching, I am in the dark about the principle of nonduality.

I carefully thought of many sages, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist, and found that they expand and guide [the people] with distinguished writings. The Tathāgata explained the three vehicles in order to indicate one principle, and spoke of the twofold truth in order to awaken those who are stuck [in delu- sion]. Former kings explained the ﬁve [kinds of] ceremonies in order to cause the people to thoroughly understand love and respect, and propagated the music of the six generations [starting with the Yellow Emperor] in order to lead spiritual beings. They further showed [the law of] the three periods of existence in order to prove [the law of] cause and effect. Moreover, they clariﬁed that sincerity moves [others] in order to verify the reality of reward and retribution. How is it possible to promptly reject the origin of the spirit and eternally cut off consciousness as a condition? If this was the case, reward and retribution for good and evil deeds would be merely an empty statement, and the estab- lishment of sacriﬁces and reverence [to the spirits of ancestors] would be false. When we seek this in common sense, is it possible to be content with this? Nevertheless, ignorant and deluded people still remain quite obstinate.

Therefore His Majesty clearly viewed [all things] with a tranquil mind, and his spirit visited the subtle gate [of Buddhism]. He put forth reason in words that are as bright as morning sunlight, and gave testimony by issuing this writing, which is as clear as a glowworm [in the darkness]. This is enough to quickly educate ignorant and confused people and cause ordinary people to contentedly have faith.

I humbly follow the tenor of the imperial writing. I will examine the origin of the mind. I prudently discerned this and respond to you. I cannot express my happiness in words, but I clap my hands and dance with joy.

I, your disciple Lu Lian, present this.

The Answer of Zhang Fan, Mounted Escort of Yangzhou

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, in which the magniﬁcent purpose traces to the very root of a vital point; [His Majesty’s] sublime words tally with the Way.

His Majesty’s innate intelligence is above those of the six [renowned] schol- ars, spontaneously inclusive of that of the one (i.e., the Buddha) above the sages (i.e., bodhisattvas ) in the tenth stage [of enlightenment]. Regarding the law of effects brought about by causes, his reason shines upon [the law of] the three periods of existence. As to the signiﬁcance of observing the proper rules for ﬁlial offerings [to the ancestral spirits], he follows the continuous line of all kings. His sublime understanding is explained as easily as the ice melts in the springtime. His supreme purpose is as bright as the autumn sky. [These] are enough to change the [evil] minds of Devadatta, [who attempted to kill the Buddha], and the icchantikas, and to inﬂuence the intentions of [the tyrant King] Jie and [the notorious robber] Zhi. [His Majesty] has restored the faithless style to [the faithful style] of ancient times. He causes the orderly, simple, and sincere tradition to thrive. He has an outstanding reputation and excellent sin- cerity. Nothing more can be added to his [great] esteem.

You, Dharma teacher, are an outstanding man of virtue, well versed in principles. You monopolize high reputation in the world. You have received His Majesty’s ediﬁcation together with us, but you alone enjoy the spiritual intelligence, deeply examine the profundity of the Way, and have insight into the path of the ultimate law of nature.

I, your disciple, formerly heard a certain master’s view and became awak- ened to the tenor of the grand scholar [Confucius]. Today I encounter an era of peace and justice, and follow the teaching that [the spirit] is not extin- guished. [This teaching] truly shines upon me, clariﬁes my ignorant mind, and washes away my deﬁlement. I prance and dance with joy. How could language or symbols surpass [dancing in expressing such joy]?

I, Zhang Fan, bow.

68a

The Answer of Wang Zhenguo (d. 515), Commandant of the Left of the Heir Apparent

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly looked at the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. Regarding the immortality of the spirit, scriptures present explicit sentences.

When we talk about the issue in conformity with our minds, it lustrously stands to reason. The discourse that the spirit is extinguished is really frightful and lamentable.

His Majesty illuminates [the issue] deeply and rightly. His wonderful tenor encompasses all extensively. [His composition] breaks the heresy and propagates this model of teaching. This can truly cause [people] to clearly realize the profound path, and it will be the chief support for a millennium. I humbly read [the Imperial Response]. I am happy to sustain this per- sonally and deeply forever. I will pay a visit to you one of these days. I look

forward to inquiring about this issue to you.

I, Wang Zhenguo, present this.

The Answer of Cao Jingzong (457–508), General of the Palace Guard

You deigned to give me the Imperial instruction responding [to the subject] of the mortality of the spirit.

The reasoning [of this writing] encompasses eternity, and the purpose includes the issue of the three periods of existence. Those who have been confused in the six realms of existence for a long time will hereupon be awakened forever. Those who have constantly been suspicious about the ﬁve realms of existence will realize the truth, just as if being enlightened. Except for [His Majesty], who thoroughly examines the eight kinds of meditation leading to enlightenment (bajietuo), who shines as brightly as [the Buddha] who is called by the ten epithets, who rejects what is not upright, and who transcends the secular world, who else could be like this?

I will respectfully carry [the Imperial Response] with me and write it on the end of the sash of my ceremonial gown. I will be sure not to disregard it even while sleeping and eating.

You, Dharma teacher, have knowledge that goes beyond the realm of exis- tence. Your learning has reached [the clear cognition of] nonarising (Skt. anut- pattika-dharma-kṣānti). You praise and recommend [His Majesty’s composition],

and this good deed of yours shines as brightly as that of [Zichan of] Dongli (the eastern village).195

I opened [His Majesty’s composition] and appreciate it repeatedly, and so I forgot about my illness.

I, Cao Jingzong, reply to you.

The Answer of Yan Shan, Chamberlain for Attendants

You deigned to distribute to me the Imperial instruction to ascertain the immortality of the spirit in response to subjects, together with your explanatory letter.

The grounds of the reasoning [of this instruction] are evident, and it is wondrously inclusive of both sides. Consequently, [His Majesty] propagates the intelligent insight on his own, praising both the boat and the bridge [by which people cross over to the other side]. What cannot be seen with the eyes may be blocked by a curtain or a wall, and what cannot be heard with the ears may be obscured by distance. We cannot say there are no sounds or objects simply on the basis of their not being heard or seen. If we intend to ask about the Buddhist teaching now, we should rely on books of non-Buddhist teaching. It is hereupon shown that books of the non-Buddhist teaching does not differ from those of the Buddhist teaching. A book says, “The spirit in its energy can go everywhere.”196 A Buddhist scripture says, “Nevertheless, the spirit is not extinguished.”197 Since [the description in] the Buddhist scrip- ture tallies with that in the book of non-Buddhist teaching, there is little to question about the issue that the spirit exists. Those who doubt [the immortality of the spirit and assert] its mortality are like an ephemerid that does not know [what takes place between] the morning [it was born] and the end of the day (i.e., transient life), or a [short-lived] cicada that does not know [what takes place between] spring and autumn. How could they know the long life of the tree called Dachun or the eternity of the sun and moon?198

His Majesty’s intelligence exceeds that of the ancient [sages]. He exquis- itely and ingeniously penetrates the spirit. The tenor of the three periods of existence has testimony. The principle of ﬁlial offerings [to the ancestral spirits] is honored here. Ordinary people had dark and narrow views before, but they have now become intelligent again. People of later generations will fall into darkness and confusion, but they will be awakened.

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I, your disciple, planted [a good seed] in my previous life and thus encoun- tered happiness [in this life], being able to participate in following and enjoying the [Buddhist] Way. I present my mind to Maitreya Bodhisattva; I sincerely and deeply take refuge in him with respect. I simply behave pru- dently and expect to have a relationship to [the Buddha] in my next life. I keep in mind great joy, just like that of a wild duck among duckweed.

I, your disciple Yan Shan, present this.

The Answer of Shen Hong, Erudite of the Five Classics

I, your disciple Hong, lower my head to the ground and bow.

[I received] your gracious letter. I humbly read the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit. I think that it is difﬁcult to understand the vital point, and an obscure matter easily becomes confused. Except for concentrating one’s mind in examining this, searching out what is deeply hidden and clarifying the reason, how could we save deluded people from heavy mist (i.e., obscuration)? How

could we exercise our own views in [spiritual] darkness?

I personally think that the great sage [emperor] who manages the empire manifests his superior virtue over the people. He bestows the Dharma clouds [upon the people] in order to deeply beneﬁt them. He discloses sunlike wisdom and increases its splendor. His profundity is comparable to that of the dark, vast ocean, and his familiarity with the people is likened to theirs with a well crib. Throughout the ages, who else [but His Majesty] could know this [prin- ciple]? There are parables found in the Buddhist scriptures, [such as] “After a sparrow [that was in a vase] ﬂies away, the vase is still there” or “Even if [the candle]light [by which one can read a writing] is extinguished, the writing remains.”199 The [Book of] Rites says, “[The ancestral spirits] do not accept offerings from those who are not their family members. When [their family members] offer sacriﬁces to them, they send down blessings.”200 Moreover, [a concubine of Duke Wen of Zheng state], after dreaming of an orchid, con- ceived the Duke of Mu of Zheng state.201 [The father of the concubine of Wei Ke’s father’s] tied grasses together and fought Du Hui [on behalf of Wei Ke].202 Generally speaking, there are many instances like these; it is impossible to record them all.

Furthermore, we transmigrate in the ﬁve realms of existence, but we will return to the same place [through practicing] the six pāramitās. All this is the

evident testimony [for the existence] of the spirit and the profound meaning of the immortality [of the spirit]. Xi Ke is simply a lame person [of Jin state]. How can he be compared in the way of walking with a man from Handan [who mastered the art of walking]? How could Lu Ao, a swiftfooted man [of Qin], be claimed as equal to Ruoshi, [a legendary wizard of the Northern Sea]? Today [His Majesty’s composition] was bestowed on heavenly beings above203 and reached even the icchantikas below. This is what is called the simile of dispersing the dense fog by hanging two well-matched objects (i.e., the sun and moon), or coming out of a dark night and seeing [the light of]

Zhulong (the torch dragon).204

I attempt to draw water from a deep well with only a short rope205 and examine the condition of the sea only by gazing at great waves in the distance. I am really happy and pay respects to [His Majesty’s composition], which is just like an invaluable precious jewel.

I, Shen Hong, lower my head to the ground and bow.

The Answer of Sima Jiong (d. 518), Arbiter of Jiankang

[I received] your gracious letter. You kindly showed me the Imperial crit- icism on the Discourse on the Extinction of Man’s Nature (Miexing lun; i.e., Shenmie lun).

I personally think that [His Majesty’s] benevolence greatly spreads out like waves, his way is the utmost among those of all numinous beings, his intelligence illuminates what is deeply concentrated, and his principle is unmatched by those of all ancient sages. Therefore, the discernment of the seven kinds of meditation (qichan) and the eight kinds of meditation leading to enlightenment (bahui), and the subtlety of the three gates of emancipation and the fourfold truths, are originally luminous in scriptures and they are bright in [His Majesty’s] clear and logical instruction. Therefore an exposition of the Dharma by the Buddha (Skt. udāna) says, “It is just like the case where even if a hundred people were to praise the wondrous awakening in a chorus, they would still be unable to express even one ten-thousandth of the praise.”206 When karma arises, reward or retribution springs up from it. When a cause goes, an effect follows. Though the meaning is obscure, the event is apparent. Moreover, even though the principle is profound the testimony is evident. From what is familiar, we can understand what is profound. Through seeking what happened in recent times we can discover what happened in ancient

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times. For instance, when the sun or moon rises in the sky, we do not have to borrow the eyes of Li Lou, [a man of excellent eyesight, to perceive it,] or when the sound of a bell reaches our ears we do not have to bother Ziqi, [a man of excellent hearing ability,] to hear it. The advocate [of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit], however, makes himself dark, strays from the right path, and has trouble understanding [the truth]. If he follows what he has in mind, he will easily fall into a pitfall.

I humbly read His Majesty’s excellent purpose. His reason is wondrous and his expressions are gorgeous. He achieves the apex and investigates what is profound. He examines the most tranquil truth, and moreover he elucidates it. He opens the profound path and at the same time he clariﬁes it. Even if various sages were to ride stirrup to stirrup with each other, or a large number of scriptures laid out the mysterious principles in a row, [the Dharma expounded by the Buddha] with his golden mouth on Vulture Peak and with his beautiful tongue near the Nairañjanā River cannot be sought and under- stood thoroughly after all without this (i.e., the Imperial Response), and if we disregard this instruction we cannot attain the right path. Truly, this washes away dust and dregs, like the waves in the Yangzi River or the Han River, leads with virtue, sets ceremonies in order, and returns customs and ediﬁcation to [the right path]. This is the reason why [His Majesty] is versed in both the Buddhist teaching and the secular teaching. I will send these statements to you. I precisely completed my statement.

I, your disciple Sima Jiong, present this.

The Answer of Qiu Zhongfu, Assistant Director of the Left

I humbly read the Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, in which His Majesty illu- minates what is profound and includes the absolute and the relative reality. His reasoning goes beyond the world of language. The meaning penetrates a vast amount of knowledge.

I will study this marvelous plan intensively with respect. My humble joy deepens. You kindly showed this to me; I appreciate your favor.

I, Qiu Zhongfu, address you.

End of Fascicle Ten of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Eleven

Director He Shangzhi’s Case to Glorify Buddhism, Responding to Emperor Wen of

the Song Dynasty

On the ﬁfth day of the ﬁfth month of the twelfth year of the Yongjia era (435), an ofﬁcial delivered the following report [to the emperor].

Xiao Mozhi, the magistrate of Danyang, respectfully submits a report, in which he says, “Four dynasties have already passed since Buddhism was transmitted to China. Buddhist temples and images in the thousands are every- where. When we advance, we can connect our minds to [Buddhism], and when we retreat, there are plenty of [monks and nuns] from whom we may ask advice. Nevertheless, recently people esteem digressive matters. They do not consider diligence and sincere faith to be supreme. Moreover, they place value on competing for luxury. Dilapidated buildings have never been repaired. Instead, they construct their several new buildings and proudly boast of it to each other. The best-quality lands are nearly overloaded by mansions of eminent people. Construction materials such as timber, bamboo, copper, and varicolored silk are wasted limitlessly. Those who disregard a standard degree and go beyond a [reasonable] limit should be given restraint. If we do not take measures against this, its longstanding evil will not come to an end.

“I would like to request that from now on all those who wish to erect a bronze [Buddhist] statue [must ﬁrst] go to a government ofﬁce and notify [of their plans] in person. All those who wish to build a Buddhist temple or a monastery [must] ﬁrst go to the governor-general of their local district207 and notify him of the relative scope [of their construction project]; according to the matter, [the governor-general] will give a statement that is sent to the main prefectural ofﬁce, [the petitions] must be approved, and [only] then should the petitioners begin [construction]. If someone arbitrarily erects a bronze statue or establishes a Buddhist temple or monastery the case should be discussed, and under the law of failure to accept and exert the imperial

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decree the bronze metal and all building and construction materials and tiles will be entirely forfeited to the government.”

His report was sanctioned.

At that time, Śramaṇa Huilin, who falsely took up the position of a Buddhist monk and slandered the [Buddhist] teaching, wrote the Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and Clergy (Baihei lun). He Chengtian, the magistrate of Hengyang, was in collusion with [Hui]lin, and they often praised one another. [He Chengtian] wrote the Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life (Daxing lun). They both adhere to one side and slander Śākyamuni’s teaching. Yan Yanzhi (384–456), magistrate of Yongjia, and Zong Bing, Sec- retariat of the Heir Apparent, believe in the [Buddhist] Dharma. They reviewed these two essays and respectively refuted them in writings of more than ten thousand words. [Hui]lin and [He Chengtian] at ﬁrst corresponded with [Yan Yanzhi and Zong Bing], but they stopped before stumbling. [Zong] Bing accordingly wrote the Discourse to Clarify Buddhism (Mingfo lun) in order to propagate his purpose.

His Majesty considered this to be virtuous and said to Palace Attendant He Shangzhi, “I did not read [Buddhist] scriptures when I was young and I have no free time recently. I have not yet thoroughly discerned [the law of] causality of the three periods of existence. Nevertheless, the reason I do not dare go against [the law] is simply because my precursors and you, contem- porary men of outstanding ability who lead [the world], all respect and trust in [this law]. Fan Tai (355–428) and Xie Lingyun (385–433) always say, ‘The compositions of the Six Classics were originally intended to save the common people and govern them. If we must seek the genuine heart of our spirits, how can we manage without taking Buddhist scriptures as guide- books?’ Yan Yannian’s (i.e., Yan Yanzhi’s) refutation of the [Discourse on] the Full Understanding of Life and Zong Shaowen’s (i.e., Zong Bing’s) crit- icism of the [Discourse on] Buddhist Laymen and Clergy deeply and exten- sively clarify the Buddhist teaching. They are very logical. In addition, they are sufﬁcient to open and encourage people’s minds. If everyone within the territory of my state is completely ediﬁed by this teaching, I will achieve the great peace without doing anything. What is the matter with this?

“Recently Xiao Mo[zhi] requested me to draw up a constitution but I have not ordered to let [the request] pass. That is to say, I have already shown [this

request] to you, and I will leave to your judgment the issue of whether it will give proﬁt or loss. We must have a measure to correct and stop superﬁcial dissolute practices. If [the request] has no harm in greatly encouraging [the people], then you should write an order.”

Shangzhi replied, “People who have vague ideas mostly do not believe in the Buddhist teaching. I am stupid and ignorant, yet I take charge of the matter with my foolish diligence. I am afraid that my incompetence will blemish the great teaching. Furthermore, I receive your great patronage but [this task] is not one that I dare assume. Regarding a great number of wise people of previous generations, they did not disobey brilliant imperial decrees. The medieval period is already far in the past, and it is difﬁcult to know [about that time] completely. After moving to the Jiangnan area, Wang Dao (276–339) and Zhou Yi (269–322) are the most outstanding among the suc- cessive prime ministers. Wang Meng (309–347) and Xie Shang (308–357) are models of the principles of human relationships. Chi Chao (336–377), Wang Tan[zhi] (330–375), Wang Gong (d. 398), and Wang Mi (360–408) are known either as being unparalleled or unrivaled. Their reﬁned and sophis- ticated vapors and their pure and chaste feelings are also beyond the secular world. People such as Guo Wen, Xie Fu, and Dai Kui (326–396) all set their minds to the ultimate of heavenly and human beings and raise their bodies among the clouds. The late brothers of my great-grandfather (i.e., He Chong and He Zhun) were exemplars of the world with their virtuous opinions. Wang Yuan and the Lin brothers held premier positions in the court due to their intelligence. Other people, roughly scores of men such as Fan Wang, Sun Chuo, Zhang Xuan, and Yin Ji, were talented people of the time. Moreover, all śramaṇas mentioned in [Zong] Bing’s Discourse [to Clarify Buddhism], Bo[yuan], Tan[wuchen] (Dharmarakṣaṇa), and [Yu Dao]sui, are the next gen- eration after them. They are compared and contrasted with Yu Yuangui. All the gentlemen before [Yu Dao]sui, such as [Zhu Fa]hu (Dharmarakṣa) and [Yu Fa]lan, are next to those gentlemen [who accumulate virtue within]. More- over, they are unpredictable. When Buddhist clergy and secular people of modern times are compared and explained, they are like this. If we take exten- sive examples both from foreign countries and China, and accordingly come to examples from the Han and Wei periods, how could we be competent enough to speak of geniuses and extraordinary virtuous people? Why should

69c

we vainly repress our spirits, abandon our family relations without doing any- thing, be submerged in and deluded by a counterfeit assertion, and on our own initiative fall into an ediﬁcation that is unsupported by any evidence? “Your Majesty’s thought penetrates beyond the world of creation and dis- cretion and consideration is abstruse and subtle beyond the phenomenal world. You investigate things deeply and attain what is profound. There is no example to take from familiar cases. Hereupon, if we your subjects and those under us can prudently infer things along with this example, lay Buddhists are not few in the present time. How could [Confucius’ words] ‘A man can propagate the Way’ be a false statement?208 Dharma Master Huiyuan once said, ‘There is nothing negative in Śākyamuni’s ediﬁcation. Following the Way indeed stems from the origin of the teaching. To save the world is also an important task.’ If the ruler of the times can destroy mistakes and falsity and encourage [the people] to examine reality, [Buddhism] will be practiced equally alongside the ruler’s state affairs throughout the world, and the unseen world and the manifested world will work in concert and jointly enrich the common people. Why can it be said that only King Cheng and King Kang [of the Zhou dynasty] and Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing [of the Han dynasty] were extraordinary? If this [Buddhist] ediﬁcation were practiced in concurrence with [these extraordinary rulers’ ways of adminis- tration] at the beginning of the Zhou and Han dynasties, it would have been

doubly fast that praise is made and punishment is terminated.

“Personally, I am inclined to think that this statement accords with the essence of reason. Why? If ten people from a village of a hundred households observe the ﬁve precepts (Skt. pañcaśīla), those ten people are all honest and sincere. If a hundred people in a town of a thousand households cultivate the ten wholesome acts, those hundred people are peaceful and generous. If the instruction of this teaching is transmitted and spreads throughout the world, then a million people among ten million households will be benevolent. This is merely an example given for those who observe both [the ﬁve] precepts and [the ten] wholesome acts. If those who observe even one [of the ﬁve] precepts or one [of the ten] wholesome acts were all counted, the number would be at least twenty or thirty percent of the population. If one can perform a wholesome act, he removes an evil act. Since an evil act has been removed, one punishment comes to an end. If one punishment comes to an end in a family, then in a state

ten thousand punishments will come to an end. It is not worthy to think that abandoning four hundred prisons is difﬁcult. It would be doubly fast in reason that the ode of the kingdom ya and the hymn of praise song rise. This would be, namely, to achieve the great peace without doing anything, as Your Majesty has said. Theoretically speaking, things should be like this.

“If we seek actual facts for this, I, your subject, will say more. A history book of antiquity states that the people of the Western region all serve the Buddha and respect the Dharma. Therefore, even if the population of a large country numbers in the tens of thousands and that of a smaller country is in the hundreds, in the long run they do not annex each other. After they were subordinated to China, their customs worsened considerably. [The people of the region] are, however, still very honest and gentle; they seldom ﬁght. Moreover, the [Chinese] people have been in great misery since the time when the ﬁve barbarian tribes from the North (i.e., the Huns, the Tungusic, the Jie, the Di, and the Qiang) threw China into disorder. Countless people were wrongly put to death. During these times, those who attained peace of mind certainly relied on Śākyamuni’s teaching. Therefore, when Fotudeng (ca. 232–348) entered Ye, cases of massacres carried out by Shi Hu (295–349) were reduced by half. When the treasure pagoda of Minchi [in present-day Henan province] emitted light, Fu Jian’s use of a mallet and a saw [to harm people] stopped. [Juqu] Mengxun (368-433) turned against the one to whom he was indebted; he was heartless, as cruel as a wolf or tiger. In his later years he was inspired and enlightened [by Buddhism] and ended up becoming a good man. [His understanding of] the Buddhist teaching matched that of Buddhist monks. He possessed power as strong as that of ten thousand men combined. When someone threw the region along the Yellow and Wei Rivers into disorder, he was ready to risk his life and went to his teacher who was in difﬁculty. This is due to nothing other than a respectful faith [in Buddhism].

“There is originally a reason for the fact that the Way of the Spirit helps

in ediﬁcation. It often happens that [people] are struck by lightning on a rainy summer day. Regarding the incidence that the Zhan family shrine shook [from being struck by lightning], it was written [in the Zuozhuan] that [the Zhan family] had hidden guilt.209 In the reign periods of [King] Jie [of the Xia dynasty] and [King] Zhou [of the Yin dynasty], those who were wrongly put to death were too numerous to record, but only King Xuan of the Zhou dynasty

70a

and Lord Jing of the Jin dynasty incurred divine wrath for abusing [their power to inﬂict] punishment. When we inspect reason based on the reward and ret- ribution [in the traditional meaning], there are already examples that do not ﬁt [this notion]. When we examine examples from ancient and modern times, our suspicions merely increase. Scriptures and history books, however, record such cases as evidence of encouraging [people to do good acts] and warning [them against committing evil acts], and say that one out of ten thousand images still bears its full fruit. It is better than a statement that censures Buddhism. “[As for Buddhism,] in reason there is a purport that should be axiomatic and believable, and in examining the fact there is also no fault of being per- verse or absurd. Furthermore, familiar efﬁcacies bestowed by Avalokiteśvara Mahāsattva all immediately manifest in experiences of one’s lifetime, and the people see them together with their own eyes. In a family that offers prayers, whatever [they pray for] comes true, one after another. This is the reason to encourage [people to do good acts] and warn [them against com- mitting evil acts]. Therefore [Buddhism] bears its full fruit. How can we talk

[about Buddhism] with that (i.e., Confucianism) in the same breath? “Nevertheless, a cohort of ignorant people improperly proceed to slander

[Buddhism], neglect what is important yet die for what is unimportant. They stick to trivial matters and miss out on what is important; they resent that Buddhist monks and nuns cut off their offspring and hate that red and purple paint is wasted on Buddhist images and pagodas. This is similar to the case that people receive favor of Heaven and Earth yet they do not talk about [this favor] in daily life, or that civil ofﬁcials suffer from their duties to conduct ofﬁcial sacriﬁces and sometimes denigrate [the sacriﬁces]. The case of Huilin and [He] Chengtian is probably like this, too.

“As for the system reported by Xiao Mo[zhi], I do not think this is entirely wrong, but the worst people, who hurt and harm the Buddhist clergy and laypeople, exist among Buddhist monks and nuns who do no religious practice, and it is difﬁcult to sort them out based only on internal and external behaviors. We have not yet been able to imprudently remove them. Even though more and more gold, copper, soil, and wood are wasted [to make Buddhist images and build Buddhist temples], this is assuredly what is brought about by mer- itorious deeds. It is also difﬁcult to promptly stop this. I was thinking to deal with this matter seriously these days, but I had difﬁculty in settling my course

of action. Today I graciously received with respect [Your Majesty’s] virtuous voice, and I am truly at ease.”

At that time, Yang Xuanbao, Gentleman of the Ministry of Personnel, was present. He stepped forward and said, “This discussion surpasses the ultimate of heavenly and human beings. How could this be something in which I should meddle? I am personally afraid that when we discuss plans to build up military power [just as] the states of Qin and Chu did, or when we make an elaborate plot to annex other states [just as] Sun[zi] and [Wuzi] did, we should take something from this [example].”

His Majesty said, “This is not a preparation for [war between states of] the Warring States period, but the issue is truly just as you (i.e., He Shangzhi) said.” [He] Shangzhi then said, “While a recluse is treated with due honor, soldiers are treated coldly. When benevolence is valued, military esprit de corps declines. If Sun[zi] and Wu[zi] are considered ideal and we engage in gobbling up other states, then the Way of [the sage kings] Yao and Shun is

useless. Is only Śākyamuni’s teaching [useless]?”

His Majesty was delighted with [Shangzi’s statement] and said, “That Śākya- muni’s school has you (i.e., He Shangzhi) is comparable to that Confucius’ school had Jilu. It is simply a case of ‘Evil talk does not reach my ears.’”210

The Responses of Two Dharma Masters, [Dao]gao and [Fa]ming, to Li Miao of Jiaozhou, Who Criticized the Matter that the Buddha Does Not Manifest Himself, and Li [Miao]’s Letters

[Li Miao’s Criticism]

The Way abides in purity and emptiness. The principle of the four that are great is permanent,211 but there is the Dharma gate that wondrously goes beyond a multitude of spheres. If it is said that beneﬁting the people with efﬁcacy and delivering immeasurable [people] are what is taught [by the Buddha], why doesn’t he make a true appearance in this world, why does he give empty talk that lacks substance? I am now surely going to ask you about the origin of [the teaching established] in the West. I am humbly solicitous of you, Great Precept Master, to have compassion on me, take ahold of my mind, and freely bestow upon me your marvelous words.

I, your disciple Li Miao, bow.

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[Daogao’s Response]

I, Shi Daogao, respond.

I received a question from you about whether or not the greatest sage manifests himself. The taste of your principle is profound and extensive, and the signiﬁcance of your words is luminous and clear. The more times I read this, the more highly your virtue resounds. The fences and the walls of your house are high and large, and this naturally makes it difﬁcult to ﬁnd the gate. Then, I will try to exhaust my humble opinions and emulate Wangxiang, [who was able to ﬁnd] a mystic jade [for the Yellow Emperor].212

There are generally three instances in which the Tathāgata responds to the people. The ﬁrst is emitting light and causing the earth to quake, [which are equivalent to] manifesting himself. The second is that the True Dharma, which is equivalent to the Buddha, exists in this world. The last instance is the ediﬁcation with the aid of an image [of a buddha], a model which closely resembles [the Buddha]. The model which closely resembles [the Buddha] corresponds to feelings of today’s people. The people’s feelings receive the saving power from images [of buddha]. What else then do they want to see? Therefore, the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra states that [the Buddha] is able to clarify the characteristics of existing things and know the faculties of sentient beings.213 With regard to the three assemblies held under the dragonﬂower tree at Kukkuṭārāma [in the city of Pāṭali in Magadha state, when Maitreya descends to this world from Heaven], people perceive in their minds [Maitreya Buddha’s present existence]. What is then hidden? Hence, the Lotus Sutra states, “At that time I (i.e., the Buddha) appear together with many monks at Vulture Peak.”214 It can be expected that the palace of [the wheel-turning king (Skt. cakravartin)] Saṅkha, [who appears when Maitreya descends to this world,] is lofty. [Nevertheless,] how is it that the origin [of the teaching estab- lished] in the West cannot be seen? Furthermore, many people of the world who have such doubts say that the descriptions in Buddhist scriptures do not coincide with reality. They have little inclination to rely on something obscure, and so they all produce delusions because they have not seen [the Buddha]. We learn all about the Three Augusts, the Five Thearchs, the three ancient dynasties (i.e., Xia, Shang, and Zhou), the Five Powers (i.e., the Qi, Song, Jin, Qin, and Chu states in the late Zhou dynasty), the Duke of Zhou, who established the system of propriety, and Confucius, who revised the Book of

Odes, in history books. [But] who actually experienced all these [events or actually met these people]? Śākyamuni let the Dharma drum resound at the Deer Park, and Confucius raised his virtuous voice in [his native land,] the Zou region of Lu state. We cannot actually experience any of this with our own ears and eyes; we believe them all based on written records. If you do not believe in this (i.e., the histories and records of China), I am not troubled by the fact that you have doubts about that (descriptions of the Buddhist scrip- tures). You are, however, able to understand [the histories and records of China]. Why then do you stick so ﬁrmly only to [your doubts about Buddhism]? If you, for whom His Majesty has deep consideration, clearly see [the law of] the three periods of existence, hope for and seek the teaching [of the Buddha, whose] life span is inexhaustible, take up, as a recent example, the trace of Dīpaṅkara Buddha and Māṇava Bodhisattva,215 and infer, as an exam- ple from the recent past, the great assemblies of Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū Buddha,216 then through these actions you will dispel many people’s obscure

delusions, just as the sun disperses heavy clouds.

My statements are superﬁcial and my expressions are poor. Although I speak, I cannot articulate my thoughts. I simply hope that on the day we per- sonally see each other I must speak of your criticism.

Stated respectfully [by Daogao].

[Li Miao’s Response]

I, Li Miao, bow.

I immediately examined your discussion. This is closely reasoned. Your expressions are arranged beautifully, and there are many points with which I happily agree.

As you say, [the Buddha’s Way] to reform the people varies according to the time, and [the ediﬁcation by] the True [Dharma] (i.e. the Buddha) or that [with the aid of] an image [of the Buddha] differs from people to people. You illuminate Buddhism by invoking non-Buddhist teachings. You verify facts by inquiring into writings. I respectfully take your purpose as a model, with which I can ﬁnd no ﬂaw.

Nevertheless, the cause to attain awakening is assuredly based on exam- ining by seeing [the Buddha]. To rely on something obscure produces doubt. Doubt is not the foundation of awakening. If what exists in written records

70c

is uniformly understood by various different generations, we do not have to wait for a sage to appear as our teacher after countless generations. If we resign ourselves to [the Buddha’s] voice and trace equally, his words and image are interdependent. Once the great justice is disregarded, the antagonism just like that between Confucianism and Mohism will ﬂourish. Then not only right faith will not be clear, but also slander and misunderstanding will increase our sins. Is it impossible to obtain the testimony of [the Buddha’s] manifestation and strengthen [our faith] with the seal [of the Dharma] and signs [of the Buddha]?

With the wisdom of nonobstruction the Great Sage (i.e., the Buddha) bestows benevolence without being asked to do so. Why does he have to spare bright light, make his two xun-tall body obscure, cut off sentient beings’ hope after he entered nirvana, and cause them to commit sins prior to the three assemblies [held when Maitreya descends to this world]? If straw dogs are futilely displayed, are they able to awaken you? If ritual instruments and images are pointlessly set up, are they able to cause you to have faith? Regarding the [Five] Thearchs, the [Three] Augusts, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius, their teachings are limited to this world. Matters of the next life were left intact and they did not discuss them. Therefore they did not discriminate about hiding or appearing, declining or rising, expedient or reality. The Tathāgata’s teaching completely threads through the three periods of existence and his compassion universally proﬁts [sentient beings]. This cannot be limited to the present existence. Since many confused people seek liberation, he cannot consider nirvana to be the ultimate. Therefore, ediﬁcation and salvation are not conﬁned to scriptures. The Buddha’s altruistic activities

are fully arranged, successively and innumerably.

I have a question. Where do “the Buddha’s altruistic activities” exist today? If the situation is just as you say, then you believe in this (i.e., Buddhism) and testify to that (i.e., Confucianism). The Sage, however, does not appear in the world. Confucius and Śākyamuni have different paths. Speaking in touch with reality, there are all contradictions. How could this be a testimony?

I cannot hold my tongue and refrain from [asking questions]. I have just expressed my thought in words. I would be happy if you could further inves- tigate in detail. I look forward to seeing your clear explanation.

[Daogao’s Second Response]

I, Shi Daogao, inform you.

I have again respectfully received your deep instruction. Your meaning is splendid and the purpose is profound. I read it three times and thought of it several times and I ﬁnally came to admire your profound meaning. The wisdom of predecessors and the ultimate principle are not what a common person can fathom, and sublime words and abstruse expressions are not some- thing in which a lowly and ineloquent man is concerned. I will now attentively act in accordance with an ordinary man’s indiscretion and roughly explain what I have in mind.

A myriad of wholesome acts all become teachings. The means [for teach- ing] are not only one. Some people sit and meditate in a grove; some cultivate meritorious qualities in the vicinity of the city; some bow and snap their ﬁn- gers; some sing gāthās and chant poems [to praise the Buddha]. All these [actions] are comprehended through the ears and eyes. Actions are immeas- urable. This precisely corresponds to the case that the ferry by which one attains awakening is caused by relying on something obscure. Why is it always the case that to attain awakening is based on examination by seeing [the Buddha]? Why is it always the case that to rely on something obscure produces doubts? Doubt is also the foundation of awakening. Please let me discuss this.

When one has a doubt he seeks a resolution [of that doubt]. When [the doubt] is resolved one is able to become awakened. When awakened, one enters the Way. If this is not the foundation, then what is? Even though Con- fucianism and Mohism vied with each other in rising and the nine schools discussed right and wrong, [this is as if] the torches have not been put out and it is not that the sun and moon no longer shine brightly. Why do you anxiously urge [the Buddha’s] manifestation and hurriedly return to the same point? The present world is indeed in the last period of the [Decadent Dharma], when there is no realization. It is also not incorrect to produce an effect in order to prove sincerity. “The Great Sage spares bright light.” Those in the world who have this doubt are arrogant and they do not see [the Buddha’s appearance]. Subsequently they end up being long confused in a great dream and perversely sink and drown in [the transmigration of] birth and death. Scholars of the past and ancient sages have made old statements on this for

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the most part. There are not several traces of wheels on the [right] path. In that case, I transmit [their points] but will not state [my own views].

If we efface ourselves and sincerely devote ourselves to [Buddhism], we will assuredly sense [the Buddha]. When we sense him, we equally see him. If we do not sense him, we do not see him. Those who have seen [the Buddha] tell this to those who have not seen him, but those who have not seen him certainly do not believe it. How could it be that the Sage does not exist? How could it be that sentient beings do not see him?

People hear the sound of the Dharma and praise it as good. [This] does not mean [the case of] “straw dogs are futilely displayed.” People see [Buddhist] images and bow to them. Would this be the case when wonderful ritual instruments [and images] are futilely set up?

The Duke of Zhou and Confucius tried to save decadent worlds. Their strength was, however, not adequate to complete their task. How did they have time to spare to instruct people about future existences? If Confucius and the Duke of Zhou had been born [in the time of purity and sincerity,] when knotting rope [was a recording method], they would have endlessly clariﬁed [the law of] the three periods of existence. You asked me, “Where do the Buddha’s altruistic activities exist today?” We bow our heads and join our hands [in prayer]. All these are the Buddha’s altruistic activities. There are, however, [various] methods to bring people to be deeply awakened. Even though the paths may vary they all arrive at the same point.

Regarding what I referred to in my previous letter, that “having a doubt in this (i.e., Buddhism) and believing in that (i.e., Confucianism),” this is precisely because since people of the world do not see [the Buddha] and then say there is no Buddha, I simply used the example of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, whom we have also not seen. This follows [naturally] even if we remain indifferent with folded arms. How could this be called contradiction? Your innate intelligence is perfect and original disposition is spontaneous.

You hold a rank in the place of the Imperial throne and plan with your great resources. You roam in the park of philosophic principles and wander in the garden of books. In spare moments from your busy duty, you enjoy carefree time for a long day. Once your virtuous voice is given, there is no one who does not listen to you attentively.

I have rough and shallow learning. I am deeply ashamed of my poor skill in correspondence. I submit my absurd and coarse reply to you, [though]. I fear that I will stain your glorious writing with particles of dust. My awe and shame increase afterward and I am in an incessant cold sweat.

Stated respectfully [by Daogao].

[Li Miao’s Second Response]

I, Li [Miao], bow.

Your discussion clariﬁed that the ferry to reach awakening is accordingly attained through doubt; to rely on something obscure is sufﬁcient [for awak- ening]; there is no need to examine by seeing [the Buddha]; and [actions such as] bowing and reciting praises are all enough to reach [the Buddhist] Way. The more I read this, the more I see what is profound and complicated [in it]. Nevertheless, you say that the Dharma of a [buddha] image departs from the True [Dharma]. [In this case] your logic of seeking for awakening is vulgar. [You say that] if people understand the tenor by making use of expe- dient, there is no need to avail oneself of [the Buddha’s] manifestation. This is certainly why the Duke of Zhou and Confucius gave instructions and emitted a brilliant light and why they taught the normative law. To take this from secular books serves the purpose sufﬁciently. Why must [the Buddha] emit light and cause the earth to quake without any reason? If right faith is not conﬁned to merely bending and lifting one’s head, and the Buddha’s altruistic activities are completely performed through body and speech, then what the Great Awakened One depends on is his wonderful physical form, which is the foundation at the beginning when one ﬁrst becomes involved and seeks [faith]. Therefore, it is known that those who ﬁrst come to believe in [the Buddha] certainly doubt [the Buddha’s manifestation] based on Con- fucian or Mohist [teaching] and even those who learn [Buddhism] still feel sorry about a lack of testimony [of the manifestation of the Buddha]. There is no trouble with the Three [Augusts] and the Five [Thearchs] even if they spare bright light, but it is a fault of [the Buddha of] the ten epithets to hide

morality. Wouldn’t this be the case?

In addition, you say that the Duke of Zhou and Confucius were engaged in relieving the decadent world and had no time [to discuss] the next life. [You also say that] if they had existed in the time [of purity and sincerity,]

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when knotting rope [was a recording method,] they would have spontaneously clariﬁed [the law of] the three periods of existence. This is not the case, either. The future is included in the meanings spoken of in the Seven Classics. Issues expounded and recorded in Buddhist scriptures are conﬁned to reward and retribution based on causality. Therefore the Book of Changes says, “[The family that] accumulates wholesomeness is certainly to have superabundant happiness, and [the family that] accumulates evil surely to have superabundant misery.”217 The [Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-]sūtra says, “There are no self, no one who creates [karma], and no one who receives [reward and retribution], yet good and evil karma does not perish.”218 This precisely indicates that the teaching of causality (i.e., Buddhism) usually indicates being gradual while the teaching that includes [instruction for the future] (i.e., Confucianism) is very magnanimous. Could it be said that what [Confucianism] is engaged in lies in this, and what it lacks lies in that?

Your discussion is beautiful but it is, from the beginning, merely speech that goes around and around in circles. I hope that you will pick up new [ele- ments] and expound something different in order to wash away the delusions of all ages, make the level and easy way wider and smoother, and greatly pierce through the accumulated hindrances. I deeply wish that you, Great Precept Master, will graciously accept my clear sincerity.

Presented respectfully by your disciple Li Miao.

[Faming’s Response to Li Miao]

I, Shi Faming, inform you.

A great discussion has been bestowed on me here. I spent time to respect- fully read this. This [discussion] is as fragrant as an orchid that blooms in a dark gorge, and as clean as a gentle breeze. My caliber is not as sharp as peaked frost, and my movement is not [as skillful as] that of chef Sheng.219 I am inclined to be contrary to reason and alone am frustrated by many doubts. This is truly because my expression is poor and my point of argument is not lucid, and [therefore] severe criticisms are ranged just as stars [in the sky]. I, a silly person, think that doubting something obscure, placing one’s mind in what is wonderful, examining through seeing the [Buddha’s] man- ifestation, bowing and singing praises, and being moved by [the Buddha who] mysteriously transforms are all guides to reach the [Buddhist] Way and

a happy occasion to cleanly ascend [toward the attainment of buddhahood]. Therefore, placing one’s mind [in what is wonderful] and examining through seeing [the Buddha’s manifestation] may both be recommended, and both doubt and veriﬁcation should be practiced. Would it be possible to give up seeing the manifestation [of the Buddha], promptly forget the [Buddha’s] brilliant appearance, [consider that the Buddha] equalizes the path with that of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, take [Buddhism] to follow the same pattern as worldly instruction, and think that [the Buddha’s] emitting light and causing the earth to quake are empty speech for nothing?

The dharmakāya is quiet and still and the wondrous physical form [of the Buddha] is calm. Therefore he is able to hide and show himself in accordance with the times, and his course of action is inscrutable. When he manifests himself he appears taking advantage of thusness (Skt. tathā). When he hides himself he is well gone (i.e., attains emancipation; Skt. sugata). When we seek the purpose in conformity with these words, what mistake could there be between [the Buddha’s appearance and disappearance] and the ten epithets?220 The glow after [the Buddha hid himself] shines brightly enough for the decadent world. How can those who have faith [in the Buddha] be more doubt- ful about [the Buddha’s manifestation] since [the glow] is just like the [weak] light of a ﬁreﬂy or candlelight? How can Buddhist monks who properly face the [bright] morning sun stand shoulder to shoulder with Buddhist laypeople? Buddhist pagodas, images, scriptures, and books are replete all over the world. How can those who learn [Buddhism] feel sorry about a lack of testimony? Furthermore, in the meanings of the Seven Classics to which you refer, the future is included; [for instance,] “[The family that] accumulates whole- someness is certainly to have superabundant happiness and [the family that] accumulates evil is surely to have superabundant misery.” [In Buddhism,] even though people are born and die one after another and successively change into a new generation, it is impossible [for them] not to receive the reward and retribution for good and evil karma [they have created]. This is extensively clariﬁed in [the law of] the three periods of existence, which is even clearer than the Seven Classics. I have inquired into this in writings

and inspected it in reality. Thus I accept what you say.

You say in your previous discussion, [however,] “Regarding the [Five] Thearchs, the [Three] Augusts, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius, their teachings

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are limited to this world. Matters of the next life were left intact and they did not discuss them. Therefore they did not discriminate about hiding or appearing, declining or rising, expedient or reality.” This seems to contradict [your assertion above]. Which point shall I take in reason? “A man yields to no one when he is doing what is right.”221 I humbly wish to hear your profound opinion about this.

In my previous letter I gave a rough account of the appearance and latency of the Highest Sage (i.e., the Buddha), but the signiﬁcance [of my argument] is unclear and my expressions were vague. I will carefully make a further exam- ination in detail. I would like to propagate the highest Way together with you. Sentient beings enjoy a long sleep in the three realms of existence. Their consciousness is eternally confused in the six dusts. They secretly move [from one life to another] and become mere subjects to be preyed upon. They successively go through the transmigration of birth and death. The body serves as an inn and the spirit is equal to a guest who rests there on its way. They suffer transmigration in the three lowest realms of existence. They have hardships passing through the eight difﬁculties. Happiness and joy are tem- porary pleasures; anxiety and fear are unending. After the body dies and

decays they receive another body.

Even a person who is knowledgeable about worldly affairs and eloquent, who peruses numerous books, who understands thoroughly [the studies of] various schools of thinkers, who completely masters [the theories of] the nine schools, who knows that “Birth and death have their determined appoint- ment, and wealth and high position depend on Heaven,”222 from whom even spiritual beings demand nothing, and about whose future sages and saints are unable to predict, may not avoid the case of clouding his mind with wrong views, disturbing his thought with suspicion, relying on sorcery, surrendering to talismans and incantations, hoping for right by sticking to wrong, expecting the truth by depending on falsehood, stupidly loitering between two different thoughts, or hesitating [at the parting of] two ways. Even if [the Buddha] were to emit light and cause the earth to quake, could [a person in such a condition] see it?

Consequently, profound scriptures are circulated and expedients wait in array for a chance to take action. When action is taken, [the minds of sentient beings] assuredly sense it. After sensing it there is a response to it. If we let

our determination rest in the tranquil house and settle our moral fortitude in the profound state, we will clarify that our life is as transient as the morning dew and discern that [the law of the three periods of existence] is not unfounded. We slacken the reins in the way of purity and tighten them in the streets of evil and falsehood. If we plant virtue and remove weeds, virtue will grow densely and luxuriantly. If we plant merit and pour [the water of] right on this, [merit] will branch out with a thick foliage. If we cultivate integrity and maintain it through hardships, competing for time even in a very short period, if we keep ourselves free from immorality, vying with the sun setting in the west, and if we embrace sincerity and hold aspirations, then our minds will be consequently understood. How could we not be inti- mately illuminated by the brilliant luster [of the Buddha] and see his mys- terious transformation?

Taking examples from what the ears and eyes perceive and what may be seen in a dream, [there are the following cases]. Emperor Ming of the [Later] Han dynasty awoke to the Sage (i.e., the Buddha) on the basis of a dream he had. The great Dharma was thereupon transmitted [into China]. Monarchs sincerely devote themselves to take refuge in [the Buddha’s] virtue. Out- standing persons adjust themselves and abide by the [Buddhist] ediﬁcation. Śramaṇas stand shoulder to shoulder with princes. Buddhist monks and nuns do not bow to emperors. Who considers the ninety-six [heterodox schools] to be as lofty as [Buddhism]?

At the time Emperor Wu of the Song dynasty ﬁrst ascended to the throne, he dreamed of a Buddhist monk, carrying an almsbowl to beg [for food], who then addressed him, “You gave a bowl of food to Vipaśyin Buddha in your previous life. [Because of this] you attained the throne in this life.” [The emperor] dispatched a messenger to ask Eminent Huiyan (363–443) to prove whether [what was said in the dream] was true or false. Eminent Huiyan immediately sent the Sutra on the Seven Buddhas (Qi fo jing) to present [to the emperor] for his perusal.

Sun Quan (181–252), a ruler of Wu state, was at ﬁrst doubtful of Buddhism. He thought that as there was no mysterious efﬁcacy [the teaching] should be stopped and discarded. Sun Quan subsequently obtained a relic [of the Buddha]. [The relic] cast bright light in his palace, it could not be broken [by hitting with] metal or iron [rods], and it could not be melted through metallurgy.

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Jianchu Temple seen today in the capital was [built in connection with this incident].223

In Wu County there was a stone Buddhist image that ﬂoated on the sea. Daoist monks, sorcerers, and more than a hundred of their followers held talismans and danced to the beat of drums but they were not able to move [the image] even an inch. Five or six Buddhist monks and four men whose family name was either Zhu or Zhang approached and respectfully welcomed it. Then they succeeded in lifting up [the image]. [This image] remains now at North Temple in Wu County. Among those who are extremely sincere there is no one who does not have the receptivity [of the Buddha’s power]. The Zhu and Zhang families believe in Buddhism from generation to gen- eration because they saw this miracle happen.224

Guo Wenju greatly worshiped the Three Treasures. His right faith was ﬁrm and clear. He once groped for a ﬁsh bone [that was stuck a tiger’s throat]. He had deep discernment regarding what is safe and what is dangerous. Eminent [Yu Fa]lan brushed off a heavy coat of snow from a ferocious animal.225 Eminent [Zhu Fa]hu moved a dried-up spring, from which water

ﬂowed out in response.226

All [these people] were equally outstanding in lofty conduct and surpassed ordinary people in pure spirit. They all exhibited extraordinary behavior which was fully recorded by the people of the world. In addition to these [there are more miraculous events], but they are too numerous to mention. I have been lazy in studying since my youth up to now, when I have gray hair. I feel solitary and uncultivated, with but little information. I simply tried to show [my opinion] with sincerity. My words are impolite and my expres- sions are plain. It may not be necessary to take notice of [my opinion]. I am afraid that this does not serve as [anything good]. I am humbled by shame

and awe as a consequence of [my criticism].

Presented respectfully [by Faming].

The Discourse to Clarify Buddhism composed by Layman Zong [Bing] of Jingzhou says,227 “Bo Yi said in the Book of Mountains and Seas (Shanhai jing), ‘In the country of Shendu the people are very dear to others and love one another.’ In Guo Pu’s commentary on the book it is said, ‘The country we formerly called [Shen]du is Tianzhu (i.e., India) where Futu (Buddhism) originated.’” (The term futu is fotu, “the Buddha’s purpose”).

“Liu Xiang’s Biographies of Arrayed Transcendents (Liexian zhuan) states that seventy-four [of the transcendents] are found in the Buddhist scriptures. These are scholars’[views of limited scope]. Again, it was not [during the reign of] Emperor Ming of the [Later] Han dynasty that [Buddhism] began [in China].” “The eminent Buddhist monk Fotudeng was a kindhearted sage at the time of Shi Le and [Shi] Hu. [Fotudeng] told Shi Hu, ‘In the city of Linzi county (in present-day Shandong province) there is the old site of Ayuwang (i.e., King Aśoka) Temple where there is still a [buddha] image, and the dew basin is buried in the earth more than twenty zhang under a big tree in a deep forest.’ An envoy of [Shi] Hu looked for them, relying on the illustration, and found everything [Fotudeng] had mentioned. Recently, when Yao Lüe’s uncle was a king of Jin, he saw a bright light at the site of Ayuwang Temple, so called by the elders, in Puban of Hedong. Seeking [the origin of the light,] he had [his men] dig there and obtained relics of the Buddha in a silver case placed inside a stone container. The brightness was extraordinary. Following [Yao] Lüe, [the king of Jin] came out onto the bank of the Ba River to see [the relics arrive]. Today bhikṣus live in a new temple [where the relics are

worshiped].

“From the observation of these facts, [we can see that] a long time has passed since Buddhist practices were transmitted to the land of Qi and Jin. The reason [the transmission of Buddhism] was not mentioned in the three commentaries [on the Spring and Autumn Annals] (i.e., the Zuozhuan, the Gongyang, and the Guliang) is similar to the reason why in the history books written by Gan Bao and Sun Sheng (i.e., the Jinji and the Jinyangqiu) there are no remarks about the Buddha. The subtle [Buddhist] ediﬁcation is, how- ever, really obvious. During the Jin period [Buddhism] ﬂourished in the Jiangzuo area (present-day Jiangsu province).”

The Letter of King Wenxuan Given to Kong Zhigui, Palace Aide to the Censor-in-Chief, in Order

to Dispel Doubts, together with the Answer

I closely read your letter line by line. I have long worried that groundless words always impair the right path and drastic measures harm purity and

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peace. The Mengzi says, “A monarch should not be fond of wisdom. A monarch should not be fond of courage. Excessive courage and wisdom pro- duce trouble and disasters. What he abides by is exactly that he should take love and justice as the foundation.”228 Today, since studying Śākyamuni’s teaching I have realized for the ﬁrst time from where this statement derives. By pledging to and practicing [this statement], I would like people in both high and low positions to equalize their good points. Furthermore, I will use an illustration for liberation: “Nothing is gained and nothing is lost. The small contains the large.”229 Regarding the phenomenal world, it does not spontaneously deserve to be mentioned.

The goal of the teaching of the truth (i.e., Buddhism) and the secular teach- ing (i.e., Confucianism) is simply the same. Because those who practice [either of the teachings] have not mastered this, inconsistent views arise indiscriminately. You say, “One who accumulates karma stays in faith.” In that case, this would mean that speech and action go against each other. Can it be said to be great ﬁlial piety that while attending one’s parents a person respects his parents on the one hand and injures or wounds [his own body, a gift from his parents] on the other?230 I have never heard of such a thing. The deeds of a person of virtue are not something to injure heartlessly but something to increase his goodness. The moral conduct of an honest person does not form his virtue through greed and theft. If things were like this, would it be possible to reject taking refuge in the Three Treasures and observing the ﬁve precepts even for a moment? Would it be possible to abandon the ten wholesome acts and the eightfold holy path to enlightenment even for a short time? I have not seen a case where the foundation is treated lightly while the branches are valued. This is what is called “The root has already been inclined and its branches and leaves follow it afterward.”231 Now you say, “The two paths are separate and different from each other. How could it be possible to follow [both]?” I see that this statement is merely superﬁcial talk. It is not that you have not seen what is discussed in sutras and Vinaya texts. Why do you incline your determination only to one side (i.e., Confucianism) and bury

the [common] path [to Buddhism and Confucianism]?

A person of learning does not usually leave the secular world to give instruction. The teaching that conforms to the ways of the world can be under- stood. If it is said that this Dharma vainly consists only of deception and

falsehood, the doubts of [the people] increase and [they think] it should be destroyed. I will, then, precisely state the cause. After all, how many people who are ﬁlial to their parents and respectful to their siblings at home are there in our numerous communities? Would it then be possible to reprimand various instructions and admonitions for the reason that there are not many [such good people], and to burn all the classics, history books, and admonitory works? At present you are hesitant to accept Buddhism. How different is [your case] from this example? Therefore, those who take refuge in the excel- lent Dharma originally do not show their minds with decorum and respect, and those who respectfully admire and worship [Buddhism] do not, from the beginning, forget other people and think only of themselves.

Today, those who courteously overcome their own desires are precisely only your group of people. Together you now intend to leave behind arrogance, remove haughtiness, restrain sensual desires, control greedy desires, cultivate politeness and modesty, learn how to be respectful, admire benevolence and righteousness, and deepen your ﬁlial piety toward your parents and respect for your siblings. You impose [these practices] upon yourselves through extensive charity, propagate them with philanthropy, praise them with out- standing talent, and promote them with wondrous capability. Why would you then be ashamed of yourselves in the eyes of spiritual beings? To diligently urge yourselves to carry out the practices is exactly seen here. Although I am not able to respectfully follow [your opinion], I do not forget this in my mind. [The jade that] glows in the night has not yet been thrown to you but you have already stood up and placed your hand on your sword [for naught].232 Even though you seek to hope for morality together, don’t you instead feel more ashamed? This must be because you have not seen the situation. There- fore you merely have expectations in ordinary faith. What I have in my mind is not this. I often take it seriously that [my faith] is not yet great enough. The Ofﬁce of the Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs primarily exhorts the teaching of the ﬁve kinds of principles of human relationships.233 Together we earnestly perform these good acts in order to act in accordance with freedom from desire and cause those who deceive and ﬂatter others to reform themselves through merely viewing the gate [of the Ofﬁce of the Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs], or cause those who make an outward show without sincerity and who have loose morals to improve their

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behaviors only through stepping into the yard [of the Ofﬁce of the Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs], equalize [the Ofﬁce of the Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs] to that mansion which sets our hearts at rest (i.e., a Buddhist temple), and make [the Ofﬁce of the Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs] equal to the tower of freedom from desire (i.e., a pagoda). Wouldn’t this be good?

First, we respectfully follow the benevolence bestowed by the emperor all over the world. Second, we respectfully receive the affectionate wholesomeness granted to us by the crown prince. Simply, what I am vigilant of morning and night is precisely the concern that my feeling about this is not satisﬁed. [People of the world] are fond of idly speaking on a great variety of sub- jects. They say they do so because they wish for wholesomeness. They have not been aware of the important point of harming the ediﬁcation. Even if someone tries to be loyal to his country and ﬁlial to his parents through decep- tion, if he tries to show love and justice through ﬂattering and pleasing others, if he tries to make the complaisance proper to the rule of propriety through false actions, or if he tries to be irreproachable through pretense, if he can overcome his own desires even for a single day all under Heaven will ascribe perfect virtue to him,234 not to mention that if he were able to do so for more than ten days or a month [the conditions] would be better than expected. Frankly speaking, I certainly feel bitter about the fact that there are not many cases like this in which wrongs have been corrected. If [you think that] this trouble has not yet spread, I, an old vulgar shallow person, deeply regret it. Certainly you must admonish yourselves to correct the contradictions and develop what you have not yet mastered. Why do you think that [Buddhism] hurts the basis of ﬁlial piety and damages the foundation of principles? Alas!

To have trouble in my mind is not something I wish for. If this issue can be abandoned I would be happy to hear other good points.

Furthermore, you say that it is not necessary to exhort the people to observe the precepts, and that instead we should cause those from the lower stratum of the society to do good acts voluntarily. If a teaching is propagated in this way without fail, Fangxun (i.e., Yao) should have waited for the four wicked ones to reform themselves and attain sagehood [instead of banishing them to the four distant regions],235 and Yu Shun should have waited for [his unwor- thy son] Shangjun to become wise and his virtue to become clear. Is it possible

to hope to fulﬁll wholesomeness in this way? Your intention like this should have what is broadly corrected. In that case, we should question the frugality of the earthen steps of Yao’s [residence],236 praise the beauty of a temporary abode for an emperor on a tour, speak ill of the stinginess of Yu’s [residence with its roof of] couch grass and thatch, esteem the distinction of the Efang Palace [of the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty], feel ashamed of the correct attitude of Ji An [in the service of Emperor Wu of the Former Han dynasty], and honor Zhu Tuo’s obsequious manner.237 Regarding all other honorable conduct, such as the virtues of integrity, purity, sincerity, modesty, and cour- teousness, we must change our ways and turn away from them. What practice would we then be able to cultivate?

Generally, when we hear a speech we assuredly judge the [speaker’s] behavior. When we see a behavior we certainly search for the reason [behind that behavior]. If your reason does not contradict [the truth] and your behavior does not transgress, please do not reach for strange doctrines. Truly different paths arrive at the same goal. You need not be consistent in a minor point. Recently there are many people who agree with you in this intention.

Today, I convey my opinion in this letter. Those who do not concentrate their attention harbor doubt and delusion in their minds. His Majesty made this known publicly and widely. I have brieﬂy expressed his thought but it seems that nothing is clear. The issue easily becomes troublesome in a letter. I cannot completely express my intention after all. I will meet with you one of these days and make this clear at that time.

Everyone has a mind of his own, just as everyone’s face is unique. Could it ever happen that every person’s face is the same and his or her intelligence is equal [to that of others]? When we examine that there are differences in the physical appearances of people, we fully see that their spirits are separate from each other. Once this determination has been made, the issue is no longer some- thing that requires further discussion. Once someone goes against the [right] path, how could [his mind] be changed by explanation? When I saw you, even though you clariﬁed the issue completely in your statement we did not reach this point. This is truly because there was already a difference between the two parties, yours and mine. It would be fortunate if each party could maintain the same small difference [as there is now]. There is simply no need to fruitlessly discuss right or wrong and slander each other without restraint.

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As for resting one’s mind and coming to have faith, it is not that the virtuous people of former times did not have this determination. I consider now that following wholesomeness is my happiness. Therefore I try to take the conceit out of myself when meeting with people. If you think that your virtue surpasses those of the ancient wise people, your sacredness exceeds that of former virtuous people, your intelligence excels that of a large number of people, and your rank is the highest of human nobility, then you can enjoy a free and leisurely life outside the mundane world, edify people in your own way, place your mind at a lofty level, have nothing more to seek, and be self- sufﬁcient. Moreover, if you step back and imitate the virtuous people of former times, I am afraid that you will not be able to be far apart from them. You vainly hold the two paths (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism) in hand. You alone are separate from the wonderful Dharma.

If we were to meet each other in a leisurely manner I would not have said anything from the beginning. My intention is not light; I simply show you what is in my mind. I will see you one of these days and discuss all of this in detail. Recently I wrote a two-fascicle work, the Explanation on Dispelling Delusions (Shizhi). I think you may have already seen it at some other place. I now send it and show it to you. If you have already read it, please send it back to me. I would be happy if there is no need for you to further trouble yourself [with it]. If you have not yet read it you should read through my intention for my sake. Originally I did not hope that other people would change their minds [by reading this]. It was written only to dispel my own doubts and delusions. When you read this you will surely clap your hands in glee.

I, Xiao Ziliang, have thus written.

Kong Zhigui’s Letters, together with [Prince Xiao’s]Answer

[Kong Zhigui’s (447–501) Letter]

I, Zhigui, explain.

I receive with respect your benevolent favor from early on. I have deeply enjoyed the instruction given by you together with great mercy. Thanks to your kindness I will assuredly complete my life. I dare to now show my sin- cerity and humbly pray to illuminate your mind.

My family has occupied a noble position for a long time, respectfully fol- lowing [the teaching of] Li Lao (i.e., Daoism). We set our minds to become void and calm and make our conduct pure and moderate. We tread upon all the depths of wholesomeness in our behavior and expect for the abode of the highest level of obedience in our minds. I revere and hold to the path my ancestors followed and cut off [deﬁlement] even as tiny as a speck of autumn dust. I still do not dare lose what my faith heads toward.

Regarding the brilliant teaching of the Great Awakened One and the right origin of transcendental wisdom, these are what I have come to respect in the course of my life. I have not been against them from the beginning. Usually when I infer the ultimate principle, [all] principles come to the same point. When I place them in the culmination of the ultimate law of nature, I see that the culmination of the ultimate law of nature does not hold more than one. Since the time I began to respectfully receive your instruction, I rely on and come close to your style. You guide me through the right vehicle (i.e., the right teaching), and lead me with the universal precepts. You caused me to promptly remove the six kinds of hindrances,238 and to precisely clarify the ﬁve desires. I reformed myself. I bow with my head to the ground and join my hands [in reverence]. I am willing to abide by this. I respectfully take refuge in [Buddhism]. I have pure faith from early on. Regarding the important precepts and minor articles, I have already observed half of them. The reason I have not converted to the [teaching of those who hold the three kinds of] robes and an almsbowl (i.e., Buddhism) and admire the teach- ing of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi is in fact based on my family profession. It would simply be unbearable for me to one day suddenly give up [Daoism]. There is an origin in the world of my mind. I do not wish to conceal myself with regret throughout the morning. Since the two teachings (i.e., Buddhism and Daoism) are almost the same, I originally do not dare be unwilling to transfer my mind [to Buddhism]. In fact, I truly praise the profession of my ancestors and simply cannot bear to give up the determination of my family. How could I not happily think of the Mahayana teaching and cordially make up my mind to pursue [the teaching of] the One Vehicle? Needless to say, I respectfully rely on you who equally govern propriety and morals. Further-

more, I must recite with reverence your pure faith.

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As to the preface to the Jingzhuzi (Jingxing Famen) that you wrote, you clarify the hearts of ten thousand gates [of teachings] and propagate the pro- found tenor of a hundred million sections. Even though I think to say some- thing against this, my mind is unconsciously infatuated with it. Further, I did not foresee the greatness of your skillful guidance was so wondrous. Exten- siveness and simplicity are arranged from point to point and the exquisite light shines out. Even if I intend to stop this, I am still unable to do so. Even if I did want to go against this how could I avoid facing it? Until now I was not intelligent indeed but from now on I will make it my business to practice your words.239

My silly mind just adheres to my family law. I dare not distinguish Śākya- muni from Laozi in my mind. For the ﬁrst time I made inquiries about the past of my family. We once clariﬁed the signiﬁcance [that Buddhism and Daoism are] related to each other. On one occasion, we taught this to Zhang Rong, who then wrote the Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin [of the Two Teachings] (Tongyuan lun). His [pseudonymous] name is Shaozi. What Shaozi clariﬁed [in the Discourse] is how to combine Daoism and Buddhism. [Zhang] Rong’s comprehension of this derives from my family. Since my family’s [view] is exactly so, how could I obstruct [that way]? In the beginning I hesitated to take this trace but now I always respect both [Buddhism and Daoism] from the bottom of my heart. On one hand, I have not vainly aban- doned [the teaching of] the Yellow Emperor and Laozi, but on the other I take refuge in [the teaching for] the right, perfect enlightenment.

I do not expect to suddenly attain great awakening one morning. [But if I am able to attain] awakening, it will be entirely owing to your guidance. I am extremely happy about this.

Sincerely yours.

[Kong Zhigui’s Second Letter]

I am writing to you.

Again, I have personally investigated how Daoism differs from Buddhism. [The difference] simply comes from the fact that [Daoism] does not completely discuss the ultimate. When Daoists discuss the ultimate they say that it exists in all the heavens, but Buddhists despise this [assertion] and say that it does not go beyond the three realms of existence. This is [the difference] between

the exquisite and the coarse, or between far and near. [If we see only from this point, Daoists] would really feel ashamed of themselves in the great sys- tem, but when we examine it the Daoist teaching establishes a stratagem, which is similar to the idea found in Confucius’ books, that the ultimate is only Heaven and Earth. This probably comes from the fact that what common people see are only the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth).

Teachings are originally based on the mind and are adaptable to all people. [Teachings] employ whatever people see, and then the people follow them. On the point of [people] following [a teaching], both [Buddhism and Daoism] make an exhaustive study of wondrous things. Therefore the “pair of bellows” mentioned by Laozi and the “non-self” spoken of by Vimalakīrti match Heaven and Earth in virtue.240 In the School of Changes there is the Grand Terminus.241 Based on the fact that people worship Heaven, this caused people to further worship what is even more wondrous. Accordingly, if there is a ground at the end of the ultimate, its profundity would certainly tower over Heaven. Laozi also says, “There was something undeﬁned and complete, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth.”242 This means that the Way already exists beyond Heaven. Rather, [Laozi] does not take Heaven as the Way. How is this different from the fact that in the Buddhist school an arhat is indicated as one who has attained the fourth fruition and yet, just as in the Shengman jing (Skt. Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanāda-sūtra), it is known that he still has more steps [to cultivate for enlightenment]? Daoists’ worship of the zenith of Heaven is similar to the Buddhists’ [notion of] the fruit of arhatship. The Buddhist intention is not limited to arhatship. The Daoist [intention] is not conﬁned to Heaven, either. Then and only then do I believe that what Daoists consider to be the Way is deﬁnitely connected with the Buddhist Way in origin. What my present mind relies on, then, follows the same direc-

tion as yours.

The Daoist school asserts abiding by wholesomeness. This is consequently the same as the Buddhist school. In the points common to both [Buddhism and Daoism] I do not carelessly abandon the Daoist teaching. In the points where Daoism differs [from Buddhism], I follow and join your Mahayana teaching. I beg you to dare not lay down a further difference [between Buddhism and Daoism] today.

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I truthfully keep [your instruction] in mind and stick to it. I have respect- fully written of my sincere view. I humbly wish for you to take notice of the penitence of an insigniﬁcant person [like me] and understand my initial posi- tion [as a follower of Daoism]. I will withdraw and repent of my initial [posi- tion]. I am in awe and reverence.

Sincerely yours.

[Kong Zhigui’s Third Letter]

On the twenty-ninth day of the eleventh month, a man of the province, Palace Aide to the Censor-in-chief Kong Zhigui explains.

I am very glad for a chance to completely express my thoughts. Originally reason is not dual. People make their choice from many paths, discuss with and criticize one another’s views, and so on. This is something I usually deplore, sighing. It is, however, proper if one is led to Daoism in the beginning. Those who are taught and learn [a teaching] cannot [understand this], but since you have extensively proven various Buddhist scriptures, I am not con- cerned that you will fall into and remain in that path. I will meet you one of these days and differentiate one from another.

[Prince Xiao’s Answer]

Prince Xiao’s answer says, “This letter from you is very good. You should show it widely to those who have not understood the point.”

The Letters of Two Dharma Teachers, Daoheng and Daobiao, Responding to Yao [Xing Zi]lüe, the Usurper Ruler of the Later Qin Dynasty, Who Exhorts Them to Give up the [Buddhist] Way, together with the Letters of the Ruler Yao

The Ruler Yao’s Letter Given to Two Eminent Monks, [Dao]heng and [Dao]biao

You are delighted with the tranquility of the essence of the Way. You keep the Dharma gate in mind and stick to it. Your immaculate integrity is truly commendable.

I, however, reign over the world and require talent to govern the nation. I desire to summon [able] people who live in sylvan seclusion with satisfaction and to search for [talented people] who live in obscurity at a butcher’s shop.

Needless to say, you two [Dharma teachers] seriously attend to [Buddhist practice]; I am already fully aware of this. Each of you receives the ability to manage the trend of the times, and yet hides yourself in a place to keep yourself clean and pure. Does this indicate the most genuine feeling with which I seek the wise and the deep interest by which you both propagate [the Buddhist teaching] together? The ancient people had a saying, “There is a very fast horse in the country but no one rides it, and the people only anxiously search for it.”243 This refers to us.

Today I will make an Imperial edict to Director of the Imperial Secretariat [Yao] Xian, in order to take up your meritorious minds of the two vehicles. Wouldn’t it be great for you to glorify the times and beneﬁt the world through the capacity of your spotless fame? If someone keeps the signiﬁcance of the [Buddhist] Way in mind, is it necessary for him to be a monk or layman? I hope you will understand my thoughts about this. You cannot make “to remain faithful to your principle” a good excuse.

[The Letter of Daoheng and Daobiao, Responding to Yao]

We respectfully received the Imperial decree dated the twenty-eighth day of the last month. You will make an Imperial edict to the Director of the Imperial Secretariat in order to take the Dharma robes from us, Daoheng and Daobiao. Since the moment we received the decree we have been sad in fear. We have lost our composure and are ashamed and bewildered in every action. There is nowhere to place ourselves.

We, [Dao]heng and [Daobiao], are truly stupid and incompetent in natural abilities and endowments. It has not been long since we were imbued with the Dharma. What we keep in mind is serious and our attachment to [the Dharma] is also deep. We humbly received the favorable edict in which we are praised above what we deserve. You make explanations, instructions, and encouragement for us. Even though you speak and reason in every pos- sible way, we really feel that we have no moment of ease.

We made a vow that throughout our lifetimes we will be under Dharma robes. Concurrently, we have been learning the Buddhist Dharma since our youth and we are not familiar with worldly affairs. If we vainly accept an extraordinary appointment we will end up having made no special achieve- ment. Even though we have a reputation for outstanding capability, we are

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useless to beneﬁt the times. Before seeing even a small amount of help there would be a loss as large as a mountain. We thus do not accept [your offer] for your sake, Your Majesty. Even Emperor Guangwu [of the Later Han dynasty] could allow the recluse Yan [Guang Zi]ling to think freely,244 and King Wen (i.e., Cao Pi) of the Wei kingdom kept Guan Ning’s moral principles intact.245 [In either case] the monarchs controlled their lofty ideas and let an ordinary person fulﬁll his triﬂing determination. Lenient with the masses, [the monarchs] were content; not to mention Your Majesty who manages the people by means of the [Buddhist] Way. You concurrently propagate the Three Treasures, gather scholars of philosophical principles from all over the world in the capital city, and circulate new and unfamiliar Buddhist scrip- tures in remote as well as near places. The great Dharma ﬂourishes and pros- pers upon this.

Now you certainly expound and propagate the magniﬁcent ediﬁcation, assist in clarifying [the teaching], and arouse its brightness. You have inherited the sound transmitted from Prince Jeta’s garden, and you fan the air that remains on Vulture Peak. You have established a model for the coming one thousand years as a path to guide future generations [toward enlightenment]. [Given all of this,] how could we, Daoheng and [Daobiao], alone submit to this bright time and be unable to appeal to you for our ambition?

We humbly pray that you will examine our intention, especially bestow the unrestrained principle which is understood by the less educated, grant a brilliant decree again, and concede our insigniﬁcant thought. Then we will bear our gratitude to you even in the underworld and appreciate your virtue, kalpa after kalpa. We cannot stand trembling with fear. We respectfully report to you.

[The Ruler Yao’s Response]

I examined your report, in which you gave a thorough account of your intention. The reason you have to submit to me now is because you are needed by the times. Do not come to this [conclusion] through pushing your true intention. Feel vexed about your politeness, expand your horizons, and respond to my interest. I think you both always have an experience [like this]. I will not grumble anymore. You are only expected to respectfully accept the current government order and make efforts to follow the bodhisattva path.

[The Second Letter of Daoheng and Daobiao]

We, Daoheng and [Daobiao], recently presented [our intention], hoping you would understand when you examined it. We again received your brilliant decree. We are not favored by your sympathy and benevolence. We humbly read it with sorrow and anxiety. We are nearly out of our minds. Your Majesty, your benevolence is as great as Heaven and Earth, and you cause the people to be delighted in their nature. We, [Dao]heng and [Daobiao], received training in Dharma ediﬁcation when we were young. What our stupid minds hope is that upon our oath, we will be able to complete our triﬂing lives in the Dharma robes. Nevertheless, you bestow on us undeserved favor, kindly forget our ignorance, and encourage us to propagate the bodhisattva way to save [all sentient beings] without distinction. There is, however, a limit to our deter- mination and power. This [appointment] is really something for which we are not adequate. [Our intention] is not only to excuse ourselves from [the appoint- ment] because we want to live [in a careless way] in our remaining years; we personally think that we must live up to what we foolishly keep in mind. We humbly pray that you will examine and excuse us for our wholehearted sincerity, and will not blame us for being stubbornly biased, grant us a special benevolent imperial decree, and accede to our triﬂing feelings. We repeatedly invite your brilliant decree, and accordingly gasp for breath in fear. We are overwhelmed by [the prospect of occupying] the highest [position] of the

common people.

We report with reverence to you again.

[The Ruler Yao’s Second Response]

I obtained your second report in which you give details. The situation is just as I explained thoroughly in my previous decree. You must open your minds and follow the current government order. Do not annoy me again and again!

[The Third Letter of Daoheng and Daobiao]

In our previous petition presented to the throne the issues to which we, Dao- heng and [Daobiao], hold with foolish intention have been thoroughly stated. But since our purity and sincerity are wanting we were unable to move and awaken Your Majesty’s mind. We repeatedly received an Imperial decree in

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reply [to our petition] but we have not been placed under your benevolence. We are anxious and fearful in our everyday life and our minds are not [restful]. Your Majesty cherishes the Way, you efface yourself and accept everything, and there is no limit to your support for the people. We pray that you will reveal your kindness [as vast as] Heaven and Earth and allow us to accomplish one-tenth of our determination. [We wish to be able to] keep the sincerity to which we adhere without fail until we die. If we take part in the offense of breaching an Imperial decree we will contentedly take responsibility for it without resentment. We frequently asked you to listen to our winding [inten- tion]. Consequently, we gasp for breath with fear. We cannot bear the feeling

of [committing] transgression [against you].

We report with reverence to you.

Report to the Throne by the Three Dharma Teachers Senglüe, Sengqian, and Kumārajīva, in Response to the Letters of the Ruler Yao, who Tried to Suspend [the Monkhood of Dao]heng and [Dao]biao, together with

the Ruler Yao’s Letters

The Ruler Yao’s Letter Given to Kumārajīva

Several tens of days have passed since I saw you last. My mind is carried back to the day [we met]. It is gradually getting warmer and warmer. How have you been these days? A petty savage tribe started hostilities in a remote area and there is no way to deal with them. I am simply confused in my mind. Everything is mournful. I need talented people in order to manage these things. Recently I issued an Imperial edict to Daoheng and [Daobiao] and ordered them to take off the robes for arhat and seek the bodhisattva’s trace. I think that they are simply hesitating. The Way exists everywhere. You, Dharma teacher, must persuade them. If I only mean to cause them to give up their minds of seeking the Way, why would it be necessary for me to do this (i.e.,

summon them to join the administration)?

Please convey my best wishes to Holy Priest [Seng]qian. How has he been since I saw him last? I do not know how Superintendent [Seng]lüe has been, either. Since I have too many things to do I am not able to write in

detail. [Dao]heng and [Daobiao] may trouble all holy priests. Please persuade them and cause them to advance in the bodhisattva practice.

The Ruler Yao’s Letter Given to Sengqian and Others

I examined what you have presented in your letter, which gives a detailed account of each matter. I think that the virtue of self-righteousness is not as good as the merit of saving both oneself and others, and to remain faithful to one’s own principle is not as great as to deliver the people [from suffering]. [Yan Guang] Ziling emulated Emperor Guangwu, [Yan] Junping was arrogant in a marketplace of Shu,246 Zhou Dang refused a stipend from the Han court,247 and Du Wei told Zhuge [Liang] (i.e., Kongming) that he was deaf.248 All these people stubbornly esteemed righteousness. How sufﬁcient are they to judge the essential points [and determine] whether to be silent or to speak out, and to understand the tenor of loftiness and excellence?

At present China is not governed well and the common people have hardships. Having little virtue, I alone try to deal with this bad situation. I expect to ﬁnd many talented people with whom I might peacefully have the highest level of administration. Even though you Dharma teachers have a quiet concentrated mind in the Dharma gate, you also assist the world and propagate the teaching. Even if you were unable to lead people, edify the times, encourage the people, or manage the state, you praise Xu You, who refused the world in a remote time, and esteem Xie Fu, who had disheveled hair [and resigned from worldly affairs] in the recent past. If the nine tributary streams of the Yellow River overﬂowed and all the people were to become ﬁsh, how could you Dharma teachers, who assist the world and propagate the teaching, apply [your current way]?

Furthermore, for a long time Daoheng and [Daobiao] have kept the instruc- tions of the Dharma in mind. Moreover, their talents are useful enough to help accomplish worldly affairs. Therefore, I simply wish to remove their determination against their will in order to assist my ignorance in adminis- tration. If there is a manifestation of meritorious reward [for good conduct] and if the Buddha does not lie, then regarding the achievement of delivering the world from an emergency and the honor of beneﬁting the times and peace- fully governing the country, the merit exists here [in this existence], not over there [in the afterlife]. You should instruct and explain this to each other in order to meet my hopes.

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Report to the Throne by Senglüe, Sengqian, Kumārajīva, and Others Requesting [the Ruler Yao] to Cease Removing

[Dao]heng and [Dao]biao from the [Buddhist] Way249

We hear that in the highest [governance] people are educated by means of the Way and the people personally take this to be positive, and in the second best a person of virtue governs the world. Therefore brilliant monarchs of ancient times discerned that it is difﬁcult to govern if they go against nature, and they became aware of the reason it is easy to let the people conduct affairs without restriction. Thus, Yao freed Xu You in Mount Ji, Ling (i.e., Lord Wen of Wei state) allowed [Duan] Ganmu to retire to his hermitage in Wei state,250 the founder of the Han dynasty released the four bright men to Mount Zhongnan,251 Shudu (i.e., Huang Xian) was summoned for the government during the Han dynasty and yet declined,252 Zai Kui of the [Eastern] Jin dynasty put on coarse clothes in Shan county [in order to avoid the king of Wuling’s summon],253 and Xie Fu became a recluse on Mount Ruoye with disheveled hair. They probably considered that following the nature of the wise is virtuous. Therefore, there are a wise ruler above and those who wear a leather girdle (i.e., common people) below. The manners of hermits give a lesson today.

Regarding Daobiao and [Dao]heng, their virtue is not perfect and prominent now, and their lot lies in remaining faithful to their principle. Furthermore, they learned the profound ediﬁcation when they were young and they keep the Buddhist Way in mind and maintain it. They are earnestly sincere and their determination is certainly ﬁrm, without agitation. As for expounding the subtle Buddhist scriptures and studying what is obscure, they are sufﬁcient to enlighten even children and to help edify [people] about merit. When one can cause people to discern what is evil and what is meritorious, he has the beneﬁt to deliver them from suffering. If the Buddha does not lie, [Dao]biao and [Daobiao] are propagating the teaching [of Vimalakīrti] of Vaiśālī.

We personally heard that recently [Daoheng and Daobiao] often received a favorable Imperial decree that aimed to take the Dharma robes from them. This is like removing feathers from kingﬁshers perching upon a wintry tree branch, or illuminating lotus ﬂowers under a thick ice. This indeed indicates

Your Majesty’s benevolence and friendliness; you spread kindness that is uncommon in the world. Certainly we, [Seng]lüe and other monks, will remem- ber this with tender feelings. We personally have a foolish thought: we think that Your Majesty shakes the rope of morals in order to maintain the whole wide world and spread the net of the nine kinds of virtues in order to catch the world. You fan the profound air before the future millennium and mold love and justice for countless future generations. Even beings outside the universe are moved by your pure virtue and are widely ediﬁed [by you]. Within China people make free use of the profound ferry [to enlightenment] and enjoy a free and leisurely life. Ordinary people have no bitterness due to dying in the gutter and widows do not lament stopping weaving [because of the lack of the] woof [thread]. This is really why you bestow the good ediﬁcation within the country and why [the people in the country] respectfully rely on you.

We, foolish monks, think that although [Dao]heng and [Dao]biao are insigniﬁcant individuals and differ a little from others in maintaining their views, they are originally within your net; that is to say, they are subjects for whom Your Majesty ediﬁes the Way.

Formerly Bei assisted in governing the world for twelve years. We have not heard that his Dharma robe was taken away and he [heeded] worldly opin- ions about his appearance.254 If a person is helpful for the times he will greatly beneﬁt [the world] even if he wears a Buddhist surplice (Skt. kaṣāya). Why is it necessary to take away [the Dharma robes from Daoheng and Daobiao]? Buddhist monks and secular people differ from each other in terms of their aptitude. In former times Chao[fu] and [Xu] You upheld their high principles, both Yao and [Xu] You were lofty, and the four bright men [of the Qin dynasty] did not surrender to [the founder of the Han dynasty]. [In these cases] the ruler and the ruled are all equally good. This is the same principle throughout all ages and has been the common manner for one hundred generations. Moreover, [Daoheng and Daobiao] are not as virtuous as Guan Zhong.

They do not deserve having a magniﬁcent carriage [as Guan Zhong had] in the Tangfu village.255 They are not as intelligent as [Zhuge] Kongming. Would they be good enough to receive three calls at the thatched cottage [in the way that Kongming was visited by Liu Bei]?

We pray that Your Majesty will bestow bygone favors on them and comply with their triﬂing determination. If a ruler does not give too much kindness

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and the ruled do not lose their lot, the ediﬁcation of Emperor Tang (i.e., Yao) will reemerge here and the guests near the Ying River and under Mount Ji (i.e., Chaofu and Xu You) will appear again today.

We, [Seng]lüe and his fellow monks, are ignorant, yet we foolishly present this petition of honest words [to the Throne]. We are afraid of offending your dignity and we gasp in fear afterward.

Senglüe and his fellow monks speak.

The Letter of Dharma Teacher Huiyuan of Mount Lu in Response to Huan Xuan, Who Urges that [Huiyuan] be Removed from

the [Buddhist Way], together with Huan Xuan’s Letter

Huan Xuan’s (369–404) Letter

The ultimate Way is far and remote. The Buddhist principles are subtle and profound. How could this be what ordinary people, who spend time idly, can learn and seek? A śramaṇa leaves behind his affection for his family members of the six relations, disﬁgures his appearance, abstains from delicious food, wears coarse clothes fastened with a rope belt, lives in a mountain resting his head on rocks, separates from worldly affairs eternally, all in the hope that he might have just a bare moment [to attain buddhahood] for a hundred generations. [Nevertheless,] Buddhist monks of the present world, even though they disﬁgure their appearance, have more [worldly desires] than secular people. What they talk about is the boundary between the Buddhist clergy and secular people. It can be said that they are similar to the man who tried to learn the art of walking at Handan [but forgot his original way of walking] and [ﬁnally] crawled back home from there.256 A sage of former times had a saying, “While you do not know life, how can you know about death?”257 [Buddhist monks,] however, torment their bodies and minds throughout their lifetimes and seek the imperceptible happiness of the nether world. This is all a narrow view. They have not mastered the great ediﬁcation. If they get lost and yet recognize [the need] to return, they will not be far from the right path. They have to consider this well. The movement of Heaven does not let a person stay at a standstill. We will quickly become old [if we waste

time]. It is too late to try to recover [one’s youth]. I confer these few words of the utmost importance for you. I will be happy if you can accept my words.

Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan’s Response

The Great Way is profound and its principles are abstruse. I cherish this lofty purpose, which is really as you say. Nevertheless, I have renounced the world; accordingly I am a guest from outside this world. Even though I have not fulﬁlled the virtue of ancient wise people, I am earnestly determined [to seek enlightenment], remove worldly clothing and dress, decline fame, and seek truth. If the other world exists I originally and certainly do not fall short of secular people [in studying it]. [Judging from] my outward appearance, I may seem incomplete [in my determination], but in my mind I have the ﬁrmest determination that could cut metal. It can be said that even though you see the appearance [of Buddhist monks] you have not yet come to the truth [behind it]. How sad this is! How sad this is!

[Those who wear coarse clothes] fastened with a rope belt and [who live in the mountains] resting their heads on rocks are [simply hermits]: they look majestic but they are unsubstantial. They are people of a narrow view, not worthy of envy. Even though they discipline their original nature in mountains and forests, how different are they from trees and shrubs? The Way exists in the mind but they falsely consider reﬁning the body to be the true Way. Bian He wept aloud on Mount Jing because he was troubled by the fact that people could not distinguish [ jade from stone].258 Formerly we heard the name [of Bian He] and now we see a person [like this]. Therefore, Zhuangzi sighed in lament and said, “Man’s life between Heaven and Earth is like a white colt passing by a crevice, [brieﬂy glimpsed and then it suddenly disap- pears].”259 Examining this, who would be able to stay [in this world] for a long time? Shouldn’t you make merit for your future life?

You mentioned that a person who learned the art of walking at Handan had no achievement in the new [style of walking] and lost his original way [of walking], so he employed a man of Handan and crawled back to his home- town. [You also noted] that in a hundred generations there is only a moment [to attain buddhahood]. How can you mix these [two analogies] together to lead to your point?

75b

I already go against worldly affairs. I temporarily place myself amid pop- ular customs because among them I would like to edify those who have not yet been ediﬁed. Even though one receives favors [from the emperor] and becomes arrogant, how can he deal with doubt and deﬁlement [in his mind]? [Temporal] glory of one’s lifetime is as momentary as a ﬂash of lightning. Whenever things meet, they [eventually] come to part. It is not worthwhile to be greedy. People of shallow views are confused on this point. It can be said that “The scholars of the lowest class, when they hear about the Way, have a great laugh at it.”260 They can really be said to be people who are con- fused and do not know how to return [to the right path].

My body is no better than others’ and my talent does not meet the require- ments of the world. Therefore, I disﬁgure my humble appearance (i.e., shave my head) and wear patchwork clothes (Skt. vastraccheda). In reason my mind has been unable to deeply meet the profound ediﬁcation, but nonetheless I keep the institution established by the Great Sage for a long time. How could I give up my original ambition and realize your lofty instruction? I am growing old with the passing of time and I have not recovered from illness. You then graciously bestowed on me your brilliant consolation. I have mingled feelings of appreciation and joy. Oh, our donor (Skt. dānapati)! Your faith is deep and you serve as one to whom the great Dharma entrusts itself. How could you cause even a single wound and damage the foundation [of the great Dharma]? [Your statement] is not the words of Pāpīyas, [the devil king,] who tried to distract [the Buddha’s determination]. My expression is poor and I have little knowledge. I did my best to respond to your lofty order. Now this is simply my intention to not go against [your expectations].

The Letters of Dharma Teacher Sengyan to Decline the Provincial Governor of Qingzhou Liu Shanming’s Recommendation for the Official Appointment of the Cultivated Talent (Xiucai), together with

Liu Shanming’s Responses

[The Letter of Dharma Teacher Sengyan]

I renounced the world in my youth and separated from secular affairs from my early years. I enjoy myself with the Buddhist teaching in my mind

and in my determination I have turned my back on the Confucian teaching. Even though I have not accorded with the place where the Buddhist Way is practiced I am originally far from the instruction of [Confucius, who was born near] the Zhu River. I am just now thinking to feed my body to a beast, hoping to achieve the merit (i.e., the attainment of buddhahood) beyond nine kalpas,261 and to share my ﬂesh to feed a dove, intending to ride on clouds [beyond the four seas]. How could I let my wings hang down in the middle of agricultural land, turn back the path [I have come] toward the place of conﬁnement, give up the comfort of being in this path, and hold these nui- sances of the Imperial court in my arms?

Moreover, ofﬁcials are [selected] based on [their good] ability, and good talent is certainly necessary for ofﬁcial ranks. There has not been a case where someone who is favored by an undeserved recommendation can main- tain his glory to the end. Therefore, I respectfully return the order to you and I pray that you will withdraw the excessive favor. Please do not cause me to make you sigh in lamentation again, just as Lord [Cao, who lamented the talented people who had declined his rewards], and do not make me feel ashamed of myself once more, just as Wang Zhou did. The summons for replacement of the Cultivated Talent is not something for which I am ﬁt.

I, Shi Sengyan, present this.

[Liu Shanming’s] Response to the Buddhist Monk Sengyan

The book Zhuangzi explains that it is a mistake to leave one’s native place in his youth.262 A Buddhist scripture depicts the confusion of a poor son [who does not know how to return to his father].263 Every time I read these books I heave a long sigh.

It is important to respectfully care for our own hair and skin, to become famous in future history, and to reverently make [the names of our forebears] well known. I will humbly make [one’s family name] widely known. When we seek sacred words far away, this teaching (i.e., Buddhism) is superlative. When I apply the various familiar matters to me, the reality confuses my rea- son and feeling. If Gautama were to see this he would not oppose [my obser- vations] indeed. Moreover, you possess skill in debating and arguing others down over triﬂing points and knowledge to penetrate ancient and modern times. If you tear my cap and do not doubt, or if you pull out my root and

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are not aware of it,264 [beings of] the nether world will be surprised and people in both distant and near regions will be startled.

In ancient times Lü Shang (i.e., Taigong Wang) held a ﬁshing rod at the age of eighty and set his mind on ﬁshing. This is because his time had not yet come. You have not yet come to drown and perish. I simply hope that you will be able to have as many good points as other people have. If you do not do so, wouldn’t that be sad?

I am grateful to have been appointed to an ofﬁce in my native place, where I hope to ﬁnd bright people who live in obscurity. I will recommend them to the Imperial court. They will certainly put their talents and virtue to the best use. Therefore I would like to lead those who have not been led and cause those who have not risen [in the world] to rise. Many of the things you said in your letter are contradictory to your true intention. If you were to make an absurd statement would this be what I expect?

Formerly Wang Xiang [of the Jin dynasty] was a woodman at [Lin]yi and, at the age of sixty, for the ﬁrst time he assented to a provincial order.265 Gong- sun Hong [of the Former Han dynasty] pastured pigs on a beach. When he already had gray hair he was only then recommended to serve in the central government as a wise man from a local school. He ﬁnally attained the rank of prime minister, had an audience with the emperor, and improved the sit- uation of the world.266 His way was luxuriant in those days and his reputation has been transmitted for a long time. What do you think about this? I respect- fully declare my true thoughts and feelings. Please reconsider [my request].

I, Liu Jun reply to you.

Sengyan’s Second Letter in Response [to Liu Shanming]

You again gave me a gracious instruction!

An excellent purpose again descended upon me. You give the Zhuangzi in evidence and invoke a Buddhist scripture. The basis of your theory is bright. When I wish to yield to the principles [of the Zhuangzi and the Buddhist scrip- ture] and argue with my feelings I merely have no ground. Even though lofty righteousness appears as a phenomenon and subtle words enter into mind, things in which my despicable mind persists can be still understood.

The reason is because one who knows people is wise and one who exam- ines oneself is intelligent. I truly feel uneasy if I were to forget my lot and

rush on recklessly. Formerly Wei Zhi complied with an order and had the humiliation of losing his reputation at last, and Zun Zu was invited for service because of his ability and in the end he invited disgrace like that of the swan who tried to perch on a willow branch.267 If I forget my lot and intend to imitate them (i.e., Wei Zhi and Zun Zu) in order to follow the traces of Wang [Xiang] and Lü [Shang], I am afraid that I will be like [the carp that failed to ascend a waterfall and become a dragon,] exposed its gills at Longmen, and injured its forehead many times. The ability [to steal] is the same crime as [actually] stealing things. To recommend an incapable person results in both the recommender and the recommended being simultaneously despised. Shouldn’t we refrain from this?

Moreover, “They say, ‘It is according to the rules of propriety,’” but this does not mean only gems and silk by propriety.268 Is the practice ﬁlial piety limited to maintaining only one’s own skin? Therefore, even if [King Sivi] cut his own ﬂesh [in order to save a dove], no one jeered at him in former ages, and even if he had his hair cut he still had the chance to join [the administration of the state] in the past. This likely means that even if one were to cut off his own hand, if he preserves the rest of his body perfectly, what he has kept is great [indeed]. Why is this strange? I pray that you will pardon my foolish per- sistence and grant a favor to allow me to achieve my humble ambition.

I, Shi Sengyan, present this.

[Liu Shanming’s] Second Response

I received a letter from you again. I see for the ﬁrst time your deep ideas. Your clear realization can be said [to cause] both sides to look at each other and smile. You have the knowledge to examine many currents [of teachings] and the wisdom to embrace the innermost of principles. Every time you investigate the source of the relationship between [people’s] receptivity and [the Buddha’s] responsive activity, you look for a theory as thoroughly as if you were sorting stones. Why don’t you always come to the point in every sentence and clearly see the foundation of the principles? Furthermore, if your humility makes you more brilliant, you go against the manner of yielding a seat to the wise. You are just like someone who follows an overturned chariot and has no regret about falling in its tracks.269 While it is not difﬁcult to recognize this, it is not easy to practice it.

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Three years after a person leaves his country he is happy when he sees someone who looks like a member of his family. Isn’t it sad that he left his hometown such a long time ago? Today, if you make a vow to let go of the heavy burden [as a Buddhist monk] from your shoulders and sit idly, you will feel like giving up being a traveler and returning home. You will ascertain good aspects of brotherly love and deepen good relations to the nine degrees of your kin. You will go to the gate of your house joyfully and enjoy great happiness. Moreover, this is a time when the civilization controls the move- ments of Heaven, just as when the Duke of Zhou and Lord Zhao mutually helped in political affairs; thinking of wise people and praising the Way, they forgot to take a meal until the evening came. If you use your talent, enlarge your virtue, put on gems, make yourself known at the court, wear a luxurious robe, and awaken the people of distant areas, then your achievements will beneﬁt ways of the world and you will become famous after you die. How is it possible to talk [of such merits] at the same level with the disgrace of shaving one’s head and the suffering of being a bachelor?

We have worked sedulously in deﬁance of hardships; we have wished for a long time to train our deep determination. If I hide a wise man like Zhan Qin [of Lu state], I will be reproached for being as disloyal as Zang [Wen Zhong].270 Therefore, I have done my best to quickly inscribe this in my mind and explain it again in my response. I am in the last years of my life; time does not wait. You should make effort; and do not end up with bitter regrets.

I, Liu Jun, reply to you.

Sengyan’s Third Letter

The issue I wrote about the other day should have somehow caused you to have fun, and I did not think your favorable purpose was that profound. I have often received a letter from you. Your kindness to encourage and instruct me extends this much. Before I humbly read [your letter] completely I broke into a cold sweat. My despicable determination is unimportant and was expressed in my previous letter. Moreover, even in the prime of life I was still not as good as others. Now I have already grown old. How can I now do something [signiﬁcant]?

If an elderly man commands others and accomplishes tasks, he is given special powers by the Green God [who takes charge of spring (i.e., rejuvenation)].

Someone who acts for him will fail the task. In assisting an outstanding person who ascends the throne or helping a leader who overturns a dynasty in order to establish his own dynasty, if you intend to place the shadow of a farmer of the east land or an old water-drawer man of the west garden on the side of the glory of former times and get them involved in following the tracks of ancient people, then this would be no different from whipping an old, worn-out horse’s legs in order to make [the horse] equal to Hualiu [which could gallop a thousand li in one day], or from binding a pheasant of the marshes in order to make a pair with a phoenix or crane. These are beyond comparison. Do you need to wait to examine this deeply?

Formerly Zitai (i.e., Tian Chou) obeyed [Liu Yu’s] order and held his prin- ciple against Gongsun [Zan].271 Yu [Rang], who lacquered his body, took revenge upon [Viscount Xiang of Zhao state] on behalf of Zhibo [of Jin state] and had no regrets about ruining himself.272 My virtue that you excessively praise today is as good as those of the two wise men. I really regret to say that my time draws near [to the end just as the sun approaches] Mount Yanzi [where it sets], and my life [is coming to the end] as quickly as the Meng and Fan Rivers ﬂow. Swallowing charcoal [as Yu Rang did for revenge] or deserting to the enemy camp [as Zitai did] are eternally far from my wish. Facing letter paper, I felt sad. I did not know what to express. I would be happy if you can stop your excessive favor of me. Please do not write back to me again.

I, Shi Sengyan, present this.

[Liu Shanming’s] Third Response

When you talk about Heaven and Earth your feelings are [as bright as] a mirror. When you grasp a writing brush and write a letter, your wisdom and thought enter [the letter] deeply. Nevertheless, you lost the root of reason when you were young, and now move unsteadily, losing the course when you have gray hair. I value highly your talent. Therefore I always sigh in lamentation. Even though your mind is above the clouds your body remains in a pit in the ground. Since you form a group with titmice I am afraid that you will lose the beauty of a phoenix ( yuezhuo). Therefore I acted in accor- dance with formal propriety in inviting scholars for service. Compromise [your integrity] and comply with my recommendation for service in which we have a relationship between guest and host. You deigned to write to me

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three times and I have replied to you twice. Even if you are modest and ﬁrmly decline [my recommendation] with the excuse of your old age, I consider your virtue to be exactly “penetrating (i.e., the assemblage of excellences)” and great good fortune.273 If you are not able to lessen your determination you should ﬂy around in the air, choose a perch, rest on a Chinese parasol tree, and eat bamboo seeds indeed.274 Why is it worthwhile [for you] to descend for a despicable order and an unimportant summons? I respectfully defer to your clean breeze and reverently follow what you esteem. From the beginning our intentions oppose each other. I decided [to give up the recom- mendation but] I am still ashamed of myself [for this decision] and concerned for you.

I, Liu Jun, reply to you.

End of Fascicle Eleven of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Twelve

[The Collection for] the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism] I have compiled is a complete collection of discourses to protect the Dharma. More- over, the reason I have cited written reports and petitions to superiors and emperors is because the issues are serious.

When I make an inquiry, I see that once śramaṇas renounce the world they are not bound by worldly dignities and emoluments. Since the time of the Han and Wei periods successive distinguished sages (i.e., rulers) all extended their greetings [to śramaṇas] and no ruler requested them to bow before him. Nevertheless, Lord Yu [Liang of the Eastern Jin dynasty] monop- olized power and absurdly gave rise to heterodoxy. Huan [Xuan] doubted the brilliant [teaching] (i.e., Buddhism) and followed Yu’s groundless views. If Lord He [Chong] had not said that [śramaṇas should not bow to kings], the Dharma would have been hidden eternally. If Virtuous Master [Hui]yuan had not argued about [this issue], practical works of the [Buddhist] sangha would have suddenly come to an end. When I look at what has happened in the past and have regrets, why shouldn’t I make a compilation [of discussions] about [the issue that śramaṇas do not have to bow to kings]?

The section of gu lines (guyao) of the Book of Changes says, “not to serve either king or feudal lord.”275 The “Chapter on Scholars’ Behaviors” (Ruxing) of the Book of Rites says, “not to take the high ofﬁce of being a minister of the son of Heaven.”276 Among the four classes of people (i.e., scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants) in the secular world, there are people who do not bow [to kings], not to speak of those who abandon secular life and follow the [Buddhist] Way. How can they be adomonished to pay the vassal homage to kings? [This problem], therefore, does not exist during happy and bright times, yet frequently emerges in a time of decadence.

Regarding [Dao]heng and [Dao]biao, who declined [Yao] Lüe’s [sum- mons], and Eminent [Hui]yuan, who rejected [Huan] Xuan’s [offer], [the actions of] all [these monks] were assuredly not to make a display of their eccentricity but they are adequate to sincerely encourage [other Buddhists]. The Essentials [for Believing in] the Dharma and Sunshine are discourses

175

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to awaken secular people. The hermits’ three written appeals are also state- ments made in order to destroy devils.277 Therefore I also include them in [this work].

Letter Given to Shi Daoan by Xi Zaochi

On the ﬁfth day of the fourth month of the third year of Xingning (365), I, Zaochi (or Zuochi), bow my head to the ground and worship (Skt. vandana). I hear that you, the arhat, follow the right [path], you are smart and cheerful, your merciful instruction shines upon us equally, and Buddhist clergy and laypeople are equally indebted to you. Those who believe in emptiness realize the tenet of impermanence, and those who preserve themselves in the phe- nomenal world master the expedient of having a transient body. The cool breeze adorns China. The voice of the fabulous luan bird encourages [people] all over the world. You have deep taste and a far-seeing plan. What is as glo-

rious as these?

I, your disciple, hear that what causes rainfall throughout the whole world before the dawn are the clouds that ﬁll the sky, and what spreads from the source and moistens the universe are the four great rivers. The [clouds] simply bring rainfall spontaneously and all things in the universe rely on its beneﬁts. Even though this is originally an unintentional work, lands both high and low receive moisture. Moreover, [the Buddha,] sympathizing with [all the sentient beings of] the world, descended to this world and, feeling pity for the times, was reborn. [All sentient beings] owe their beginning to him. [This fact] is related with [his activity,] delivering sentient beings [to the yonder shore]. Clarifying the Way lies in training secular people. [The Buddha] rides a carriage free from suffering in order to go to an immensely far place. He has the vehicle of a transient body prepared in order to respond to requests from the ten directions. Moreover, he is able to obtain enough gems to embel- lish an entire mountain and enough ice to freeze a whole gorge. Even if [the Buddha] obtains a view of Mount Langfeng (i.e., the immortals’ abode), he does not desert the Buddhist rules of conduct. How could he be someone who rejects this world and would not teach [people] the way to salvation? Furthermore, it has been more than four hundred years since the great teaching was transmitted to the East (i.e., China). Among feudal kings and

unemployed scholars there were occasionally those who believed in [Buddhism], but traditional Chinese teachings were practiced in primeval times before [the introduction of Buddhism]. Even though reason changed with the lapse of time, not all people in the secular world were awakened. Those who took delight in the great wave (i.e., Buddhism) were only scholars of the lowest class.

Only Emperor Ming, Suzu [of the Eastern Jin dynasty (r. 322–325)], is truly one upon whom Heaven bestowed virtue. For the ﬁrst time he respected this Way (i.e., Buddhism). He drew the Tathāgata’s countenance with his own hands and appreciated the purpose of samādhi by chanting. His practice in compliance with the precepts he had received was more rigorous than that of a hermit in a mountain cavern. His profound foundation reaches the state of nonarising. Since the Great Mass [of Nature] (i.e., Emperor Ming) has already chanted, just as myriad apertures began howling,278 all wise people and gentlemen take refuge in the ultimate Way of nature (i.e., Buddhism). Even though the sun and moon are far away, the light gets brighter. There is no time when the practice of the [Buddhist] Way ﬂourished more than now. Isn’t this like “Moonlight Boy (Skt. Candraprabha) will ﬁrst enter the tranquil state and then be reborn in China”279 or “the mysterious bowl will move to the east and suddenly produce an effect in this place”?280

In addition, I hear that three thousand monks who attained the Way are all in Nanyang (present-day Henan province) and the bodhisattva of brilliant learning (i.e., Daoan, 312–385) expounds words of mystic truth and ediﬁes them. In the upper level I examine the instructions to attain the stage of a sage, and in the lower level I survey the effects of Buddhist practice. Who else but you could uphold all these profound sutras? I cherish the [Buddhist] Way in my mind and make effort to practice the teaching. Who [except you] would descend to lodge here? Therefore, all Buddhist monks in this region admire you wholeheartedly. They rejoice to see the golden-hued auspicious [image of the Buddha] and wish to hear the supreme admonitions. Both old and young equally wish for this, and Buddhist clergy and laypeople think in the same way. Their feelings of deep admiration are not expressed in ordinary ways. If auspicious clouds move to the east, if a maṇi gem rotates and shines, if you even once ascend the seat of the seven treasures, if even for a short time you show the sage’s lamp, if you cause nectar to rain on the grass that

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grows thick, and if you plant sandalwood trees on a riverbank then the Tathā- gata’s teaching will again be revered today and the profound waves and out- standing sounds will cleanse this generation once again.

I cannot hesitate any more so I decided to write and convey my thoughts.

How can I fully express what I have harbored in my mind?

I, your disciple Xi Zaochi of Xiangyang, bow with my head to the ground and worship.

(Yu Chan’s preface to the Hymn for the Hall of Happy Wise People [Lexian tang song] also says that Emperor Ming, Suzu, was very fond of the Buddhist Way and copied a wonderful portrait [of the Tathāgata] with his own hands.)

The Letter of the King of [Nan]qiao to Discuss Confucius

and Śākyamuni281

In Buddhism, in regard to evil acts and meritorious deeds, the relationship between cause and effect is just like that between [a form] and its shadow or between a sound and its echo. The sacred words are clear and precise and cause the people to feel their blood run cold. Nevertheless, from ancient times—the eras of the Five Thearchs, the Three Augusts, Emperor Wen (of the Han dynasty), Emperor Wu, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius—the Reg- ulations (dian), Counsels (mo), Instructions (xun), and Announcements (gao) have been completely provided. There is, however, nothing that gives a clear account of the law of the three periods of existence or that clearly describes reward and retribution. All of the sages [mentioned above] exhaustively probed the very root of the truth, discerned thoroughly [every] nature, and clearly understood what cause phenomena. How is it possible to see without compassion that people are driven into or drowned in [delusion] yet be unwill- ing to help them, and to have never spoken even a single word to instruct on the path to the ferry [to enlightenment]?

Furthermore, [Confucius] angled but did not use a net. He shot, but not at birds perching.282 However, when fattened cows and sheep and plump pigs are offered, the Supreme Thearch receives them. From this viewpoint, it is probably difﬁcult to understand [the laws of the three periods of existence and of reward and retribution]. I hope you will explain the gist [of these con- cepts] and relieve me of my delusions with clear evidence.

Zhang Xin’an’s Response

I look again at your profound meaning, which is not a shallow teaching. I humbly think I am still immature. I bow and offer this insigniﬁcant reply to you. I personally think that to successfully reach [the Buddhist Way] is achieved through one’s receptivity [to the Buddha’s responsive activity], and to cross over to enlightenment is accomplished through availing oneself of [causes and] conditions. If we are indeed weak in [creating] good causes we will

give rise to delusions as vast as the Milky Way.

From old days, to wait to be questioned is compared to a bell when it is struck,283 and in order to awaken people we wait for them to be anxious to explain themselves or eager to get knowledge. One who is awakened to what is mysterious or who probes into the very root of the truth is a sage or deity whose light shines throughout the eight directions. He can see the nine provinces (i.e., China) in an instant. Nevertheless, we live at a time when the human life span is only a hundred years. If what is profound (i.e., enlight- enment) is myriads of kalpas away, isn’t it that the good conditions [for enlightenment] have not [yet] been established and, accordingly, there is no truthfulness in the ediﬁcation of karma? Therefore the holy spirits [of Con- fucianism] did not make the track and nothing regarding this issue was recorded in the cause of truth. It is impossible to clearly seek for the ultimate point of reason and indicate the ultimate principle. What is subtle manifests, gently completes, and secretly moves to a far and high place.

“To be fond of life,” [as is said in the Book of History,] is the origin of [the law of] the three periods of existence.284 The phrase “to accumulate wholesomeness” [found in the Book of Changes] follows in the same wake of [the law of] reward and retribution.285 The fact that [Confucius did not use] a net [for ﬁshing and did not shoot at perching birds] shows his benev- olence. [The expression] “[spring] hunting and [summer] hunting” [found in the Zuozhuan] propagates honesty.286 Since the people have been gradually imbued with these teachings and became familiar with them, stinginess and deﬁlement has lessened day by day. Then the [Buddhist] Way reached the brilliant Han dynasty. The teaching spread during the Yongping era (58–75). The people had no doubt [about the teaching] and bowed to it just as grass sways in the wind. We know precisely that in the age of Fang[xun] (i.e., Yao)

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and [Zhong]hua (i.e., Shun) [Buddhism] was still not clear, and [this teaching] was not apparent in the time of King Wen and King Xuan [of the Zhou dynasty]. It is not the case that [Confucianism and Buddhism] take different paths because their purposes are separate from each other. Presumably their doctrines are equal, yet both were frustrated.

Who can make a forced interpretation of your deep and profound thought through a range of careless words? [Probably] I have absurdly made an erro- neous statement because I am careless, ambitious, and too hasty.

Letter Given to Meditation Master [Huiyi] to Discuss the Manner of Eating

while Squatting with Raised Heels by Zheng Daozi

Sages’ instructions are [intended] to cultivate the basis and remove nonessen- tials. They establish teachings in accordance with people’s minds and ﬁt [the teachings] for practical use on the basis of actualities. There has not been [a teaching] that greatly ediﬁes the people while opposing human nature and disregarding the human body.

Even though [śramaṇas] appear different from secular people and their task keeps aloof from the world, regarding the rule of paying respect and the courtesy of yielding politely, bowing with one’s hands folded in front: these [actions] come from one’s most sincere heart and there is no difference between Buddhist clergy and laypeople [in this regard]. Therefore, when [Buddhist monks] perform puriﬁcation and give a series of lectures, they prepare the Dharma robe. There is an order in worship and a system in sequence. When respect ﬁlls one’s mind a person pays respects outwardly. [The Chinese manner of] bowing with one’s head to the ground [is approved of, while] the [Buddhist] manner of squatting with raised heels is not. The [Chinese] manner of pulling the lapels of the garments together, respectfully saluting, and bowing ten times is not something with which the easy, informal sitting style practiced by Buddhists is concerned. [Śramaṇas,] however, consider the manner of eating while squatting with raised heels to be [advantageous] for mental function, and that abandoning [Chinese] deport- ment is [advisable] for teaching and leading ordinary people of the secular

world. Here, facts and reason go against each other. I do not see a common aspect in them.

In the teachings of phenomena, each [teaching] has signiﬁcance. With regard to the Banzhou [sanmei] (Skt. Pratyutpanna-buddha-saṃmukhā- vasthita-samādhi), the body is tormented in order to maintain the [Buddhist] Way. [A practitioner] dear to the [Buddhist] Way neglects his body. There is a reason for practicing in this way and a basis for employing [this practice]. In the instruction on the manner of eating while squatting with raised heels, there is nothing to propagate in reason. Even if we employ [this manner] it is not [a practice] to torment the body. If we [practice] passively we pass on contempt to the later world. One who sees the manner but does not reach its essence loses his feeling to pay respect and expresses surprise and disdain. Is this the principle that sages establish teachings on the basis of actualities, and that the ceremonial caps [of the Yin dynasty] were not suitable for the Yue region [where the people cut their hair and tattooed their bodies, and therefore they had no use for a cap]?

When we examine from what [these teachings] arise we ﬁnd that some derive from the characteristics of foreign lands. Some come from remediation and indicate that there is something from which one is rescued. This is just as when one suddenly falls ill and takes medication as an emergency measure, but [the emergency medicine is] not intended to be used for a long time. [In Buddhism] the form and the teaching ﬁt each other and the actualities and principles are systematic. [Buddhists] have already set up the system of the three robes and perform worship. They discipline themselves with the Dharma drum and line up in accordance with their rank. When they squat with raised heels in such an environment, how could this be seen as the sys- tematic [manner] and rudeness going against each other? In the past it was proper and appropriate for the situation. At most it is just a one-day-only engagement; it cannot be an instruction for a long time. Reason is understand- able. Therefore, many people ask about perfect virtue, which is the foundation to return to propriety.287 Today [śramaṇas] meditate and reform their minds but they adhere to this custom and never depart from it. This is already insigniﬁ- cant in reason and poor in function as well. Truly there is something I have not understood, but I dare not [sufﬁciently] display what I have in my mind.

I, Zheng Jun, bow with my head to the ground.

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Letter Given to Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs Wang [Hong] and All Others in Order to Discuss Buddhist Monks’ Manner of Eating While Squatting with Raised Heels

by Fan Bolun

I, Fan Tai (i.e., Fan Bolun [355–428]), respectfully address the high-ranking ofﬁcials and many wise people.

Śramaṇas of today have two different sitting styles, [formal and infor- mal].288 It seems that this was not so at Qiyuan Temple in the past.

Even today foreign languages differ from our language and [the standard] by which we adapt or reject something differs from theirs, too. Sages establish laws complying with secular customs and propagate teachings according to each region. We have not yet changed our language. Why is it necessary to take the trouble to make our system the same as theirs? Nevertheless, a state should not have two rulers. How can there be lack of uniformity in one hall? At the present time, however, each person believes in biased views and thinks that he himself is correct and [all] others are wrong. No one examines the [original] intention of making, they only consider that echoing another’s views is good. There is no master to control this. Consequently, the situation has led to the present state. One who has no intention to disinterestedly receive others’ [opinions] employs his mind to adhere to [biased views]. He does not seek the reality of the ﬁsh and the rabbit and vies with others in attacking the insigniﬁcance of [using] stakes [to catch ﬁsh] and snares [to catch rabbits].

If this trend is not reformed it will be difﬁcult to attain the Way.

The king of the [bodhi] tree, [Śākyamuni,] attained right, perfect enlight- enment in the sixth year [of his cultivation]. For the ﬁrst time he clariﬁed the profound teaching and personally expounded it while sitting on a raised seat. All those in the audience sat with crossed legs; they did not adopt the informal style of squatting with raised heels. Meditation aims at stabilizing [the mind] and its meaning is not to squat with raised heels and wait for someone to come. The good point of eating while squatting with raised heels lies in eating not in order to be sated. This is entirely the easy, informal method of one country and not the common system of the world.

In addition, there is no decorum for wearing clothes made of hemp rags in cold rural areas, and there is no rule [that stipulates] wearing a [heavy] felt garment in sunny southern regions. Based on this, considering the early time when Great King Yu took off his clothes [to enter the country of the naked people], we cannot say that they had no [decorum of wearing] cere- monial caps. I beg each of you to give up [your own views] altogether and entrust the issue to gentlemen who have compromised their views.

I, Fan Tai, am an insigniﬁcant person. I positively hope [that the manner shown] in today’s dinner gathering is equal. I am uncertain of anything before and after this. Harmony is valued in [practicing the rules of] propriety.289 The rules for Buddhist monks esteem equality.

Presently we ascend to the refectory (zhaitang) and face the sacred images, as if spirits exist in them. As for the eight sages of the four stages of sainthood [of Hinayana Buddhism], we have no different statement in principle. We would rather temporarily try to leave behind our ego than be self-conceited. When Eminent Shi [Daoan] resided in Xiangyang the easy, informal squat- ting style had already been introduced [into China], but he did not think to change [the traditional Chinese way]. He must have had his intention for this. Accordingly, he abandoned his walking stick and rode on the Imperial carriage.290 The meaning for this lies in that [Daoan acted] in the same way as did secular people. Recently, in Meditation Master [Buddhabhadra’s] grand assembly at the [Jiankang] seminary, [Buddhist monks] adopted the formal sitting posture. Isn’t this because major points are kept and minor points are omitted, and it is not necessary in reason that [two different ways]

be practiced concurrently?

The formal sitting posture is taken regardless of time but the easy, informal squatting posture is done at ﬁxed times. If one adopts the formal sitting posture it is difﬁcult to continually adjust to a different way, but it is easy to keep the same way when one experiences an unsual event.

Moreover, regarding the issue that a host humbles himself and pays respects to his guest, there is a reason for this. I have inquired of Eminent [Hui]yi about this but I have not yet been rewarded with any answer from him at all. Therefore I respectfully address you, the people who agree with my opinion, and seek a common opinion. I pray that you will kindly give me a surplus of coughs and sneezes to cover my weak and cowardly mind.

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Shi Huiyi’s Letter in Response to Fan Bolun

Fifty [monks], including Shi Huiyi of Qiyuan Temple, respectfully address all our donors.

In the conventional way of śramaṇas we should precisely abide by the sutras and Vinaya texts sincerely, and consider faith and obedience [to the Buddhist teaching] as the foundation. If a śramaṇa intends to act contrary to sutras and violate Vinaya [texts] and considers his own mind as his teacher and that he himself is right, such a case is serious trouble for the great Dharma and the worst in deﬁling the [Buddhist] Way.

In the precepts established by the Tathāgata there are [actions that are] approved and [actions that are] prohibited. The approved [actions] are namely those one carries out with no doubt, and the prohibited [actions] are those one does not venture to violate. [For instance,] a precept prevents śramaṇas from touching females with their hands and bodies and from being close to them. [This led to the case that] when all those who observe the precepts met with

an accident in which their own mothers were cast adrift and about to drown in deep waters, even if they could see [the danger of the women dying] no one ventured to rescue them [because of the precept against touching females]. Thereupon people of the world said, “Śramaṇas have no mercy. In such a sit- uation, where is the [Buddhist] Way?” So the Tathāgata, [in order to remove] the ridicule and suspicion of people of the world, initiated a precept to counter- balance this, which allowed [śramaṇas] to rescue [women] from difﬁculties [even if it means that they have to have contact with a female body].

The precepts established by the Tathāgata are in a uniform system and we should positively follow them with faith and carry them out. How could it be allowed that we arbitrarily revise [the precepts] from our own will? Even scholars of shallow learning esteem to follow faithfully the expression “the ﬁfth, summer (xia wu)” [found in Zuozhuan], and they dare not add the Chinese character “month” (yue) to it.291 This is intended to seriously prevent people from offering far-fetched explanations and to eradicate those who are fond of new things and pleased with peculiar things. Moreover, the precepts were instituted by the one who possesses the three transcendental knowledges (the Buddha). How could we venture to recklessly adjust them [for our con- venience]?

You, our donor Fan, intend to cause these monks to change from the easy, informal [squatting] style to the formal sitting style, in order to seek harmony without difference. Even if you wish for the beauty of harmony, if you do not use the [Buddhist] Way to create harmony, this means to exactly seek unity, not harmony.

From the time monks came to reside at Qiyuan Temple up to the Dharma assembly [at this time], there have been two groups: those who adopt the formal sitting style and those who take the easy, informal [squatting] style. Since there is no testimony in sutras and Vinaya texts [about this matter], it is no trivial matter if you suddenly intend to change the Buddhist Dharma. Truly we dare not agree with you.

It has been a long time since the time this temple received the Mahā- sāṃghika-vinaya (Mohe sengqi lü). Furthermore in this Vinaya [text] there are clear descriptions altogether in eight items that stipulate the method of eating while [squatting] in the easy, informal style. If there was originally no establishment of eating while squatting in the easy, informal style, then the full set of two hundred ﬁfty [precepts for bhikṣus] would not exist. The descriptions include “Food cannot be placed on a bed [that is also used as a meditation seat],” and “Food you wish to discard should be placed beside your right foot.” It also says “You cannot squat with your knees apart and put one calf over the other.” Aren’t these clear testimonies for eating while squatting in the easy, informal style? Buddhist precepts (Skt. śīla) and the Vinaya are [the mystical lore of the] śramaṇas. No one except the king can participate in hearing them.

Today you, our donors, all have doubts about the two sitting styles, the formal and the informal, and you wish to make [the formal style] ﬂourish and reject [the informal style]. It is impossible for me to not weigh the sig- niﬁcance [of these two sitting styles]. I have brieﬂy given several articles in order to show their basis. I will accept the burden of the sin of announcing our precepts publicly.

The rise and fall of the Buddhist Dharma depend on all our donors. When the Buddhist Dharma ﬂourishes we mutually attain the great achievement of protecting the Dharma, but when it declines we all certainly incur the sin of the destruction of the Dharma. I pray that you will think of this thrice and not cause yourselves to have regret in the other world as well as in this world.

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[Fan Bolun’s] Response to Eminent [Hui]yi

I reply to you.

My previous discussion already included all the statements I will make here. You, Holy Priest, have a strong will and a brave spirit. [Consequently] you simply did not seek [to understand my intention].

Precepts are for the prevention of evils. If there is no evil, why would precepts be necessary? Thus I, an ignorant person, am confused about this. The precepts alter rules in accordance with customs. In China originally the informal sitting style, squatting with raised heels, was not practiced. We follow the rules against collecting the remains and crossing one’s legs. There-

fore, [the informal sitting style] can be omitted.

As for the precept regarding eating with the hands, there is no written instruction for the use of a spoon and chopsticks. Why do you value the precept for the easy, informal sitting style and slight the precept for eating with the hands? According to the precepts [monks] cannot bring their hands close to females, yet subsequently it is allowable for [monks] to rescue their mothers from drowning [which requires them to touch their mother’s bodies]. This is a case that causes ordinary people to have doubt. As a matter of fact, this was sufﬁcient cause to revise the precepts established by the Sage. Increasingly we know that the two hundred and ﬁfty [precepts] are not spon- taneous, permanent laws. If this is the case, ﬁrmly observing [the precepts] does not mean to completely attain all [rules] and it is unworthy to be very surprised if one takes his own mind as his teacher.

It is not doubtful for us to adhere to the rule for the omission in the phrase “the ﬁfth, summer.” If clear and prudent views are understandable, how can you be unsettled in minding other people’s opinions? As for the signiﬁcance of squatting with raised heels, the intention lies in this posture being suitable to move forward, but if one wants to act quickly [usually] things cannot be carried out well. When one [who is familiar with squatting with raised heels] formally sits up straight, he is uneasy in that posture. Sometimes there is a haughty person, but this is originally not what decorum allows.

Regarding the two different sitting styles in the same temple hall, your party is confused and no one seizes the drift [of the questions]. My party is

me alone, without companions. Why do I venture to deal with the great lines of ﬁfty [monks]? Here I will employ the strategy of “being afraid of an enemy and keeping silence.” I hope this is the best relief.

Fan Bolun’s Letter Given to the Two Dharma Teachers [Zhu Dao]sheng and [Hui]guan

Foreign customs naturally differ from ours. When Saṃghadeva ﬁrst came [to China], monks such as [Hui]yi and [Hui]guan all received his favor and admired him with praise. [What Saṃghadeva brought] was, however, merely the Hinayana teaching. [Monks] thought that this teaching was the ultimate doctrine and said that all Mahayana scriptures of nonarising were the writings of demons. The last time Saṃghadeva expounded Buddhist scriptures he did not ascend to a raised seat.

Faxian later returned to [China] and the Nirvana Sutra was chanted for the ﬁrst time. [Monks] then thought that [this scripture] consists of words of eternality and the best of various doctrines, and that the ultimate fundamentals of the transcendental wisdom entirely derive from this.

Inferring from this, [monks] have no subjectivity within themselves and when they hear [something new] they always change [their thinking]. If we compare this to shooting [in competition], the shooter who shot last was defeated and divests the shooter who shot ﬁrst of the point. So we see that foreign precepts are not ﬁxed laws.

[Monks of] the school that adopts the informal sitting style have no time to sit in the formal style. When they expound the Dharma on a raised seat they sit in the style of squatting with raised heels. The hands are mostly used in the foreign manner of eating. In the precepts there is no mention of using a spoon and chopsticks. Huiyi’s group of monks is aware of this but they have never converted [to the practice of using their hands to eat]. Regarding the informal sitting style, [however,] they have practiced this style for a long time and feel no shame in being in conformity with it. They contradict them- selves. Who can understand this [contradiction]?

I, your disciple, always think that making a mistake along with others is

wiser than being proud of my own [view]. To infer my mind and be delighted 78c

with aligning myself with others is not to venture to allow myself to seek straightness. Today’s laypeople who revere the Dharma should never wear foreign clothes. Why do śramaṇas seem to have a hard time in keeping the rule of the informal sitting style?

Petitions Presented to the Throne to Discuss the Manner of Eating while Squatting with Raised Heels

by Fan Bolun

[First Petition]

I, your subject, speak.

Your Majesty (i.e., Emperor Wen, r. 424–453) acquires mastery of the Buddhist doctrines and you are about to attain its highest perfection. With your lofty aspiration you anticipate what is far-reaching. You examine the essentials and go into details. I, however, regret that you do not enlighten me as much as you did in former days, and it is not easy for me to respond to you and enhance [Buddhism].

I have had faith in the great Dharma since the time I was young. I have accumulated the practices for wholesome nature. I often hear additional dis- cussions [of Buddhism] and somewhat understand the profound foundation of the teaching. I formerly attended near the Imperial Throne and received unmerited favor and guidance from you. My thoughts are vulgar and I am slow of speech. So I could not help you understand issues that I tried to convey. My regret for this will not come to an end in my lifetime.

I recently criticized Huiyi’s assertion of eating while squatting with raised heels. This is because of my trivial thought to keep in perfect step [with others]; it is not because I dare seek to be better than others. I strained my ears in a lower seat and heard that [my criticism about eating while squatting with raised heels] had already reached your ears.

I ask you to understand that this matter is a local manner of one country, and not a universal, eternal system. Foreign customs are not the same as ours and [foreign] languages differ from ours as well. Sages do not change their language. Why must only [Chinese monks] trouble themselves to change their actions? Language is a means to express one’s thoughts. When a thought has been conveyed the language [used to express it] is forgotten. Deportment is a

means to keep respect. Once respect has been established, the form [of one’s deportment] is discontinued. Therefore, sages establish the precepts in light of actualities and change laws in accordance with customs. When one reaches the Way it can be all right if he follows no regulation. I think that if preventive measures become more numerous, to decide what to adopt and what to reject depends on the current of the times, and to judge what to continue and what to stop is simply up to reason. Isn’t it despicable [to stick to a ﬁxed idea, just like] gluing the bridges [on a Chinese large harp], or waiting by a stump [hoping that other hares will come by that spot because a hare was once caught there]?

Śramaṇas of today guide people skillfully but they do not have a vital point to their way. Each of them believes in his own views. Few monks can accept another’s views without bias. Consequently, they vie with their fellow monks from the same temple hall in asserting peculiar views and they do not harmonize with the peaceful world. I personally feel ashamed of this; how much more so do your other subjects who are more talented than I am?

Minister of Education and Cultural Affairs [Wang Hong (379–432)], who is knowledgeable and whose realization is justiﬁed, does not consider my assertion wrong. The celebrated people of the present day do not have much sincere faith in the [Buddhist] Way. They have decided nothing beforehand in their intentions. So they consider following both styles [of sitting] to be good and remaining unsettled to be great. If we set up the system according to this, would [the muddy water of] the Yellow River become clear?

Huiyan and Daosheng (355–434) originally did not squat with raised heels. Huiguan appears to regret his initial standpoint [on this]. I humbly think that you, Your Majesty, have already made up your mind. At present I do not hope that you will issue an Imperial decree alone. However, if you give the gist of the Imperial decree to a prime minister, the people below him will see this and be educated. Who can say that he will not consent to this?

The august virtue of Your Majesty is about to reach remote areas. Writing systems and the width of cart axles will be standardized. No matter how trivial such minor differences may seem, they should not be allowed to con- tinually increase. If we do not cut the fresh green plants now, we will have to look for an ax later. Therefore it is proper to cause no one, from the people close to you to those who are far from you, to think of disobeying you.

79a

When [the Jin dynasty] was restored in the Jiangzuo area (i.e., Jiangsu province), [Śrīmitra, the Buddhist monk who expounded while sitting on] a raised seat, came [to the capital]. He loved China and enjoyed his stay. He did not say anything about this system (i.e., eating while squatting with raised heels). Eminent Shi [Daoan] had the most sincere faith in Buddhism; he did not suffer from the restriction [of eating while squatting with raised heels]. He knew of this style of eating yet he did not adopt it. It seems that he had a reason for this. Kumārajīva was excellent, unrestricted, and immeasurably [great]. He took the tonsure, but neither did he sit in the easy, informal style nor eat while squatting with raised heels. Facts like these should also be taken into account. When Meditation Master [Buddhabhadra] came to [Chang’an] for the ﬁrst time, he visited the imperial palace and asked for an audience with the emperor. He wanted to go into [the palace] with his meditation couch and squat with raised heels. This was unacceptable in principle. Consequently, he was not permitted to visit [the imperial palace]. Later, when monks gathered at Dong’an Temple they surely did not eat while sitting in the informal style. These are past events of former dynasties that I personally observed.

Humbly, yours.

[Second Petition]

I, your subject, speak.

Your Majesty, you recently made an Imperial visit to Qiyuan Temple, where I insistently begged you for a eulogy to be inscribed on a monument. I recall that it seemed to me that you had approved this. So soon after the Imperial carriage returned [to the palace], paying reverence to you I precisely engraved the three Chinese characters huang, di, and zan (i.e., the emperor’s eulogy) on the monument. I will submissively accept a demerit for my arbi- trary action. As for registering merit in the other world, I do not know how to cultivate for salvation. If you bestow on me your writing of several Chinese characters, I will die but my body will suffer no decay. With [your eulogy], social mores will be greatly encouraged. There will be beneﬁts and no loss. If you do not have time to do this because of your heavy workload, please let your intention be known to your subjects who can assist you with this. How could your vassal, the Left Scribe or the Imperial Guard, not have the utmost sincerity to render service? Why then are the cases of Pi Chen, [who

made the rough draught of governmental notiﬁcations,] and Shi Shu, [who examined and discussed its contents,] examples of remote ages?292 We should not trouble your mind. This is also the intention of high ministers who wear the ceremonial cap.

I left the service a long time ago and my days are drawing to a close. My only petty concerns are in regard to my next existence. I receive deep and signiﬁcant favor from you, as well as a generous salary. When I think of myself, I have in the end no requital of your kindness to the world over which you rule. I bow with my head to the ground, and with sincerity [equal to that of the spirit of the person who] tied grass [in order to help Wei Ke in repayment of his kindness],293 I pray that Your Majesty will take pity on me and will not blame me for my statement.

[Imperial Decree in Response to Fan Bolun]

The Imperial decree is here given.

I know that you have debated with Huiyi regarding the manner of eating while squatting with raised heels. Recently I further heard a rough outline of your opinion, which does not differ from the purpose of your report. I, however, have not read Buddhist scriptures. There is simply no way to manage this issue with my views. I have no idea what Huiyan thinks. Daosheng is far apart from agreeing with [Huiyi]. Huiguan appears unwilling to repent of his original standpoint [and amend his ways]. Can you yourself seek a point of agreement with all Buddhist monks these days?

As for the eulogy for the monument at Qiyuan Temple, I do not recall giving you permission. Since [making eulogies] is not something I have learned and, in addition I have no time to do so, I am unable to grant your request. I am terribly sorry about this.

[Third Petition]

I, your subject, speak.

I received with respect the brilliant Imperial decree, for which I am very much obliged to you. It is unworthy to relate my narrow and biased view, but since it has already reached you I would rather not keep silent. In the Imperial decree of today you order me to further seek a point of agreement

79b

[with all monks]. Here, following my wild impulse, I will explicate a long- cherished thought. I think that wherever principles exist it is fortunately pos- sible to not harm an intention by a composition.

None of the Five Thearchs followed the ceremonies of his predecessor, and none of the Three Kings adopted the music of his predecessor.294 In reforming the world with the mandate of Heaven and following the current of the times, the signiﬁcance is completely great. Zhuangzi compared ancient times and the present time to a boat and a carriage.295 Mencius thought that it would be better to be without books than to believe in them exclusively.296 Therefore, [the son who] testiﬁed [that his father had stolen] a sheep is not upright.297 I have heard that employing these two ways causes the Great Way to be pursued and the whole world to become one family.

My case is a triﬂing matter, simply the uniﬁcation of the system in one temple hall. Moreover, [eating while squatting with raised heels] is a foreign custom and a local system; it is originally not a reasonable teaching. [Hui]yi, [Dao]sheng, and [Hui]guan attained favor and broadly make contact with the Imperial will. If they have questions to ask me, I hope that I will respond to them through relying on principles. [I also wish that] they dare not advance themselves by trusting merely in numbers in order to outdo the other party. The answers Huiguan gave me all lack a reasonable basis. He only praised me excessively and disparaged me as having a thousand faults. Inferring from this, I doubt if he is truly remorseful. He has not yet returned to whole- someness and expressed words of submission. Your vassal, [Wang] Hong, also says that my assertion is correct. The lines of Huiyi’s great troops have already collapsed and the paths to ﬂee in retreat and hide are closed. He relies on this [monk] (i.e., Huiguan) to rescue them but it is difﬁcult for him to escape from there. Moreover, the virtuous person who is in charge of the tallies is above them.298 Even if he explains everything away, he will know that he has gotten into a scrape. I recently criticized Huiguan. I then submitted a petition to the Throne again and gave evidence [for my assertion].

I am silly and petty. Though I have tried to be intelligent I have reached an extremely old age [without achieving this]. Not only are my words unsuit- able but I fear deeply that I am not aware of my own confusion. The Imperial Guard retainers are really in high repute of the day, but they will not be able

to sympathize with my inclination and admonish my incompetent points, either. These are all my faults that I invited onto myself.

I humbly pray that Your Majesty will accept my earnest sincerity and not consider my poor knowledge to be a fault and become disgusted by my rude- ness. I personally rely on my old age which, as the classic states, is not subject to punishment.299

Report to the Throne Regarding the Issue that Śramaṇas Should Not Bow [to the King] by Director of the Imperial Secretariat He Chong

[Preface]

In the sixth year of Xiankang of the Jin dynasty (340), Emperor Cheng (321–342) was still young and Yu Bing assisted him in political affairs. [Yu Bing] said that śramaṇas should bow to the king. Ofﬁcials such as Director of the Imperial Secretariat He Chong said that śramaṇas do not have to do so, and ordered the ofﬁcials of the Chamberlain for Ceremonials to debate [the subject] at length. The opinion of the Erudite [of the Chamberlain for Ceremonials] was the same as [He] Chong’s, but the Chancellery supported [Yu] Bing and refuted [He Chong’s view]. [Therefore,] ofﬁcials such as Director of the Imperial Secretariat He Chong, Chief Administrators Chu She and Zhuge Hui,300 and Feng Huai and Xie Guang of the Imperial Secretary made a report [to the Throne] that śramaṇas do not have to bow [to the king].

[Report to the Throne]

We, [He] Chong (292–346), Director of the Imperial Secretariat, Army Com- mander, General of the Paciﬁcation Army, and Chief Township Marquis; [Chu] She, Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary, Left Supervisor, and Count of Changping; [Zhuge] Hui, Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary, Right Supervisor, and Count of Jian’an; [Feng] Huai, Imperial Secretary and Marquis of Guanzhong; and [Xie] Guang, Probationary, Imperial Secretary, and Viscount of Chang’an, speak. Shizu, Emperor Wu, reformed the world with the mandate of Heaven [and established the Jin dynasty] with his abundant intelligence. Suzu, Emperor Ming, who was quick in apprehension and of far-reaching intelligence, viewed everything with a tranquil mind. Wouldn’t it have been easy for the śramaṇas

79c

of their days to kneel [and bow to them]? [Both emperors,] however, regarded the permanence of the [śramaṇas’] way of doing good acts (i.e., not bowing to the king) to be a reason to facilitate the determination [of the people] of the world. We humbly think that you should follow the historical example of these preceding emperors, which is excellent in reason.

The Imperial Decree on Behalf of Emperor Cheng of the Jin Dynasty Composed by Yu Bing, Who Admonishes the Purport [of the Report] Again and Thinks that

Śramaṇas Should Bow to the King

All nations have different customs and the Way of the Spirit is difﬁcult to discern. These facts are based in what they derive from. If we take a philo- sophic view of the object and closely understand it, there is really nothing strange, not to mention the [issue of] saluting in the kneeling-to-worship style. Why must anyone feel strange about this practice? We should trace back to the original intention with which the preceding emperors esteemed it. Were they simply fond of this style of bending one’s body and from their seats meeting people circumambulating them [when they withdraw]? Certainly this was not the case. Based on the respect between father and son, the order between the king and his vassals was established, laws and institutions were set up, and considerate treatment was honored. How can these be done mean- inglessly? There is a deep reason. Since there is a reason, why must we change it? If this is the case, when the teaching on morality and ethics (i.e., Confucianism) and the framing of ceremonies were established, was there no reasoning behind them?

Moreover, does the Buddha exist, or not, as a matter of fact? If the Buddha exists, his Way is assuredly magnanimous. If there is no Buddha, what sig- niﬁcance can we obtain [from kneeling to worship]? Following [his Way] and believing that it is right is a matter for Buddhist monks. How could a matter for Buddhist monks become something that people of the secular world have to carry out? [Buddhist monks], however, deform their physical appearance, avoid ordinary duties, change the statutes of ceremonies, and reject the teaching on morality and ethics (i.e., Confucianism). This is some- thing by which I am surprised.

The teaching on morality and ethics has a long history. It is not discontinued no matter how many generations pass. [The inscription on the tripod of Chan says,] “You may get up early in the morning and [study to] become greatly distinguished, but in future generations [your descendants] will still become idle.”301 Regarding the bad aspect that [one’s descendents] will become idle, it is difﬁcult to discern the cause. If today we adore something that is far away and uncertain, rely on something faint and undistinguished, reject our proprieties suddenly, and discontinue the teachings of the present age, we will cause ordinary people to haughtily go against the constitution. This is also something by which I am surprised.

Even if [the Buddhist Way] is truly so [great], and even if [the Buddha] actually exists, I will understand these issues with my intelligence and keep them in mind. Rules, laws, and magniﬁcent models should assuredly not be discontinued in the Imperial court. All these kinds of people (i.e., Buddhist monks) are the nation of the Jin dynasty. Speaking of their intelligence, they are only ordinary people, too. Nevertheless, because what they assert is dif- ﬁcult to argue against, they avail themselves of outrageous costumes and accessories, set up haughty decorum based on strange customs, and do not bow down even before the emperor who commands ten thousand chariots. This is again something I cannot accept.

You, gentlemen, are all people of talent of our country. When you hear reasonable words you will survey what is obscure. When you speak of gov- erning the nation you must honor national laws. If you do not do so, of what shall I give an account?

Second Report to the Throne by Director of the Imperial Secretariat He Chong and Officials such as Chu She,

Zhuge Hui, Feng Huai, and Xie Guang

We, [He] Chong, Director of the Imperial Secretariat, Army Commander, General of the Paciﬁcation Army, and Chief Township Marquis; [Chu] She, Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary, Left Supervisor, and Count of Changping; [Zhuge] Hui, Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary, Right Supervisor, and Count of Jian’an; [Feng] Huai, Imperial Secretary and Marquis of Guanzhong; and

80a

[Xie] Guang, Probationary, Imperial Secretary, and Viscount of Chang’an, speak.

The Imperial decree is just as found above.

We are ignorant and witless. We do not deserve to glorify the Imperial will and to propagate the great righteousness. We humbly examined the bril- liant Imperial decree. We now tremble in fear and confusion.

Together we all promptly inquired into the details. The issue of whether or not the Buddha exists is assuredly not something we can determine. Never- theless, when we look into the scriptures that have been left to us and inten- sively study their essential points, [we ﬁnd that] the prescription of the ﬁve precepts truly helps the king’s ediﬁcation for the people. [Buddhists] despise actions that are taken obviously to seek fame, and they value the imperceptible secret ﬁdelity. To practice virtue lies in forgetting oneself. To stick to one principle (baoyi) is the purity and wondrousness of the mind. Moreover, from the time of the Han dynasty [when Buddhism was] introduced [to China] up to the present day, even though the Dharma has risen and fallen there has not been any harm of weirdness and absurdity. The Way of the Spirit (i.e., Buddhism) has prevailed for a long time. There is no other case like this. One who curses has loss, and one who prays must gain beneﬁt. From the bottom of our hearts we truly wish that [Buddhist monks’ prayers, which are] as insigniﬁcant as dust and dew, will increase [Your Majesty’s] bene- faction, which is as lofty as Mount Song and Mount Tai, and that their unim- portant prayers will enable [Your Majesty] to manage the most important rules to govern the world. [Nevertheless,] if you even once order [monks] to bow to you, you will consequently destroy the Dharma and cause the custom of cultivating wholesomeness to be discontinued in your holy world. If an [obsolete] custom becomes a common practice, an unhappy and fearful situation will certainly occur. We are concerned about these things and our

minds quietly grow uneasy.

Even though we are ignorant, how could we dare confuse and misguide Your Majesty’s ears with our biased views? We simply think that [Buddhism] has prevailed through the three dynasties (i.e., Han, Wei, and Jin) and that intelligent and enlightened rulers have appeared one after another. Presently, even if we do not create a new law [mandating that śramaṇas must bow to the king], there will be no shortage of the king’s law, and it is possible that

there would be no hindrance of the rules of the other world. For these reasons, we again express our sincerity. We beg you to graciously examine this.

Humbly yours.

Emperor Cheng’s Second Imperial Decree

I examined the report in which you fully explained your situation and intention. The issue of the other world truly cannot be completely explained with alle- gories. The general idea [of the Buddhist netherworld] is, however, simply that conventional rules between human beings and spirits are overstated and classiﬁed examples are brieﬂy added to them.

In all cases, when various kings institute laws, even though they emphasize substance or rhetorical embellishments that follow the tendency of the times, it is unprecedented for foreign customs to be mingled with political affairs, and for weird and absurd stories to be mixed into the ediﬁcation. Is it because the sages of former times were not intelligent but sages of the later age are knowledgeable?

Moreover, the minor good conduct outlined in the ﬁve precepts was roughly drawn up and modeled after the [ﬁve] principles of human relationships [of Confucianism]. Nevertheless, do [Buddhist monks] omit [all practices of] decorum and homage for the ruler of the times? Decorum is important and paying homage is signiﬁcant. The general rules of government administration reach an extreme at this point. The emperor who commands ten thousand chariots is superior not from [his own] choice, and the people of his territory are his inferiors not by [their own] preference. Nevertheless, even if the dif- ference between superiors and inferiors is not arranged, the king’s teaching must be uniﬁed. If there are two [paths] in the king’s teaching the world becomes disordered. This is why the sage kings of former times established constitutions, and those who assume the responsibility of governing the coun- try should not be misled.

People of all-around talent extensively collect [knowledge] and they often study the principles [of Buddhism]. They may cultivate themselves [in Buddhism] in private but not on the level of the nation and the Imperial court. Wouldn’t this [therefore] mean to stay away from [Buddhism]? I examined your statement. Sure enough, you have not been able to determine whether

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or not [the Buddha] exists. Even if you know [that the Buddha exists], I still say that [Buddhism] cannot be a part of state affairs, not to mention the case of [the Buddha] not existing at all. Should we allow both [Chinese and Buddhist decorum] to be practiced?

Third Report to the Throne Regarding the Issue that [Śramaṇas] Should Not Bow [to the King] by Officials such as Director

of the Imperial Secretariat He Chong and [Left] Supervisor Chu She

Even though we are quite ignorant and do not thoroughly understand your profound intention, regarding the thought to follow assiduously, day and night, your virtue and magnanimity, how could we hold fast to narrow biased views and throw important [human] relations into disorder? Simply, from the time of the Han and Wei dynasties up to the time of the Jin dynasty, we have not heard that there were objections [to Buddhist monks’ decorum] and there was no case in which the statutes of superior and inferior were damaged even for a short time.

Today śramaṇas are earnestly prudent in observing the precepts and they exercise decorum. This is simply the same as [our exercising Chinese deco- rum]. Regarding those who seriously observe the precepts, they do not spare even their own lives. How could they then dare neglect decorum and homage in order to be particular about [bowing] their bodies?

Every time we see [Buddhist monks] burn incense and pray, they assuredly ﬁrst offer prayers for the country and wish for the prosperity [of the country] with divine help. Their [earnest] feelings are boundless. They spontaneously admire the king and honor obedience. The simplicity of their decorum is probably because they concentrate their attention on abiding by the Dharma. Therefore, in ancient times the former sage kings followed [the śramaṇas] and did not change [their decorum].

“The meshes of the heavenly net are large, far apart, yet they let nothing escape.”302 We consider with reverence that even if we do not have [śramaṇas] bow [to the king], no damage is done to the laws of the land. If we favor people according to what beneﬁts them, and if we cause none among the wise and the ignorant to dare not exert his mind, then what we have above

will be an extensive government, just as “Heaven overspreads all and Earth supports all,”303 and what we have below will be people who preserve one principle and cultivate wholesomeness.

We have sincerely restated our fatuous and shallow [views]. We pray that you will graciously examine [our report].

Sincerely yours.

[Epilogue]

At this time, Yu Bing’s opinion [that śramaṇas should bow to the king] came to an end and [the requirement that śramaṇas’] must bow [to the king] was not applied after all.

Letter Given to the Eight Executives to Discuss Buddhist Monks’ Bowing [to the King] by Huan Xuan

I, Xuan, bow twice and speak. I bow with my head to the ground.

The eighth day of the month is approaching.

Formerly śramaṇas did not bow to kings at all. Even though He [Chong] and Yu [Bing] have already debated this matter and both presented their opin- ions, neither of them submitted to the other logically. Yu [Bing’s] intention lies in respecting the ruler, but he has not completely established the basis of his reason. Because of his strong inclination toward faith [in Buddhism], He [Chong] consequently lost the essence of his name.304

Even though the Buddha’s ediﬁcation is endlessly vast and infers the world beyond the visual and aural senses, respect is considered to be its foun- dation. On this point, there is no difference between [Buddhist] clergy and laypeople. I assume that what they aspire for may differ but this does not mean that respect should be abolished.

In the Laozi [Dao de jing], princes are considered equal to the three great elements: [Heaven, Earth, and the Way]. When [we examine] why they are considered to be so important, [we ﬁnd that the reason] lies entirely in that they support [all things] to grow and [the heavenly bodies] to move smoothly. [Otherwise,] how could they be referred to as equal to the two polarities, [Heaven and Earth], only for the reason that sages occupy the throne? [As the Book of Changes says,] “The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is called

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life.” [The virtue] to make life all over the country and arrange all things lies in sovereigns. Therefore, we respect the throne and we are gloriously courteous to it. How could we vainly revere and value them? The signiﬁcance is simply in the fact that sovereigns control [all things].

The reason śramaṇas are born in succession and live with support is also that they are every day under government ordinances [made by sovereigns]. How could it be that [śramaṇas] enjoy the virtue [given by sovereigns] and abandon courtesy [toward the sovereigns], or beneﬁt from [sovereigns’] kind- ness but reject [the propriety of] paying respect to them?305 Inasmuch as this is not allowed in reason, neither is it tolerable in sentiment. For such a serious matter to our generation, we must together seek an appropriate idea. Moreover, we should thoroughly study this in a body. You should have a complete con- clusion by this coming eighth day of the month.

I, Huan Xuan, bow twice, and bow down with my head to the ground.

The Eight Executives’

Response

(This piece of writing came from a historical fact.)

We, Huan Qian, General of the Capital Army, Director of the Imperial Sec- retariat, and Dynasty-founding Marquis of Yiyang, and others, fearing the death penalty, respectfully received your instruction to require śramaṇas to bow to the king. [You say that] even though He [Chong] and Yu [Bing] have debated [this matter] the issue has not been completely examined and, since this is a serious matter, an appropriate conclusion should be made. Everything is truly as you have said.

Nevertheless, the Buddhist Dharma and the teaching of Laozi and Con- fucius are separate from each other in tenor and entirely go against each other in terms of ethical education. [Chinese] people consider their hair and skin to be valuable, while [Buddhist monks] do not question shaving off their hair. [Buddhist monks] renounce the world, abandon their parents, and do not think that being respectfully attentive to their parents is ﬁlial piety. They view their bodies [as being as insigniﬁcant as] a clod of dirt or a piece of wood; they cut off desires and stop competing. They do not expect any- thing in this existence and seek for bliss beyond myriads of kalpas. They keep away from all the things that are considered honorable in the secular

world, and in their intention they completely cut off what is valued in ethical education. “The service due to a father is employed in serving a ruler.”306 [This phrase shows that] the relationship with one’s blood relatives is con- sidered to be the most important [in ethical education]. [Buddhist monks, however,] leave behind even love for their relatives. How would it be possible that they would bow to the emperor who commands ten thousand chariots? Taking the tide as it comes, they naturally cope with discontinuing [the requirement to bow to the king].

Through the three dynasties (Han, Wei, and Jin) we have allowed [Buddhism] to take its own course. This is because [the people thought that] spirits have no set rules, and so they also did not control [what Buddhist monks do]. In the world that is beyond the visual and aural senses there is probably a separate reason. Even if today we require śramaṇas to bow [to the king], we fear that we have to change many things [related to this]; the issue is not only about bowing [to the king] with one’s head to the ground and then standing up. Furthermore, the fact that the king deferentially follows the Dharma is due to his own respect [for Buddhism]. It is incomprehensible that he would believe in Buddhist doctrines yet want to change [Buddhist] deportment.

To conform [to the present situation] and allow śramaṇas to be as they are is the magniﬁcence of “letting the people act freely and exercising forbear- ance.”307 Secretariat Director Wang [Mi] responded to your criticism separately. Zhang Chang of Confucius’ kingdom is over there; I think you have already inquired of his [group] face-to-face what they have in mind.308 All Buddhist monks, including Daobao, deserve to requite your lofty purpose. We do not know Buddhist doctrines. We have written here in accordance with what we feel. We are ashamed that our statement is unworthy for you to read.

We, [Huan] Qian and others, are afraid of being sentenced with the death penalty.

Letter Given to Secretariat Director Wang [Mi] to Discuss the Issue that Buddhist Monks Should Bow

to the King by Huan Xuan

Śramaṇas reject bowing to the Most August. I feel that this is an awkward situation and a matter of grave concern of our generation. We should discuss

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this fully together. I have already sent my letter to the Eight Executives in the capital. Today I give this letter to you. You are the one who is capable of managing this matter. I look forward to hearing your virtuous opinion.

Letter in Response to Huan [Xuan] by Secretariat Director Wang [Mi]

Wang Mi, General of the Palace Guard, Minister of the Ministry of Personnel, Secretariat Director, and Baron of Wugang, fearing the death penalty, respect- fully received your instruction, which refers to the fact that Buddhist monks reject bowing to the Most August. I read your letter, which was given to the Eight Executives at the same time.

I fully understand your lofty purpose. Both the expression and principle of your patient assertion are of the utmost. Recently I brieﬂy heard the impar- tial way but I have not yet completely investigated the issue. I examined the two purposes of He [Chong] and Yu [Bing]. I also regret that they have not fully [discussed the issue]. I think that these two [gentlemen’s] debate has faltered in biased views. They have not pressed the point to make it clearly understandable. This is truly as you have pointed out.

The Buddhist Dharma arose in and came from India. Its foundation is deep and it is difﬁcult to express in words. Since [some aspects of the foun- dation] became doctrines, we can roughly speak of it.

I think that every place has its unique customs. Although what the people are content with varies in each place, as far as the principles by which their ruler reigns over the people are concerned, it is hardly possible that nothing is the same.

Today, even though śramaṇas are deeply respectful [to the king] in their minds, they do not consider bending their bodies [to bow down] to be a courtesy. [Monks] are those whose footprints ﬁll this land and yet whose interest goes beyond the boundaries of this world. Therefore, every king of a foreign country humbly shows courtesy to them. This is really to value that the Way exists, not merely to weigh the importance on account of a [particular] individual.

I think that it has been really a long time since the great Dharma began to be circulated [in China]. It has been more than four hundred years and three dynasties have elapsed. Even though our customs have changed and government

has shifted, there is no change in the fact that [the great Dharma] is propagated. Wouldn’t this be because the teaching of splendid isolation is beneﬁcial for edifying the people little by little in daily life, and the clean and simple style [of Buddhism] does no harm to worldly prosperity and peace? Therefore kings behave themselves prudently and do not feel sad about having fewer households (i.e., taxpayers) [because Buddhist monks are exempt from taxation]. Śramaṇas protect the truth and make no question of going against worldly affairs. I heard that you said, “[The virtue] to make life all over the country and arrange all things lies in sovereigns.” When I examine what it is to which all principles return, it is really just as you have argued. I read your virtuous letter three times and still cannot stop rereading it. Even though I wish to respectfully reply to you, I have no words. I still think that one whose achieve- ment is lofty is not rewarded, and one whose benevolence is deep is not given grateful acknowledgement. Even if [śramaṇas] were to bow to [the king], would this be enough for them to respond to the kindness with which he aids

and leads them?

With favorable consideration you did not forget me and asked me for my vulgar opinion. I have arbitrarily and frankly expressed my foolish views. I would simply not like to cause you to detest what I have reported. I pray that you will not reject my words merely because they are from me. At the moment I ﬁnished my statement, I felt restless.

I, [Wang] Mi, am afraid of the death penalty.

Criticism [to Wang Mi] by Huan [Xuan]

You wrote in your letter, “Even though śramaṇas are deeply respectful [to the king] in their minds, they do not consider bending their bodies [to bow down] to be a courtesy.”

I criticize this, saying, “Regarding śramaṇas’ reverence, how could they all neglect it in their outward form and keep it only in their minds? When they repent and worship, they do so in a serious [manner]. Here, in regard to this matter (i.e., extending one’s greeting), monks—from a teacher (Skt. śāstṛ) up to a senior priest who supervises the ceremonies and services of a temple—all [pay respect]. There is only a minor difference in their system from that of people in general who bow with their hands folded in front while

81b

kneeling. Since they cannot forget the form [they follow] over there, why then do they disregard the style of deportment here?

“Moreover, [in Buddhism], regarding the reason to become a teacher, they consider awakening through helping others to be virtuous. The way of the ruler is to make life possible throughout the country. Therefore, this principle should lie at the foundation. How could the meaning of the three most revered people (ruler, father, and teacher) not be the very pinnacle of reason and feeling?” You wrote in your letter, “[Therefore,] every king of a foreign country humbly shows courtesy to [Buddhist monks]. This is really to value that the Way exists, not merely to weigh the importance on account of a [particular]

individual.”

I criticize this, saying, “It is not appropriate to compare [our king] to those of foreign countries. In [the place] Buddhism originated we can see its tenor. Isn't it the case that since the six barbarian tribes are disobedient and strong and cannot be educated by normal teachings, therefore, by the great estab- lishment of a mysterious and strange [teaching, the Buddha] aroused awe and they then submitted [to the teaching]? Having already aroused awe in them and gained their submission, the Buddha later caused them to follow the rules. This is probably based on the fact that [the barbarians] were basically fearful of the reward and retribution of spiritual beings. How can this be said to be reverence for the profound and wondrous Way? You said, ‘This is really to value that the Way exists.” [The reality] differs from your purpose. How could it be possible that if one merely puts on a Dharma robe the Way [then] exists within him? If the Way ﬁrst exists and only later is deemed valuable, as you said, the way of sages would therefore be the culmination of the Way. In the homage paid to a ruler by his subjects courtesy would be deeper. In such a situation, how could it be possible that the reason śramaṇas do not bow [to the king] is because ‘the Way exists’ is considered to be valuable?”

You wrote in your letter, “[Since the great Dharma began to be circulated in China] it has been [more than] four hundred years and three dynasties have elapsed. [Even though our customs have changed and government has shifted,] there is no change in the fact that [the great Dharma] is propagated. Wouldn’t this be because the teaching of splendid isolation is beneﬁcial for edifying the people little by little in daily life, and the clean and simple style [of Buddhism] does no harm to worldly prosperity and peace?”

I criticize this, saying, “The fact that [Buddhism] has not changed over the duration of [the three dynasties] cannot be considered as a testimony. Formerly there was almost no one among the Chinese who believed in the Buddha. All śramaṇas and their followers were various kinds of foreigners. Moreover, the [Chinese] kings did not make contact with [foreign śramaṇas and their followers]. [The kings] simply let them practice their own local customs without restriction. Presently His Majesty believes in the Buddha and is on intimate terms with [śramaṇas] in Buddhist services. The [present] situation is different from that of former times. Why, then, should we not have ratiﬁcation of the Buddhists’ decorum? ‘[Buddhism is beneﬁcial] in daily life’ and ‘the clean and simple [style]’ is helpful in teaching the peo- ple’—this is entirely as you have said, but this is likely the achievement of the Buddhist Dharma, not a beneﬁt brought about by śramaṇas’ boasting. If we are sincerely respectful to [śramaṇas] now there will be nothing more to strengthen their help [in edifying the people].”

You wrote in your letter, “One whose achievement is lofty is not rewarded, and one whose benevolence is deep is not given grateful acknowledgement. Even if [śramaṇas] were to bow to [the king], would this be enough for them to respond to the kindness with which he aids and leads them?”

I criticize this, saying, “The utmost degree of reason is not recompensed. This is really as you pointed out in your letter. Nevertheless, in our sentiments, when [the ruler’s kindness] is boundless our respect for him naturally follows. This is why sages establish courtesy according to human feelings and lead each person to that to which he entrusts himself. If gratitude is always to be omitted when the achievement is deep and there is great benevolence, is Śākyamuni’s virtue deep or shallow? If it is shallow, we should not throw important [human] relations into disorder [in order to follow] his minor ways. If it is deep, how could it be possible that [śramaṇas] seriously pay respect among themselves yet reject bowing [to the king]?”

Second Response by Lord [Wang Mi]

You criticized, “Regarding śramaṇas’ reverence, how could they all neglect it in their outward form and keep it only in their minds? When they repent and worship they do so in a serious [manner].”

81c

I reply, “The way of śramaṇas originally takes reverence to be primary. Since [śramaṇas] are simply different from us (i.e., secular people) on the path to ferry [beings to the yonder shore], they do not bow [to the king,] according to what is right. Consequently, even though families and relatives are important, the physical form of showing courtesy [toward one’s families and relatives] becomes insigniﬁcant. The reason śramaṇas admire and respect their teachers and senior monks is truly because when they share the same goal younger monks give precedence to elders, and in their relationships with [their teachers and senior monks] who support and lead them to [the goal] their actions comply with their minds. Originally, although the Buddhist Dharma is vast it does not abandon minor wholesome conduct. Reward com- plies with even small merit. ‘Many a little [bit] makes a mountain.’ The mean- ing of this is apparent here.”

You criticized, “The way of the ruler is to make life possible throughout the country. Therefore, this principle should lie at the foundation. How could the meaning of the three most revered people not be the very pinnacle of rea- son and feeling?”

I reply, “The way of the ruler is to make life possible throughout the coun- try; that is to say, it is the same, in reason, as the Creator. [The Creator] makes all things and spreads [life-giving] vapor all over, and its achievement is magnanimous. Nevertheless, it has never been the case that those who receive its blessings are thankful to [the Creator] for them. No one has felt obligated to the foundation of reason (i.e., the Creator). Why? It is truly because the foundation of profundity is quiet and remote and not something that can be shown in physical and phenomenal objects. The principle of moving [Heaven and Earth] smoothly is wondrous. How can we requite it through our poor conduct? Therefore, Confucius says, ‘[The people] may be made to follow [a course of action] but they may not be made to understand it.’309 That is what this means.”

You criticized, “It is not appropriate to compare [our king] to those of foreign countries. In [the place] Buddhism originated we can see its tenor. Isn't it the case that since the six barbarian tribes are disobedient and strong and cannot be educated by normal teachings, therefore, by the great estab- lishment of a mysterious and strange [teaching, the Buddha] aroused awe and they then submitted [to the teaching]?”

I reply, “[Sages] established their instructions in accordance with the Way of the Spirit,310 which is really difﬁcult to discern in language. I think that [the Buddha] shows [the law of] reward and retribution by the great estab- lishment of the mysterious and strange [teaching]. This is the superlative reason of the truth; [the effect follows the cause, just as] a shadow [follows a form] and an echo [follows a sound]. This is the fundamental essence of Buddhism. If we think now that [the teaching of] the three periods of existence is false and absurd and [the teaching of] weal and woe [as the result of good and bad conduct] is a threat, then what Śākyamuni clariﬁed has nearly no standpoint.

“I usually think that the ediﬁcation of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius is to rescue [the world] from a very harmful situation. Consequently, [the instruc- tions] spoken by them are limited to a lifetime and do not explain the path [of the principle of causality] for myriads of kalpas. Nevertheless, when we deeply inquire about their purport we can also often ﬁnd [teachings similar to those of Buddhism]. [Chinese teachings such as] being a ﬁlial child, showing respect to one’s elder siblings, and being benevolent and righteous unexpectedly clarify that [such teachings] are spontaneously the same [as those of Buddhism]. Compassion and mercy are certainly observed in [the Chinese law regarding] the destruction of life according to the four seasons. Furthermore, [Confucius] admonished and stopped Zhong You (i.e., Zilu) from asking [about death and spirits].311 It also appears that he had a profound purpose [for doing so]. The style of the teaching [of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius], however, differs from [that of Buddhism]. Therefore these points are usually obscure. I calmly looked into this issue. It is mostly so. It is nearly so.”

You criticized, “In the homage paid to a ruler by his subjects courtesy would be deeper. In such a situation how could it be possible that the reason śramaṇas do not bow [to the king] is because ‘the Way exists’ is considered to be valuable?”

I reply, “I reexamined your lofty discussion. You think that the way of the ruler moves [Heaven and Earth] smoothly and [that the ruler] is the same as the three great elements (Heaven, Earth, and the Way) in reason. Regarding this issue, I have already presented my vulgar opinion. I think that as far as the way of the ruler and his people is concerned, I personally agree with your lofty purport. Regarding the homage paid to a ruler by his subjects, the principle

82a

is limited to the teaching on morality and ethics (i.e., Confucianism). Today śramaṇas are not the subjects of princes and nobles. Therefore [the require- ment that they must] bow to them is abolished.”

You criticized, “The fact that [Buddhism] has not changed over the duration of [the three dynasties] cannot be considered as a testimony. Formerly there was almost no one among the Chinese who believed in the Buddha. All śra- maṇas and their followers were various kinds of foreigners. Moreover, the [Chinese] kings did not make contact with [foreign śramaṇas and their fol- lowers]. [The kings] simply let them practice their own local customs without restriction.”

I reply, “The reason I wrote in my previous letter that [Buddhism] has continued for many years is exactly that there must be a reason for [the kings] to have allowed and supported the [Buddhist] Way. I did not mean that there is never a reason to change anything that has been accomplished. This was probably said by mere chance; it is not a point to which I stubbornly hold fast. Foreigners did not make contact with [Chinese] kings. This is again just as [you pointed out in] your lofty discussion. The reason the issue [of śra- maṇas bowing to the king] was not discussed in former ages probably lies in this [historical] fact.”

You criticized, “This is likely the achievement of the Buddhist Dharma, not a beneﬁt brought about by śramaṇas’ boasting. If we are sincerely respect- ful to [śramaṇas] now, there will be nothing more to strengthen their help [in edifying the people].”

I reply, “I respectfully examined the discussion in your letter. It does not bring a false charge against Buddhist doctrines. The act of boasting merely damages the great ediﬁcation (i.e., Buddhism). This is truly as you admon- ished; really, just as you admonished. I think that the way of śramaṇas can be said to be peculiar but it is not [comprised of] such boasting.

“Presently, in these latter days, a thousand years [after Śākyamuni passed away], simple and sincere customs and traditions have declined and those who dishonestly wear [the Dharma] robe have become numerous. They are unbecoming [to other śramaṇas]. How could I not feel ashamed of them? “I simply think to control myself and keep silent now. I should put aside speaking about other human beings and speak only of the [Buddhist] Way. I wrote in my previous response, ‘[This is really to value that the Way exists,]

not to weigh the importance on account of a [particular] individual.’ My humble intention lies in this point.”

You criticized, “If gratitude is always to be omitted when the achievement is deep and there is great benevolence, is Śākyamuni’s virtue deep or shallow? If it is shallow, we should not throw important [human] relations into disorder [in order to follow] his minor ways. If it is deep, how could it be possible that [śramaṇas] seriously pay respect among themselves yet reject bowing [to the king]?”

I reply, “I think that the Way of Śākyamuni is deep, indeed profound, and those who look up to him respectfully consolidate their respect more and more. This is probably because those who reach the Way must rely on the achievement of practice, and nothing is more esteemed than the virtue of the achievement of practice. Just like this, accumulating practice is the base cause, the key to one’s next existence. Moreover, it is still difﬁcult to restrain [a śramaṇa’s] achievement [of the practice] of paying respect to his teachers and seniors. Furthermore, in drawing the mind toward the ultimate, is it pos- sible to neglect courtesy? Therefore, even if one were to bend or lift his head [to show respect] for numerous kalpas, this does not mean that he expresses his gratitude for the blessings [he has received].”

Second Criticism by Huan [Xuan]

I examined your letter. I still have not settled some uncertainties. In accordance with your letter, I once again roughly express my criticism.

How is it allowable for there to be two different principles for feelings and paying respect? Everything is simply from the inside (i.e., feelings) and inﬂuences the outside (i.e., actions of paying respect). Since we have already entered the realm of beings who possess feelings and consciousness (sentient beings), it is impossible to do without [respect]. If, just as you said in your letter, “[The way of] the ruler . . . is the same, in reason, as the Creator. . . .

It has never been the case that those who receive its blessings are thankful to [the Creator] for them. No one has felt obligated to the foundation of reason (i.e., the Creator),” this means that [the ruler’s] achievement is pro- found, his reasoning is deep, and nothing is greater than this. How could the Buddha’s ediﬁcation surpass this?

82b

Nevertheless, you said in your discussion, “Since [śramaṇas] are simply different from us (i.e., secular people) on the path to ferry [beings to the yonder shore], they do not bow [to the king] according to what is right” and “[The reason śramaṇas admire and respect their teachers and senior monks is truly because] when they share the same goal younger monks give precedence to elders, and in their relationships with [their teachers and senior monks] who support and lead them to [the goal] their actions comply with their minds.” If [the ruler’s] reasoning lies in his own foundation and his virtue is deep and has reached culmination, then how is it possible to say, “[Śramaṇas] are simply different from us on the path to ferry [beings to the yonder shore]” and “[they do not] bow [to the king]”? What is their goal? If studies are considered to be their goal, what scholars learn originally spring simply from the essential qualities of Nature. If Nature exists [ﬁrst of all] and [what scholars learn] is received from it, then it is easily known that Nature is the foundation. The awakening that is attained by one’s teacher’s support and guidance merely further illuminates its ﬁnal point. How is it possible that “actions comply with the mind” applies here but does not [apply] over there?

Moreover, you said, “The ediﬁcation of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius is to rescue [the world] from a very harmful situation. Consequently, [the instructions spoken by them] are limited to a lifetime and do not explain the path [of the principle of causality] for myriads of kalpas.”

When one ediﬁes the people by means of the mysterious, the teaching is easily practiced. This is different from the teaching that urges [and encourages] people to practice benevolence and righteousness, which is limited to human affairs. Therefore, the followers of the Yellow Turbans who aroused people with wild talk all advanced just as clouds do, [to ﬁght the enemy]. If this [teaching] is the truth and is also easily practiced, why do sages reject the practical way that is easily practiced and take up minor things that are difﬁcult to carry out? It is also clear that this cannot be so. In edifying those of various customs, the principle lies in salvation through expedient means. The purport of exaggerated talk can be known [as a matter of course].

Furthermore, you said, “[Regarding] the homage paid to a ruler by his subjects, the principle is limited to the teaching on morality and ethics. Today śramaṇas are not the subjects of princes and nobles. Therefore [the require- ment that they must] bow to them is abolished.”

Why is this so? Regarding the principle of respect, I have explained it in detail in my previous letter. The homage paid to a ruler by his subjects arises entirely spontaneously and is ﬁrm in the foundation of feeling in reason. How could this be a matter of the teaching on morality and ethics? In my previous discussion I said, “[As the Book of Changes says,] ‘The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is called life.’ [The virtue] to make life all over the country and arrange all things lies in sovereigns.” If what makes life possible all over the country lies in these (i.e., sovereigns), how could it be possible that [the sovereign] is not valued by Nature?

In addition, you said, “Those who reach the Way must rely on the achieve- ment of practice . . . accumulating practice is the base cause, the key to one’s next existence Furthermore, in drawing the mind toward the ultimate,

is it possible to neglect courtesy? [Therefore,] even if one were to bend or lift his head [to show respect] for numerous kalpas, this does not mean that he expresses his gratitude for the blessings [he has received].”

Please allow me to follow your purpose in your letter, avail myself of it, and offer criticism. According to your letter, paying respect is the beginning of practice, and sincerely paying respect is important. The achievement of practice must be simply calculated based on the effort one has made toward its achievement. How could it be possible that one merely reveres Śākyamuni and then claims that there is nothing more esteemed than this [action]? Grat- itude for blessings is beyond expression. This is something about which wise people have no doubt. In reason, however, [homage paid to a ruler] is extremely deeply rooted in feeling. It is simply impossible to go about without respect. How could subjects’ paying homage to their king be [the same as] showing gratitude for blessings?

Third Response by Lord [Wang Mi]

I respectfully received your words, together with your gracious second criticism. I accept your lofty purpose. The principle of this issue is profound and it is extremely difﬁcult to discuss. Furthermore, it is a matter of grave concern for our generation. We should thoroughly discuss this in detail before it is too late. My talent is not outstanding and I particularly lack the ability for close investigation and analysis. Moreover, your wondrous criticism is of an

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extremely advanced level. I become more uncertain and confused. Never- theless, since your lofty purpose has reached me I dare not keep silent. In this case I will again recklessly respond to your admonition in accordance with my shortsighted view. Please pardon me if there is nothing [here] to inspire you. I am merely restless. I pray that you will inquire of various Buddhist monks and versatile scholars [about this issue] and remove my imperfect points.

You said, “What is their goal? If studies are considered to be their goal, what scholars learn originally springs simply from the essential qualities of Nature. If Nature exists [ﬁrst of all] and [what scholars learn] is received from it, then it is easily known that Nature is the foundation.”

I think that [śramaṇas’] goal is the highest Way toward which they are heading. Studies are an expedient that we use daily. As we now intend to go to the utmost degree there, it is simply impossible to advance without bor- rowing the expedient [means of study]. Therefore, we know that achievement of [the expedient of study] that we are borrowing is not the utmost point. One who goes to the utmost point [of the Way] through the accumulation of learning certainly goes up coarse steps and reaches a wondrous stage. After the ﬁsh is caught the bamboo ﬁsh trap (i.e., an expedient) is abandoned. This principle is seen here.

You think that it is easy to edify [people] by means of the mysterious, and difﬁcult [to urge and encourage] the achievement of benevolence and righteousness. [You said,] “why do sages reject the practical way that is easily practiced and take up minor things that are difﬁcult to carry out? It is also clear that this cannot be so.”

I think that the Buddha’s teaching is absolutely different from that of the Chinese sages. Since it is said that they differ from each other, they are not on the same level as a matter of course. At present we are discussing Buddhist doctrines. Therefore, we must establish our statements on the basis of its foundation. Only then we can know in detail which aspect [of Buddhism] goes smoothly and which aspect is blocked.

The reason I mentioned in my previous response about benevolent and wholesome practices and the teaching of non-killing [of Confucianism] is because they are similar to and can be seen to be the same as [Buddhist tenets]. Therefore I simply cited them. Regarding your observation, I would

like to argue against it. What the teaching of the Buddhist precepts aims for is assuredly too difﬁcult to be considered the same as [that of Confucianism]. Nevertheless, as far as my ignorant view is concerned, Buddhism is more difﬁcult. Why do I say this? According to what the Chinese sages have now clariﬁed, it is believed that when one sends forth his words, if they are good, they will receive a response, just as a shadow [follows a form] and an echo [follows a sound]; and if the [words] are evil, they will be opposed by people as far as a thousand li distant.312 In this way, good or bad conduct soon responds [to the one who performed the action], and fortune and misfortune [as their results] appear before his eyes. Moreover, [as Confucius says,] “Benevolent conduct is from a man himself.”313 If one broadens [his path] it is good enough. There are, however, still those who reject right and comply with evil, and those who go against the Way and follow [their own] desires. Moreover, in Buddhism one’s lifetime is explained as of very brief duration, like the time it takes to snap one’s ﬁngers, and reaching the essential desti- nation is expected to take place after an eternal kalpa. It is said that mysterious things have no ﬁxed status. Reward and retribution is provided [in the future, even though] no indication of our existence is given. Isn’t it also difﬁcult to accept these and believe [in Buddhism]? For this reason, even though the ediﬁcation [of the Buddha] was introduced into China there are only a small number of people who have become awakened. Therefore, the [Taizi ruiying] benqi jing says, “Words that are strictly true sound paradoxical.”314 This is

what is meant.

You said, “The achievement of practice must be simply calculated based on the effort one has made toward its achievement. How could it be possible that one merely reveres Śākyamuni and then claims that there is nothing more esteemed than this [action]?”

Please let me try to say more about this. I think that the Buddhist Way is great and vast, and its doctrines are complicated. It may be believed that there are more than one practice for training one’s spirit and attaining the Way. In the case of someone who has no weariness in his mind and is able to effort to do anything, to revere the ultimate is merely one of the achieve- ments of practice. I said in my previous response, “Nothing is more esteemed than this.” What I meant was that in drawing the mind toward the ultimate Way, it is difﬁcult to esteem anything more than the principle. I did not mean

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that worship counts for nothing as a practice. As I am yet only in the unsettled stage I cannot but hope that I might be led [to the ultimate Way]. Even if some- thing is very insigniﬁcant, it is certainly what is needed for the closing period. You said, “The homage paid to a ruler by his subjects arises entirely spon- taneously and is ﬁrm in the foundation of feeling in reason. How could this

be a matter of the teaching on morality and ethics?”

I respectfully keep your valued discussion in mind and stick to this. It is faultless. Therefore, I said in my previous response, “As far as the way of the ruler and his people is concerned, I personally agree with your lofty pur- port.” My intention lies in this.

Regarding the homage between a ruler and his subjects, the issue is limited to the decorum of bowing with one’s hands folded in front. Therefore I simply took this to be [the decorum of] the teaching on morality and ethics (i.e., Confucianism). I did not mean that [expressions of respect] between [ruler and subjects] is limited to this behavior.

Please let me explain again in order to completely express my humble intentions. In the world of greatest antiquity a ruler and his subjects were each in their own rank and they had a natural feeling of [mutual] love. Namely, righteousness was apparent in the foundation of ediﬁcation. The forms to show respect of that time are never heard [of today]. The way of the ruler was openly carried out. Consequently, the operation in which [a ruler and his sub- jects] do not engage with one another was peaceful. The way of the subjects was moved and inﬂuenced [by their ruler] imperceptibly. Therefore, they were completely content with any aspect of matters. Inferring from this point, it is almost clear that the forms to show respect have nothing to do with one’s mind. Later, when [people] gave rise to love and praise [for their ruler], this decorum developed. Can it be denied that [this decorum] was established by a sage of later ages and developed in accord with the need of the times?

This logical sequence is abstract and extensive. It is truly difﬁcult to explain this. If I am wrong, please let me receive your lofty words.

Fourth Letter by Huan [Xuan]

Your counterargument is very beautifully written. It is particularly striking. I thought it could dispel my doubtful points but it still has not come to [that

point]. Thereupon, we have attacked and criticized each other but we have not come to a conclusion. If we now again consider the essentials, clarify the principle of the three most revered people, and argue with regard to the gravity [of the ruler and the Buddha], then the reason why [śramaṇas] do or do not bow [to the king] can be understood. I think that the achievement of closely investigating something subtle must lie in going through such trouble and making a judgment.

The eighth day of the month has already come. I have now written to Right Chief Administrator [Yu Heng] and ordered him to enforce [the custom that śramaṇas must] bow [to the king] and revere the way of the ruler. I caused no one in the world to not bow [to the king]. Even though the Buddhist Way is the most respectable, can it be acceptable for [śramaṇas] to not have complete good conduct?

Although this matter has already been put into operation no one should hesitate to discuss this. We should investigate it exhaustively. I think that there are some among you who have analyzed the issue more closely. They may show [their views to Yin] Zhongwen (d. 407).

Additional Criticism by [Huan Xuan]

The other day I received your letter and all the gentlemen’s discourses but none of these have resolved our doubts. While we make criticisms about this issue we merely change from one point to another. Today I will repeat what I pre- viously thought and go into details. I hope that you will rein in a white horse (i.e., stop quibbling) and simply understand that there are rules in debating.315 What is important in Buddhism is to completely value the human spirit.

For this reason, a teacher and his disciples mutually believe in this incom- parable principle. Generally, each side of the spirit’s light and darkness has its own part. There is the foundation from which each part receives its nature when it arises. The teacher’s achievement lies in developing [his disciples’ natural abilities] and awakening them. This can be compared to the achieve- ment of polishing a rough jade from Mount Jing until it becomes smooth and glossy. If the real substance is not ﬁne jade [to begin with], what beneﬁt can be expected if one were to chisel and polish it? This means that the good and bad dispositions of people exist naturally. Profound virtue exists in a

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person at the beginning of his life. The achievement of polishing [his dispo- sition] until it becomes smooth and glossy truly comes at the very end. One holds [his virtuous disposition like] a jade within himself and works on it in order to make [it as useful as a serving] vessel. Except for the way of the ruler nothing prolongs and completes one’s life and leads one to devote himself to the Way. This is why in [ranking] the importance of the three most revered people, the teacher is at the bottom. How can this be said? It is because the way of the ruler holds that of the teacher simultaneously, but [the way of] the teacher does not hold [the way of] the ruler concurrently. To propagate [the Way] through teaching and regulate [people] through laws is the way of the ruler. Isn’t this so? How could it be possible for [the teacher, who is] less important in the principle [of the three most revered people,] to deprive [the ruler, who] should be more highly respected, of homage? I repeated this reason three times. I have even greater suspicions [about your views] and I

am surprised by them.

The purport that [the sages] created [decorum] lies in that (i.e., the ruler), but not in this (i.e., the teacher). When we mistakenly employ this the harmful inﬂuence becomes more serious. I further hope that you will understand the purport [that the sages created decorum], value this issue highly, and com- prehend it, [just as Zhuangzi understood beyond the scope of words on the dam] over the Hao River.316

Fourth Response by Lord [Wang Mi]

Thank you again for your excellent instruction!

You said that the Buddha’s teaching values the human spirit; each side of the spirit’s light and darkness has its own part; the teacher’s principle lies in developing [his disciples’ natural abilities] and awakening them; and, regarding the way of the ruler, it can prolong and complete one’s life and leads one to devote himself to the Way. You indicated that the teacher does not have virtue to lead [the people] inclusively, but the ruler holds the virtue of the teacher simultaneously. You promote the grand decorum to venerate the ruler and analyze the depth of the three most revered people. Everything is exactly as you said. You are truly right, sir.

The reason I recently spoke of my humble views impertinently and cor- responded with you is this: as inquiries [about this issue] gathered around me and I was not allowed to hide them. Therefore, I further argued some rea- sons separately, but this is not a delusion that I have usually had.

I have already carefully looked again into your wondrous purpose. Your reason is quite great and extensive. The phrase “Seeing clearly as if a ﬁlm has been removed from my eyes” applies here.317

I was told that you had already ordered Yu Heng to enforce the custom [that śramaṇas must bow to the king]. This issue has been settled just in time. We, the people and I, feel very happy about this.

I look up respectfully to the meaning I understand, which lies in encour- aging us to adhere to ﬁdelity [to the ruler]. As for your instruction [that we should comprehend this issue just as Zhuangzi understood beyond the scope of words on the dam] over the Hao River, I dare not accept your order.

Letter in Response to Huan Xuan Regarding the Issue that Śramaṇas Should Not

Bow to the King by Dharma Teacher Huiyuan of Mount Lu, together with Huan Xuan’s Two Letters

Letter Given to Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan by Huan Xuan

As for the issue that śramaṇas should not bow to the king, this is already not understood in my feeling and not clariﬁed in reason. It is a matter of grave concern for our generation. We cannot make this establishment inap- propriate. Recently I wrote to the Eight Executives. Today I show this to you. Please explain why [śramaṇas] should not pay homage to [the king]. This custom (i.e., bowing to the king) must be put into practice. I will have every single thing sent to you. I hope that you will certainly have explanations for my doubtful points. Commandant Wang [Mi] seriously intends to take charge of this matter. Recently I visited Xie Zhong along with [Wang Mi] and consulted with [Xie Zhong] about it face to face. I differ from these two (i.e., Wang Mi and Xie Zhong) in regard to the principles on which we base [our arguments]. So we have not dispelled our doubts. I will order Guo

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[Changzhi], [the Regional Chief of] Jiangzhou, to accept your response. Please deliver your opinion to him.

Response [to Huan Xuan] by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan

I carefully examined your proclamation in a separate envelope and the letter given to the Eight Executives.

You ask me my opinion regarding the issue that śramaṇas are disrespectful to the king. Your intention lies in revering the ruler and, in turn, establishing the order of moral justiﬁcation. In order to prove it, you refer to Laozi and take princes to be the same as the three great elements, [Heaven, Earth, and the Way].318 Since the way [of the ruler] is what supports [all things] to grow and [the heavenly bodies] to move smoothly, we must value the throne. If we infer the foundation [of all beings] in order to look for its origin, all beings receive the [yin-yang] vapor from the two polarities (Heaven and Earth) and their bodies from their parents. That is to say, the way to perpetuate lives and cause Heaven and Earth to move smoothly is magnanimous. The principle on which we depend for our existence and which we employ every day is great. Consequently, [śramaṇas] should not abandon showing courtesy to [the king] as long as they receive his virtue. They should not reject paying their respects to him as long as they beneﬁt from his kindness. This is the foundation of your purpose, our donor, and I do not have a different thought from yours. When I look into the issue from [the standpoint of] Buddhism and seek the way of śramaṇas, [however,] the situation is not so in reason. Why? According to what is clariﬁed in Buddhist scriptures there are two groups [of Buddhists]. One group are those who stay in the secular world and propagate the teaching. The other group are those who renounce the world and pursue the [Buddhist] Way [as monastics]. For those who remain in the secular world, the courtesy to serve the ruler, paying respect to one’s parents, and the righteousness of loyalty toward the ruler and ﬁlial piety toward one’s parents are found in compositions in Buddhist texts. The instruc- tion [to value] the three most revered people is evident in the sacred books (i.e., Buddhist scriptures). This is the same ordinance as that of the Imperial system; they are just like a pair of tallies. This point is entirely what you, our donor, have clariﬁed. A divergent view is not allowable in reason. Those who have renounced the world are visitors from beyond the mun- dane world. Their way of life is beyond that of worldly people. The teaching

for them is to master [the fact] that afﬂictions are caused by having a body and that afﬂictions are ended by not preserving the body, to know that [the operation of] life after life is derived from receiving the principle of the muta- tion [of birth and death in the phenomenal world], and to seek the ultimate law of Nature by not following the principle of the mutation [of birth and death]. Since they seek the ultimate law of Nature by not following the prin- ciple of the mutation [of birth and death], they do not value the support of [a sovereign who] manages the movement of [Heaven and Earth]. Since they bring an end to afﬂictions by not preserving the body, they do not esteem the advantage of [the sovereign’s] welfare [toward the people]. This means that the principles and forms go against each other and monks and secular people are contrary to each other. Accordingly, in general those who have renounced the world live in seclusion in order to pursue their aspiration and they become different from secular people in order to realize their way. Since they are different from secular people, their clothing code must not be the same as in secular rule. Since they live in seclusion they must follow a lofty lifestyle. On this basis, they are able to save secular people who are drowning in the deep stream [of the transmigration of birth and death], uproot their deep roots [of karma] for numerous kalpas, profoundly lead [others] to the ferry of the three vehicles, and open the broad path to the realms of heavenly and human beings.

For this reason, while privately a śramaṇa opposes his family’s valuable [attachment to him and becomes a monk] he does not go against ﬁlial piety, and while a śramaṇa may lack the courtesy of paying respect to the ruler in public he is not impolite [to the sovereign]. This kind of person makes a vow for himself by taking the tonsure at the beginning, and his determination is accomplished in his later years. If someone completes the virtue [of a monk], the Buddhist Way diffuses [virtuous inﬂuence] over his family members of the six relations and the beneﬁt spreads to all people. Even though [śramaṇas] are not placed in the rank of princes, [their way] is certainly compatible with the fundamental Way by which the emperor rules over the world, and they provide extensive protection for the people. Their situation is just like this. Do they receive the [ruler’s] favor by doing nothing and vainly beneﬁt from his kindness in the same way as those wise people who receive a stipend without ever rendering any service?

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You recently considered that there are [monks] who put on [Dharma] robes, yet there is no one [who is qualiﬁed to wear the robe]. Therefore, you put the situation in order by selecting monks and training them; you purged and weeded out [unqualiﬁed monks]. Since the time this edict was issued, all monks have increased their sincerity a hundred times over and their ful- ﬁllment has become much deeper. This is beyond all description.

If you further explain what Buddhist monks should be in order to propagate the Buddhist Way, then those who are free from prejudice (i.e., Buddhist monks) will follow [the Buddha’s] footsteps, and those who rinse their mouth with the water of the stream [of the Dharma] will taste the remaining drops. If, after purging and weeding out [unqualiﬁed monks], your mind is still not settled, if true and false [monks] are mixed together in [the Buddhist order (bhikṣu sangha)], and if you are unable to distinguish between [the muddy water of] the Jing River and [the clear water of] the Wei River, then you may remove evil monks by means of the [Buddhist] Way—however, you assuredly must not abolish the [Buddhist] Way because of [such evil] monks. If you remove evil monks by means of the [Buddhist] Way, it is appropriate to take away their [Dharma] robes. Even if you abolish the [Buddhist] Way because of [evil] monks you must keep the framework of [the Buddhist] ceremonies. If the [Buddhist] ceremonies remain, the [Buddha’s] purpose for establishing the [Buddhist] teaching can be sought. If the traces [of the teaching] (i.e., the framework of the Buddhist ceremonies) are abandoned, there will be no basis

for the pleasure of accomplishing our determination.

Why do I say this so plainly? Even though the śramaṇa’s regulation of clothing and Buddhist implements are not like those found in the rules of the six generations,319 they are themselves the distinguished system for the Buddhist school and they are excellent articles beyond the secular world. If such excellent articles are mingled with [secular ones], phenomena go against the foundation. If phenomena go against the foundation, the [framework of the Buddhist] ceremonies loses its function. Accordingly, those who love ceremony certainly do not damage such excellent articles. What you have attained cannot be lost. There is a reason for this.

One who abides by the Classics of the distant past (i.e., Confucius) still keeps the sacriﬁcial sheep connected with the inauguration of the ﬁrst day of each month.320 If the sacriﬁcial sheep can still preserve the ceremony, how

much more so could the Dharma robe of the Tathāgata [preserve the Buddhist ceremonies]! Inferring from this, I say that even if the [Buddhist] Way does not [actually] exist we should certainly preserve the ceremonies. If the cer- emonies are preserved the Dharma can be promulgated. If the Dharma can be promulgated the [Buddhist] Way can be sought. This is common throughout the ages and it is the immutable great law.

Furthermore, the Buddhist surplice is not the type of clothing [for monks to wear] when they have an audience with the emperor at court, and [a Buddhist monk’s] earthenware almsbowl is not a vessel to be used in the Imperial court. The clothes [one wears to participate] in military affairs differ from those [worn when one takes part] in state affairs. The customs of non-Chinese people are not mixed with those of the Chinese. If [a monk] who shaves his head and disﬁgures himself were to suddenly participate in various Chinese ceremonies, this is a phenomenon in which two different kinds of things are mingled. It is also something with which I am personally not content.

You, our donor, have an outstanding personality, towering over others since the time you were young. Your reﬁned taste surpasses that of people of the decadent world. You still call on and study with wise people of the time in order to seek the truth. From this point I infer that you would surely not ignore [good] words just because the person [who expresses those words is ﬂawed].

I am in the evening of my life, just [as when the sun] goes down in the west. I avail myself of my remaining time, awaiting my ﬁnal day. How could what I value highly in my mind only be in order to keep my existence? If I hold fast to my assertion without yielding, it is likely because I merely wish to restore the Three Treasures in this illustrious time and honorably transmit [the Buddha’s] bright virtue to the coming hundred generations.

If this issue [of requiring śramaṇas to bow to the king] is enforced even once Buddhism will be ruined for a long time, the Tathāgata's immutable law will vanish without a trace at this point, heavenly and human beings will lament, and Buddhist monks and laypeople will change their minds [and stop following the Buddhist Way]. How, then, could what I secretly and sincerely expect also be realized?

According to the abundant kindness [with which you treat me], I have frankly expressed here all of what I have in my mind. While writing this I

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felt sad and resentful. I was unaware as my tears and nasal mucus unre- strainedly ﬂowed.

Response [to Huiyuan] by Defender-in-Chief Huan [Xuan], together with the Decree to Stop Śramaṇas from Bowing [to the King]

I came to know that [śramaṇas] abandon their bodies because they are [visitors from] beyond the mundane world, and therefore they do not value the beneﬁt of maintaining their lives. [You said,] “Since they seek the ultimate law of Nature by not following the principle of the mutation [of birth and death], they do not value the support of [a sovereign who] manages the movement of [Heaven and Earth].”

Moreover, you said, “While privately a śramaṇa opposes his family’s valuable [attachment to him and becomes a monk] he does not go against ﬁlial piety, and while a śramaṇa may lack the courtesy of paying respect to the ruler in public he is not impolite [to the sovereign].”

If the situation is just as you describe in your letter and all principles between father and son are originally not important, then we have nothing to follow in extending a feeling of ﬁlial piety. If the task of [śramaṇas] has nothing to do with the support and guidance [of the ruler], they need not again have the signiﬁcance of extending respect [to him]. If you admit that [śramaṇas’] feelings for the ruler and their own fathers have not come to an end, why then do they reject [paying respect] to convey their feelings? Worries exist in mental delusions, not from the form of bowing. Probably the form of bowing is simply [the manifestation] of the mental function. If in the basis (i.e., the mind) one rejects the form of bowing, this is again some-

thing I do not understand.

Furthermore, you said that Buddhism is propagated by two groups; there is the teaching for those who stay in the secular world; there is also the teach- ing [for śramaṇas,] the beneﬁts of which spreads to all people of the world; the way [attained by śramaṇas] diffuses [virtuous inﬂuence] over their family members of the six relations; [the way of śramaṇas] is assuredly compatible with the fundamental Way by which the emperor rules over the world; and [śramaṇas] do not vainly beneﬁt from [the ruler’s] virtue.

Buddhism exists in acts. By each [act Buddhists] comply with circumstances. There is the origin of cause and condition and there is surely a result, without fail. If [Buddhism] is like this, how can those who follow the [Buddhist] Way disobey [the doctrines]? Therefore Śākyamuni’s Way was not able to cause his father, King Śuddhodana, to ride the ferry beyond [to nirvana]. Even though [King Śuddhodana] did not attain the stage of entering the stream of the sacred law (Skt. srotaāpatti-phala), originally this is simply the same as what his people received. Just as you said in your letter, there is a reason for this. The achievement of profound virtue is assuredly not what “those who should teach [Buddhism]” (i.e., śramaṇas) of today can consider and deliberate.

I have not been able to seek the reason [of this issue] together with you in your letter. I have only been greatly disappointed. Accordingly, I have not yet clariﬁed the issue. I hope that you will become free from confusion and the stagnant ideas that you have held for a long time, and not make a mistake in employing feeling and reason.

Imperial Decree to Allow Buddhist Monks Not to Bow [to the King] by Huan [Xuan, Former King of] Chu321

My people! The Buddhist Dharma is too vast and unintelligible for me to under- stand. I infer your serious feelings for [Buddhism] and purposely join you in your respect for it. Today [I have ascended the throne], so the issue [of whether or not śramaṇas must bow to the king] is already at my discretion. If the issue is not completely understood, I would sooner follow the course that [śramaṇas] are exempt [from bowing to the king]. Everyone, do not force [śramaṇas] to bow [to the king] any more, and let all the people know about this.

[Response to Huan Xuan’s Decree by Bian Sizhi and Yuan Kezhi]

On the third day of the twelfth month, we, Palace Attendant [Bian] Sizhi and Gentleman Attendant at the Palace Gate and Palace Attendant Yuan Kezhi, speak.

The Imperial decree is just as mentioned above. The Way of the Spirit is profound and obscure and the Imperial will is profound and remote. What

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Your Majesty propagates is great. This has accordingly reached Buddhists who believe in the Buddha. Within the territory of your state all people are Your Majesty’s lieges. Nevertheless, [Buddhist monks] place themselves as equal in courtesy to the emperor who commands ten thousand chariots, because they formerly began wearing the Dharma robe [and became monks]. We are discontented with this. How can practicing the decorum of bowing [to the king] with one’s head to the ground and standing up damage their way? The important human relations between the nobles and the humble people should not be discontinued at all. If you allow that those except Confucianists may be excused from the deportment of bowing, please reject granting them an audience immediately. This statement should be kept in mind.

Humbly yours.

[Decree by Huan Xuan]

What is the problem? You must follow my Imperial decree.

[Response to Huan Xuan’s Decree by Ma Fan and Bian Sizhi]

On the fourth day of the twelfth month of the second year of Taiheng (403), we, Director of Interpreter-Clerk Ma Fan and Palace Attendant [Bian] Sizhi, speak.

We report to you. Again we received your brilliant Imperial decree. You honor the highest degree of deep modesty and walk the way of glorious humility. We are always concerned about you and we personally feel uneasy. Even though there are various ways to govern the world, all principles come to the same point. In revering one’s ruler and parents the Dharma teach- ing (i.e., Buddhism) does not go against [the Chinese teaching]. The four that are great (i.e., Heaven, Earth, the Way, and the king) advocated by Laozi are equal in nobility.322 Even though [the teaching] of which śramaṇas avail themselves differs from [that of secular people,] their traces (actions) do not go beyond this world. How could it be possible that they are not the same

as those whom Heaven made?

Your Majesty sincerely intends to promulgate [the custom that śramaṇas do not have to bow to the king] above others. Nevertheless, the decorum between the humble people and nobles is the statute to govern the world. We

think you must condescend and follow popular sentiment and uphold [the custom that śramaṇas should bow to the king] as an eternal system for the future. Please do as we have stated previously.

Humbly yours.

[Decree by Huan Xuan]

Leave this issue as it is! Let each person act in his own way! This is also to love the nine schools without distinction and to let each fulﬁll his own way.

[Response to Huan Xuan’s Decree by Bian Sizhi]

I, Palace Attendant and Libationer Sizhi, speak.

Again I was granted the Imperial decree, as mentioned above.

Your Majesty’s highest virtue is perfectly free from prejudice. You let [the wind] blow so that each of the myriad [apertures] makes its own sound.323 Each of the nine schools shows its good point. Both the eminent and the dark attain their summit. Your marvelous kindness secretly ﬂows. There is no one who does not hold this thought in mind. This is why all people rely on your support and guidance, and this is why heavenly and human beings feel com- fortable together.

I have heard that Buddhism takes spiritual wisdom as the foundation and reaching the goal as the achievement. Except for these points, this [teaching] likely only has the function of edifying and leading ordinary people of the secular world.

The mysterious principle is obscure. We seek it beyond the world of form. If [Buddhist monks] respectfully bow [to the king] with their heads to the ground and then stand up, there is nothing in this that will damage their obser- vance of [Buddhist] precepts. If they practice the [Buddhist] Way without losing respect [for the ruler], and if the laws of the land are equally revered in the territory of your state, then both the [Buddhist] Way and the [king’s] constitution will ﬂourish and Buddhism and the non-Buddhist teaching (i.e., Confucianism) will be entirely harmonious.

I was previously appointed to a post in a foreign land and I was rarely informed of your words. Therefore I did not know about your brilliant dis- cussion on this issue last spring. Recently I was directly granted the Imperial

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decree. I then frankly stated my silly thoughts, which I was afraid did not meet yours. After returning here, I precisely saw the reality of this issue and received your marvelous writings. Your purpose is boundless and your logical analysis is profound. These are not things that I, an incompetent man, am able to praise merely by clapping my hands.

In former ages it was already practiced that śramaṇas place themselves as equal [to the king]. Today you, a great bright man, ascended [the throne] and your ediﬁcation of the Way reaches all people without exception. In order to rule the country there should not be any deﬁciency in important human relations. As I previously stated, please keep control over those except [Confucianists] and put this into operation.

Humbly yours.

[Decree by Huan Xuan]

Now that both Buddhism and the non-Buddhist teaching are promulgated concurrently, why do you employ the principle of former ages? You are too meticulous about this issue. Again, this is not praise for the way [of the ruler].

[Response to Huan Xuan’s Decree by Bian Sizhi]

I, Palace Attendant and Libationer Sizhi, speak.

I respectfully received the Imperial decree again.

Now that both Buddhism and the non-Buddhist teaching are promulgated concurrently, the Imperial decree is deeply understood and [Your Majesty’s] way holds the premier position over those of a hundred kings. I humbly read [the Imperial decree] and exclaimed with reverence. This is beyond my reach. To revere the ruler and respect the law is the ﬁdelity of vassals. Therefore, I diligently and incessantly stand on [the custom that śramaṇas must bow to the king].

Your brilliant decree is transcendental and your profound strategy is eternal and fair. I am ignorant, shallow, and illogical. As a result, I am ashamed of myself. I will follow [the Imperial decree] and consign this [matter] to the external bureau. I will propagate, regulate, and abide by this.

Humbly yours.

Presented on the twenty-fourth day of the twelfth month of the ﬁrst year of Yuanshi (403).

Letter Given to Huan Xuan to Discuss the Evaluation of Śramaṇas by Huiyuan of Mount Lu, together

with Huan Xuan’s Decree

Decree Given to the Staff to Intend to Select Buddhist Monks by Regent Huan Xuan

The Way of the Spirit is obscure. This is something of which sages do not speak. Nevertheless, when we think about what their works promulgate, it seems that we will be able to see [the sages’ idea regarding the Way of the Spirit]. What the Buddha treasures is wuwei (i.e., nirvana), and his cordial intention lies in cutting off desire. These days, however, [his teaching] has fallen into decadence and consequently these tenets (i.e., nirvana and cutting off desires) are lost. In the capital city [of Jiankang, Buddhist monks] vie with each other in having an extravagant life. Opulent [Buddhist] buildings are numerous in the Imperial court as well as in the city. Because of this, public funds in the Imperial treasury are decreasing. Rankings and the proper equipages [for cer- emonies] have become wicked and corrupt due to this fact. Those who run away from corvée labor gather together in every county. Absconders ﬁll the Buddhist temples. Consequently several thousand [runaways and absconders] gather in every county and form a lawless community. The drones of society gather in groups in every town. In every place outlaws ﬂock together. These people have already caused harm to the government and profaned Buddhism; they assuredly exhaust both that (i.e., the government) and this (i.e., Buddhism).

They really corrupt the standard of customs and cultural inﬂuence.

We should immediately issue the following strict orders. Among all the śramaṇas in every place, those who are able to explain the teachings of Buddhist scriptures in detail and can ﬂuently expound the Buddhist doctrines; those who orderly cultivate religious practices, who observe the precepts with- out deﬁciency, and who always reside in a hermitage (Skt. araṇya); and those who live in the mountains to ennoble their aspirations and who are not deluded by popular custom—all these are worthy to be in charge of propagating the

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great ediﬁcation. Therefore they will show people what the Way is, propagate the teaching, and serve as a model for the people. Fortunately they practice Buddhism and the non-Buddhist teaching concurrently.324

[Buddhist monks] who do not fall within the purview of the abovemen- tioned should all be purged from [the Buddhist order]. In each place where an institution is located the registers [of the Buddhist monks] must be managed and strictly controlled. This should be promptly decreed and, at the same time, [the measures we take] should be listed and reported to me. Mount Lu is the only place where virtuous Buddhist monks reside and it is excepted from the investigation for this decree.

Letter Given to Defender-in-Chief Huan [Xuan] to Discuss the Evaluation of Śramaṇas by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan

It has been a long time since Buddhism gradually began to decline and became obscene and odd. Every time I think about this, my heart ﬁlls with indignation. I am always afraid that [Buddhism] will unexpectedly encounter bad times, get mixed up [with evil], and altogether sink into ruin. This is why I lament and worry from early morning until night without sparing myself.

I have read, our donor, your decree to put all Buddhist monks in order. This truly conforms to my true intention. If the Jing River were separated from the Wei River, the clear water will ﬂow separately from the muddy water. If what is crooked is straightened by what is upright, those who lack virtue will spontaneously disappear. Inferring from this point, I say that once Heaven’s auspicious decree is put into practice we will certainly be able to distinguish between the two principles (i.e., good and evil). Most certainly [monks] who make a plausible outward show will cut off their false path by themselves, and [those] who believe in the [Buddhist] Way and embrace the truth in their minds will not be suspected of turning their backs on the secular world. Thus, the [Buddhist] Way and the secular world will ﬂourish together and the Three Treasures will again prosper here.

The reason I live in the Jiangnan area is because I wish to rely on the one who practices the [Buddhist] Way in order to maintain the great enterprise

(i.e., Buddhism). The rise and fall of the [great] enterprise truly depends on this person. I happened to meet in these years when you, our donor, [have come to the forefront]. This is the best time for me to restore [Buddhism]. My secret feeling to rely on you was already formed in our former existences. Accordingly, in letters I often sent to you I considered that relying on you is the foremost point. Every time I ﬁnd that your letter comforts me, I keep your favor in my mind and never forget it. I am simply afraid that as I grow older and older with the change of times I will not be able to see your pros- perous ediﬁcation through to the end. Therefore, I now confer with you about several articles, as [outlined in] the attached paper.

According to what is stated in the teachings of the Buddhist scriptures there are generally three classes [of Buddhists]. First is the class of those who enter the subtle [state] through meditation; second are those who recite and appreciate the scriptures left [by the Buddha]; last are those who perform meritorious acts. These three classes are truly separate from one another but they all make acts based on the Vinaya as the foundation. [The three kinds of Buddhist monks] recently [identiﬁed by] you, our donor, in your decree appear to be almost the same as these classes. There is no question about these [three classes of Buddhist monks].

[Nevertheless,] among those who establish meritorious acts there are some who do not violate the precepts in their minds yet live in a place other than a hermitage; there are those who recite many Buddhist scriptures and chant them continually, yet they cannot smoothly explain the doctrines; or there are those who are already aged and do not fall under the three classes [men- tioned above], yet whose essential nature is pure and virtuous and who do not do serious evil. Generally, people like these are suspect. When I make a thorough investigation on the regulation of your [decree] to banish [unqualiﬁed monks] now, these people should not be targeted for interrogation; otherwise, the people of the world will be anxious and confused [about your decree] and no one will be able to feel peaceful. Therefore I clearly state this. It is easy to examine outward appearance and manner but difﬁcult to dis- tinguish truth from falsehood. Except for someone who has a deep ability to examine and study, it is truly difﬁcult to clarify this. Śramaṇas who reside in the metropolitan city and whom you, our donor, can [directly] see and

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hear assuredly have nothing that makes them suspect. If government ofﬁces in the border regions are remote and [clear] information does not reach them, and [the people in these ofﬁces] do not understand the purpose of your decree, then they may take advantage of Heaven’s auspicious decree and unreasonably include good people in [the purge]. This is my deepest concern. If an executive ofﬁcial of each ofﬁce has no detailed idea [about the decree], and if at that time there are no experienced and reputable śramaṇas who can make a correct judg- ment, please have the reports sent to the central government ofﬁce in order to be examined by you. Then it will be great in reason. I think that you, our donor, have wondrous thoughts and already understand this. This is merely my com- monplace feeling. Therefore I could not stop speaking to you about it.

If among the sons of powerful families there are lineages that are originally exempt from corvée labor, those [whose families] follow the great Dharma from generation to generation or who are known to be intelligent by nature when they are young and who wish to renounce the secular world, enter the [Buddhist] Way, and strive to become a śramaṇa, then when I infer from the regulation [of the decree] and think of the intention, it seems that [these cases] will not be blocked from their pure path. However, you must confer and settle this point and cause those who purify their minds and head toward the goal to have no doubt about themselves. In former times many foreign kings applied their minds to sacred [Buddhist] scriptures. Moreover, in accordance with the times, some kings helped the propagation of the great ediﬁcation, protected [the Buddhist Way] from danger, and saved it from disadvantage. Truly there are reasons for this. Since you, our donor, often hope to equalize your frame of mind with those of ancient [wise] people, I again brieﬂy state what I have learned.

Letter Given to Huan Xuan to Discuss that the Provincial Office Requests to Register Śramaṇas by Dharma Teacher Zhi Daolin325

On the ﬁfth day of the fourth month of the third year of Long’an (399), we, śramaṇas of the metropolitan city, bow with our heads to the ground and speak. If there is the fundamental [principle] in the culmination of manifestation, those who rely upon this will reach it. If the law agrees with what is super- natural and profound, we will more deeply receive favor. Therefore, Confucius

emptied his room [to travel around] and Yan [Yuan] forgot to go home because of pleasures elsewhere. Isn’t it the case that they both had abundant morality but simply forgot to return home?

Even though we have an ordinary personality and are frivolous in practice, we respect the Three Treasures and cultivate ourselves with them. Our affec- tion [for Buddhism] came from Heaven and we had faith [in Buddhism] before learning it. As for the merit (i.e., enlightenment) attained by diminishing day after day,326 however, we place our hands on our chests and increase our lamentation. Throwing ourselves under the wings of sage rulers and sagacious kings, we are personally able to further propagate the [Buddhist] Way. You enable those who live in the mountains to have their own way in cultivation and those who live near a city to be quietly proﬁcient in [the teaching]. Because the Imperial favor is broadly poured on us, even the decayed trunk of a tree may be covered by lush vegetation.

Nevertheless, the status of śramaṇas in the world may be simply compared to that of unloaded boats that converge at a great gorge. When they come they do not think anything, and when they go they take advantage of tran- quility. Somewhat to our surprise, there is no abode for them in this world. If the country is in a troubled state they travel alone, shaking a walking stick. When the [Buddhist] Way is diffused they gladly gather together. Therefore, there is truly a reason for śramaṇas to come from distant places.

You try to raise great disciplines in the period of decadence and extend sincerity for a hundred generations, but these days we are frequently requested by the provincial ofﬁce to present the register of śramaṇas. The situation has become acute and very urgent. We have not yet understood your lofty purpose for this. Rustics easily become fearful and deeply anxious. Conse- quently, this causes people who meditate to lose their calmness and gentlemen who practice diligently to discontinue their practice. We lose the essence and vital energy and cannot sleep until dawn. We are uneasy and do not know how to calm ourselves.

We humbly pray that our bright lord will raise the customs handed down from [Tao] Tang (i.e., Emperor Yao) to a high rank and treat Buddhist monks kindly under these conventions. Please allow those who hold the [Buddhist] Way in mind to attain liberation and all those who have the noble aspiration to achieve their goal. Their bodies will perish and they will exhaust their bodies

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and complete their lives here. Your Majesty’s thought and judgment is extremely far-reaching. Though we have not yet written everything, we respectfully submit this to Imperial hearing. Having done so, we are humbly frightened.

Report to Emperor Wu of the Qi Dynasty to Discuss the Issue of the Inspection and Examination of Buddhist Monks by Shi Daosheng of Tianbao Temple

I, Shi Daosheng of Tianbao Temple, report.

Formerly Confucius educated three thousand disciples. Among them, those who studied astronomy wore a round cap and those who studied geography put on rectangular shoes. Zhuang Zhou of Chu state visited Lord Ai [of Lu state] and said, “I have heard that there are quite a few people who are well acquainted with astronomy and geography in this country. Please let me test them.” Lord Ai immediately sent out an ofﬁcial announcement through the country, ordered those who were versed in astronomy to wear a round cap and those who were learned in geography to put on rectangular shoes, and commanded all to come to the gate [of his palace]. Confucius alone arrived at the gate and answered all the questions. Therefore it is known that all the other scholars adopted the [Confucian style of] dress arbitrarily.

Śākyamuni emeged into this world, expounded the Four Noble Truths and the six pāramitās, and established various precepts and deportment. [His disciples] such as Śāriputra all attained arhatship. Accordingly, it is known that the great Dharma is not something that has no fundamental truth. Nevertheless, from that time (i.e., the time when the Buddha resided in the world) on people’s faculties have become dull and we have become far removed from the [Buddhist] Way. Our minds are bound with deﬁlements. If we can leave behind the thought [of desire] we will be in accord with the precepts and codes of conduct. If not, we will be [like] those who arbitrarily

put on [Buddhist] robes.

I humbly pray, Your Majesty, that with your holy brightness you will deeply understand this principle and not assume that [we śramaṇas are simply] ordinary people who seek the Way of the Sage.

In ancient times Zichan of Zheng state was praised as a great wise person but he still was unable to correct his faults and was jeered at by Shentu Jia.327 This goes without saying for bhikṣus of the present time, in the age of the Decadent Dharma. How can they correct their faults? If one cannot correct his faults he will certainly give rise to evil intentions. How can the three administrative monks of the temple fulﬁll your order? There is criminal law in the country. I pray that you will decree that the local government ofﬁce should punish [evil bhikṣus] according to the offense [they have committed]. We would be happy if we do not confuse you [by doing so].

Illness due to old age rages within me, but I admire the complaints board of remote antiquity328 and dare to express this. I bend down over the paper and break into a cold sweat.

Sincerely yours.

End of Fascicle Twelve of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Thirteen

Essentials for Believing in the Dharma by Palace Secretary Chi [Chao]329

The threefold refuge (Skt. triśaraṇa-gamana) refers to taking refuge in the Buddha, the twelve kinds of Buddhist scriptures, and the Buddhist order. You must always worship and repent your sins to the buddhas of the three temporal worlds of past, present, and future in the ten directions [of the uni- verse], the doctrine of the scriptures of the three temporal worlds in the ten directions, and the Buddhist order of the three temporal worlds in the ten directions. We must take refuge with an utmost mind in each part of [this triad]. At the same time, we should think of all sentient beings with compassion and benevolence and pray that they will all attain liberation.

What is called namo in the foreign language (Skt. namas) means “to surrender oneself to” in the Chinese language. [The word] “buddha” means “awakened one” and [the word] “sangha” means “a group” in the Chinese language.

The ﬁve precepts [for lay Buddhists] are: (1) not to kill, nor to cause others to do so, and to always be sure to observe [this precept] ﬁrmly to the end of one’s life; (2) not to steal nor to cause others to do so, and to always be sure to observe [this precept] ﬁrmly to the end of one’s life; (3) not to commit adultery nor to cause others to commit it, and to always be sure to observe [this precept] ﬁrmly to the end of one’s life; (4) not to speak falsehoods nor to cause others to do so, and to always be sure to observe [this precept] ﬁrmly to the end of one’s life; and (5) not to drink intoxicants, nor to give intoxicants as a gift or a treat [to others], and to always be sure to observe [this precept] ﬁrmly to the end of one’s life.

When an intoxicant is used for medicinal purposes the dosage must be weighed; it is important to stay within the limit of sobriety. Drunkenness causes thirty-six faults and the scriptural teachings take this as a serious precept. If there are no acts of killing [all creatures] can live a long time. If there are no acts of stealing [the world] will always remain peaceful and safe. If

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there is no adulterous conduct, we remain clean and pure. If there are no falsehoods people will always respect and trust each other. If there is no drunkenness our spirits are clear and in good order.

After [mastering] observation of the ﬁve precepts, we then perform puriﬁ- cation for three periods every year and six days each month. The three periods in a year for puriﬁcation are from the ﬁrst to the ﬁfteenth day of the ﬁrst, ﬁfth, and ninth months. The six monthly days for puriﬁcation are the eighth, the fourteenth, the ﬁfteenth, the twenty-third, the twenty-ninth, and the thirtieth day of each month.

On all puriﬁcation days ﬁsh and meat must not be offered. We eat before noon and must not partake of anything such as sweets and delicious food in the afternoon. We cleanse our minds, keep our minds on the [Buddhist] Way, take refuge in the three revered ones (i.e., the Three Treasures), repent our sins, reproach ourselves, and practice the four immeasurable minds. We stay away from the inner chamber (i.e., engagement in sexual relations) and do not become attached to the six desires. We must not whip or curse others, nor ride in an oxcart or horse-drawn carriage, and we must not carry weapons. Regarding [lay]women, over and above these [rules of deportment] they must abstain from adorning themselves with perfume, ﬂowers, and cosmetics, correct their minds, rectify their thoughts, and strive to remain docile. The puriﬁcation is extensively performed for the sake of one’s acquain- tances and relatives, both those who have passed away and those who are still alive, as well as for all sentient beings. Everyone will come to awaken the aspiration [for enlightenment] (Skt. bodhicitta) on the basis of this utmost sincerity. Once our minds have become inspired [toward enlightenment] we will ﬁnally avoid the suffering caused by the sins [we have committed]. Therefore, loyal and ﬁlial people make effort and encourage themselves to perform [puriﬁcation]. This is really for the merit of liberation of all people,

not simply for one’s own sake.

On the day of puriﬁcation we must devote ourselves solely to practicing the profound contemplation and recite the words of the Dharma. If we are unable to practice [the contemplation on] emptiness, we must learn the six kinds of mindfulness (Skt. ṣaḍ anusmṛti). The six kinds of mindfulness refer to: (1) mindfulness of the Buddha, (2) mindfulness of the [Buddhist] scriptures,

(3) mindfulness of the sangha, (4) mindfulness of donations, (5) mindfulness

of the precepts, and (6) mindfulness of Heaven. What is meant by “mind- fulness of Heaven”? The ten wholesome acts and the four immeasurable minds are considered to be the acts [that lead us] to be reborn in Heaven. Moreover, it essentially means to exert ourselves to the best of our ability to save all sentient beings.

The ten wholesome acts refer to not committing the bodily sins of killing, stealing, and adultery, not committing the mental sins of envy, rage, and ignorance, and not committing the verbal sins of telling lies, engaging in idle talk, being duplicitous, and using abusive language.

What is meant by “not killing”? We must always be compassionate toward all living creatures, including vermicular animals. Even in desperate circum- stances we must never harm them. Whenever sentient beings are facing a disaster or danger we must devote all our energies to rescue them and return them to the water or the land, according to wherever they used to live. In the case where there is doubt whether [a living thing] was killed for our beneﬁt (i.e., slaughtered for food) we must not receive [any beneﬁt from the killing]. What is meant by “stealing”? This generally means to take things that are not our own possessions, regardless of size, as well as to become corrupt

when in an ofﬁcial position. These are all called “stealing.”

What is meant by “adultery”? All kinds of attachments are generally called “excessive desires.” As applied to sexual desire, we must not engage in sexual relations with anyone other than our ofﬁcially married spouse. In addition, since [adultery involves having an illicit] secret [relationship with someone] that cannot be made public, it is simultaneously a sin of “stealing.”

What is called “envy” is jealousy. When we see others’ good points, or we see that other people are virtuous we all must replace [any sense of envy] with great joy. We must not give rise to rivalry or thoughts of jealous hatred.

What is called “rage” is that the mind harbors wrath and keeps deﬁlement within it.

What is called “ignorance” is to have no faith in the great Dharma and to doubt the scriptural teachings.

What is meant by “telling lies” is to consider nonexistence to be existence and to fabricate groundless assertions.

What is meant by “idle talk” is rhetorical embellishments and sweet- sounding words, which may be beautiful but lack substance.

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What is meant by “being duplicitous”? This means to say different things to one’s face and behind his back, and be self-contradictory.

What is meant by “abusive language”? This refers to reviling [others]. Some people say that abusive language also refers to speaking unwholesome things and cause people to blindly follow [this speech] and commit sin. On the whole, we must not give rise in the mind to any of these ten [unwholesome] behaviors even for a moment. These are the ten wholesome acts and [refraining from them is] also called the ten precepts. The ﬁve precepts regulate bodily acts and the ten wholesome acts serve to protect one’s mind from evil. There is a difference between crudeness and ﬁneness in acts. Accordingly, there is a difference between light and heavy reward

and retribution [for these acts].

Generally, the relative world [where sentient beings transmigrate from one life to another] is collectively called the three realms of existence, within which there are ﬁve paths, those of (1) heavenly beings, (2) human beings,

(3) animals, (4) hungry ghosts, and (5) inhabitants of the hells.

Those who completely observe the ﬁve precepts will possess a human form. Those who complete the ten wholesome acts will be reborn in Heaven. Even those who complete only one [of the ﬁve] precepts will be able to become human beings. There are differences among people regarding their social rank or life span. These [differences] are due to how many precepts one has observed [in his or her previous existences].

The opposite of the ten wholesome acts are the ten evil acts. Those who have committed all ten evil acts will fall into hell.330 Those who are bellicose and obstinate, who disregard sincere remonstrance, whose minds are full of poisonous thoughts, and who deceive others to proﬁt themselves fall either into the realm of animals or are reborn as snakes or vipers. Those who are stingy and greedy, who monopolize proﬁts, and who always complain of dis- satisfaction fall into the realm of hungry ghosts. Those whose sins are some- what light but who often keep [their misdeeds] secret, and whose personal feelings are not fair and clear, all fall into the state of spiritual beings (guishen). Even though they may enjoy a little happiness they cannot avoid suffering from pain. These [three realms] (i.e., hell, the realm of hungry ghosts, and the realm of animals) are called the three lowest realms of existence (santu) and also called the three evil paths (san’edao).

Form, perception [consisting of pain (tong) and pleasure (yang; literally meaning “itch”)], conception [consisting of thinking and recollection], volition [consisting of arising and extinction], and consciousness are called the ﬁve skandhas (Sk. pāñcaskandha). Generally all external things that have a shape and are visible are called form. Losing this [form] and becoming sad and distressed is [the perception] of pain. Having this [form] and being greatly delighted is [the perception] of pleasure. Considering beforehand what has not yet taken place is thinking, and looking back at what has already happened is recollection. That mental functions begin to take place refers to arising, and that recollection has ended and consciousness has been extinguished refers to extinction. That which formerly was involved [in the mind], stored there, and never forgotten is consciousness. Consciousness still germinates in the mind after having passed through a succession of kalpas. Even though its derivation is obscure it is deeply rooted [in the mind] and is secretly linked to [other consciousness]. What is as small as a hair’s breadth in the beginning becomes as large as a huge gulf or high mountain in the end. For this reason those who learn [Buddhism] try to be prudent even in things in which they are well versed.

The ﬁve hindrances that cover one’s mind (Skt. pañca-nivaraṇā) are: (1) greed and excessive desire, (2) anger (hatred and resentment), (3) ignorance;

(4) holding wrong views, and (5) dallying [with someone of the opposite sex].331 Speaking of each [hindrance] separately, the desire to seek something is greed; extreme attachment to things is excessive desire; the external expres- sion of [anger] is a hateful glare and smoldering [anger] is resentment; and being bound by deﬁlements, offending the right path, and being perverse and confused are ignorance. Ignorance is the foundation of the causality of birth and death. All kinds of various attachments entirely begin with ignorance. Painful torment in hell mostly results from anger. A sutra says, “The sin of committing murder in an unexpected ﬁght is still light, but if one harbors poison in the mind and conspires [to commit a murder] the sin coagulates more and more through a succession of kalpas and the person has no time for liberation.”332

The six feelings (Skt. ṣaḍ-āyatana), also called the six [elements of] decay or the six desires [corresponding to the six sense organs,] are the visual per- ception of form, the auditory perception of sound, the olfactory perception

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of smell, the gustatory perception of ﬂavor, the tactile perception of touch, and the mental perception of recognition. Recognition is consciousness of [the ﬁve] skandhas mentioned above. I am inclined to think that the ﬁve skandhas and the six desires [corresponding to the six sense organs] are the origins of the transmigration of birth and death and [thus] the source of all sin and suffering. The methods to remove and control these are set forth in detail in numerous sutras.

A sutra says, “The mind makes one a heavenly being. The mind makes one a human being. The mind makes one an inhabitant of hell. The mind makes one an animal. Even those who attain the Way owe [this accomplish- ment] to the mind.”333

Whenever a thought is impelled by the mind, each and every thought is subject to reward and retribution. Even if an action has not yet taken place the hidden response is constituted in the unseen world. Thoughts arising from feelings move swiftly and smoothly. They abruptly emerge one after another, without cessation. The mechanism [of causality] very slightly moves but then ﬁlls the universe. Fortune and misfortune [as reward and retribution] and one’s physical form and destination (Skt. gati) [in the next existence] entirely derive from [thoughts arising from feelings]. Good or bad luck, repentance or regret, are determined in a moment. Therefore, those who prac- tice the [Buddhist] Way must mentally exercise caution when alone to obviate [evil thoughts] while they are still minor, to take the beginning [of a matter] into account, to consider the highest doctrine to be like a city wall and moat [that provide a barrier against evil], to manage the foundation always in order to control the end, and to not rashly give rise to thoughts simply because any action [arising from thought] has not yet taken place. How could they be concerned only with “[Good] words expressed in a house are responded to from a place a thousand li away,”334 or that one is prudent in his bodily actions because “nothing is more visible than what is secret”?335

The second translation of the Sutra of Twelve Gates (Shiermen jing) says,336 “If one has a good point he should always hide it. If one has a bad point he should bring it forth.”

A gentleman does not set his mind either for anything or against anything.337 If one has faults and does not repent [of his folly], certainly he will not feel satisﬁed with himself. [Therefore,] he had better abandon the course of action

within the circumstance he has been given. How can one worry about the matter of whether [his actions] are known or hidden? If this is so, the appli- cation of the teaching lies in [our mental attitude] in ordinary [daily life]. When we examine the laws of nature working in evil acts and meritorious deeds, we see that the more [an evil intention] leaks out, the lighter [the sin] will be, and the more [an evil intention] is inwardly accumulated, the heavier [the sin]. Once an [evil] act is set forth in the human world retribution in the

unseen world will certainly be lessened.

Moreover, boasting about wholesome acts and making a display of one’s meritorious deeds are the grand reality of human beings. Covering up one’s faults and speaking of one’s demerits in ﬁne language are common among all people. If wholesome conduct is apparent, the achievement becomes known. If the achievement becomes known, public praise centers on one [who has made wholesome conduct]. If someone is concerned about stopping [evil] and encouraging [virtue] in his feeling, and if public praise centers on him from the outside, he will then harbor greed [to retain praise], which cer- tainly ﬁlls him from within. Furthermore, a gentleman among human beings is still a small man of Heaven.338 [Even so he is a gentleman,] not to speak of one whose benevolence is immature and whose fame does not match with reality. Such a person certainly deserves punishment in the unseen world. Except for those who possess virtue, we all surely have some incomplete- ness. If one were to frankly expose [his transgressions] to everyone [his sin] will disperse along with [his transgressions]. If he allows an unjust thought to become imprinted on his mind, harbors it, maintains his honor outwardly in order to avoid others’ reproach and win worldly fame, he then greatly insults the laws of nature. The punishment of nature will be even heavier!

Therefore, Zhuangzi said, “If one does evil secretly and stealthily, spirits can punish him.”339

Moreover, regarding human feelings, one does not feel shame before the laws [of nature] yet does before the public. If his fault is revealed he will be blamed. If he is blamed, he will be ashamed. If that feeling occurs and if he compensates for [his fault], no further transgression will be accumulated. [On the other hand,] if one presumes that [his fault] will not be revealed, he will not reform himself after all. In addition, if heavenly blame [for his fault] ﬁlls one’s mind and he fears that it will be revealed, he will inwardly worry

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about everything and take precautions even more skillfully. He will thus be in distress for the rest of his life about this one matter. Disasters from Heaven and the troubles of the human world will surely and suddenly visit him in the end. This is probably because he did not refrain from giving rise to the [evil] scheme at the beginning, concealed the fault, and did not praise what is wholesome.

The Sutra on the Formal Puriﬁcation (Zhengzhai jing) says,340 “You may simply speak of a hundred good things of others, but you must not speak of even a single evil thing of others.” When we speak of others’ wholesomeness we give rise to a wholesome mind. When we speak of others’ evils we give rise to an angry intention. Even though [such a wholesome or unwholesome] intention may be small at ﬁrst, it gradually grows by accumulation. For this reason, a good thought produces an immense amount of wholesomeness, while an evil thought produces a vast amount of unwholesomeness.

Ancient people said, “The prosperity of a military family does not last more than three generations.” Chen Ping also said, “Because I have laid many plots, my descendants will not become prosperous.”341 If we refer to [these words] and take them as a teaching, it is truly worthy to propagate [Buddhism in China].

Nevertheless, in [the royal families of] of Qi state and Chu state [whose founders committed evil deeds], their descendants enjoyed [power] generation after generation, while the descendants of [such virtuous people] as Yan [Hui] and Ran [Boniu, who both died young], received no prominent reward. Since it is already obvious in these cases [that the subject of reward and retribution lies in oneself], this is not a matter that can be clariﬁed logically.

Moreover, Gun was put to death but [his son,] Emperor Yu, became pros- perous. Xi and Fu were [both brothers of the Yangshe but they] differed from each other in appearance.342 It has been a constant rule for a hundred generations to punish the four criminals (i.e., Gonggong, Huandou, the chief of Sanmiao, and Gun)343 yet not to blame [their families and relatives]. Even when sage kings ruled over the world there was no unjustiﬁable [punishment]. How much less so when the profound response of nature works without private inﬂuence! Nevertheless, [if someone were to say that] reward and retribution fall wrongly and good and evil are not made clear, then that person brings a false charge against the laws [of nature]. This is also serious, without doubt.

Furthermore, in the Qin dynasty the [practice of exacting] punishment on three generations of family members along with the offender was instituted.344 They still took the offender to be the principal, but after the principal offender was punished his kin were then also subjected to punishment. If a punishment is not inﬂicted on the offender while disasters (i.e., punishments) befall the offender’s kin, and if this practice is legislated, it would not only be allowed in rules made by sages but would also certainly be rejected even by [penol- ogists such as] Shen [Buhai] and Han [Fei]. Therefore, the Nirvana Sutra says, “If the father does something evil the son does not suffer for his father. If the son does something evil the father does not suffer for his son, either. One who does good obtains a reward by himself, and one who does evil receives retribution by himself.”345 How truthful this is! These words ﬁll our minds and accord with the laws [of nature].

If we investigate [why] the worldly teaching [that ancestors’ good or evil conduct results in their descendants’ happiness or misery] originated, isn’t it because [people] feel that the way [of reward and retribution] does not stop even after they themselves have been punished? The more widely [reward and retribution] spreads, the deeper the people’s prudence and fear will be. Therefore, [the sages who established the worldly teaching] conceal the truth, just as if they were placing [a beautiful gem] in a case,346 and they often explain this by [giving] a familiar example in order to teach and guide ordinary people of the secular world. This way is not deﬁcient in punishing [evil] and urging people toward [virtue], and it accords with that with which the people are content. Those who have [the Buddhist teaching] in mind should leave out events [they experience], know this point, and understand the profound intentions. If one sticks to written words without understanding thoroughly the expedient way, if one recklessly follows the teaching without reaching the heart of the teaching, and if one measures himself by this [prejudiced] way and tries to comply with the truth, aren’t such people misdirected? Regarding evil acts and meritorious deeds in [the law of] right and wrong, there are certainly reward and retribution without fail. If one is ignorant of this truth he will have no ﬁxed position for right and wrong and his mind will have no authority in which to trust. When we examine [the law of karma] only in regard to the present existence, [we ﬁnd that] it is truly vague and there is scant evidence. There is no mistake or unreasonableness in the law

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[of karma] but the actual fact is not constantly apparent. How could we not consider it all to be due to conditions from our previous existences that extend to future existences? Consequently, those who set their minds on the law [of karma] ascertain the undeceivable [certainty of this law, just as] a shadow [follows a form] and an echo [follows a sound], reject verifying [the law] in phenomena, and rely on the unseen world. Because we understand that “The meshes of the heavenly net are large, far apart, [but they let nothing escape],”347 we hope that nothing will escape. We realize that time continues without interruption, see ten thousand kalpas to be the same as a brief space of time, lump the three periods of existence together and take them all to be one, and seek the ﬁnal result as that which inevitably comes. [If we think in this way,] why should we reform ourselves depending on revealing or concealing [our sins], or why would we have to change our thought depending on whether [reward and retribution] will come slowly or quickly? This is the chief foun- dation for those who have the initial faith [in Buddhism] and something that is deeply hoped for by those whose minds are bound by karma.

The Sutra of the Twelve Gates says, “Sometimes, if you think of yourself that you are correct and good, you must then examine yourself [in the fol- lowing way]. There is nothing in your body but liver, intestines, stomach, lungs, bones, blood, excrement, and urine. What good things do you possess? Moreover, when you observe other people’s bodies, [be aware that] their impurities are all the same as these.”348 If stinginess and greedy intentions arise, you must remember that all your property and jewelry and valuables neither came with you when you were born, nor will they go with you when you die. [Time] passes and [everything] changes; it is even impossible to guarantee that [something that happens in] the morning [will be the same in] the evening. Your body does not last long and nothing has a permanent possessor. In the present existence we should bestow favor on others and show kindness to them, offering money to the poor and saving the sick with medicine. We must delightedly live all day long diligently watching over others and providing relief to them. If an angry intention arises you must deeply produce [a mind of] equality and concurrently observe the ten precepts. The Kṣemaṃkara-paripṛcchā (Chamojie jing; i.e., Pusa shengdi jing) says, “Among the bodhisattva practices forbearance is the greatest. If bodhi- sattvas are called names they keep silent and express no reaction. If they are

beaten they receive [the beating] and never retaliate. If they encounter an angry person they face him with compassion. If they are slandered they do not think of the slanderer’s vice.”349 Furthermore, the Dhammapada (Faju jing) says, “When you are disgraced, your mind should be [as ﬁrm as] earth. When you practice forbearance, you should be like a doorsill.”350 The examples of “earth” and “doorsill” are probably used because these are things that are covered with dust, soiled with mud, and trampled upon all day long.

The Sutra on the Complete Accomplishment of the Light Samādhi (Chengju guangming dingyi jing) says, “If a person inﬂicts the four kinds of [verbal] transgression on you, you will be aware of the verbal faults. You should respond to such a person with well-intentioned words and peaceful expres- sions. You should be greatly sincere and not ostentatious.”351 The four kinds of [verbal] transgression refer to being duplicitous, engaging in abusive lan- guage, telling lies, and engaging in idle talk, as mentioned above. When someone comes to you with evil and you respond with wholesomeness, if his mind is not that of a senseless being he will be moved in reason. You should be concerned only that you may not always cope with such a case in this way and do not accumulate [merit] by developing this manner. If you can keep forbearance in mind on every occasion, regret and stinginess will disappear in this life and a happy reward will appear in the future.

The Sutra on the Virtue of a Wise Person (Xianzhede jing) says,352 “If your mind is unstable, never bite at others.” Speaking in familiar language, this is the way of magnanimity. If we infer this to the highest point, it is the meaning of the four immeasurable minds. What are the four immeasurable minds? They are benevolence (ci), compassion (bei), joy (xi), and protection (hu).353 What is meant by benevolence? It means to feel pity for sentient beings, to regard all beings as equal to yourself, to be merciful in putting yourself in another person’s position, to pray to be able to provide for all beings to be easy and comfortable, to extend your love [to all beings,] even to insects, and to have a feeling of nondiscrimination. What is meant by com- passion? It means to love others universally, to save [all beings] equally, to let [compassionate] tears fall like rain, and to exhibit innate mercy. You must cause a real achievement to reveal itself secretly. It is not [enough] to simply have a mind [of compassion]. What is meant by joy? It means to be joyful, happy, and gentle and to make donations without regret. What is meant by

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protection? It means to save living things, skillfully following the expedient case by case, to understand the way to liberate people, and to strive and think broadly of salvation for them.

Those who can practice the four immeasurable minds are the most esteemed in the three realms of existence. However, if you are unable to efface yourself in the state of no portent, then your fate is sealed to certainly come to an end. Therefore, the [Taizi ruiying] benqi jing says, “Although all heavenly beings have a happy time, when their merit is exhausted [their hap- piness] comes to an end, too. When you reach the apex of glory, the way to Heaven is right across from [the way to] hell.”354 The Sutra on the Complete Accomplishment of the Light Samādhi furthermore says, “Fortune has suf- fering, deﬁlement, vexation, and coming and going (i.e., the transmigration of birth and death).”355 The Nirvana Sutra says, “In the ﬁve realms of existence there is no peace. Only nirvana is pleasurable.”356

The sutras say, “Those who practice the [Buddhist] Way must ﬁrst reject the eight worldly matters: gain and loss, slander and fame, praise and ridicule, sorrow and joy.”357 [Those who practice the Buddhist Way] are neither pleased when they hear about wholesomeness, nor fearful when they hear about unwholesomeness. If one’s faith is spontaneously ﬁrm, neither encouragement nor discouragement can change his will. Since the truth has become rooted in him, objects of the external world cannot offend his thoughts. Moreover, whatever he encounters in this existence must have been caused by conditions from previous existences. Conditions caused in previous existences myste- riously keep moving, and their working is just the same as the operation of the four seasons. It is impossible to guard against their advent or to stop their passing away. Assuredly we must submit to this, be content with it, and delightedly complete it. If we cordially enhance ourselves in the training of Buddhism, expect various things and yet are unmindful of them, since the retribution upon one’s body has ceased one will attain the great peace. The truth is founded in the mind, and reward and retribution manifests itself in a factual matter. [This relation] is compared to the fact that if a form is upright then its shadow appears straight, too, or if a sound is peaceful then its echo is agreeable to the ears. This is the profound response of nature.

How could there be one who does this?

If this is so, those who harmonize their minds with the Way of the Spirit should expect assuredly to lead their minds to the truth, strive to have the far-reaching thought, efface their minds, correct themselves, and have no expectation of obtaining help from others. They must neither be in contact with vile and profane things, nor make demands according to their feelings. These are the keys for those who hold [Buddhism] in their minds, and the points to which those who learn [Buddhism] should attend.

Some people say, “If a thought surely brings reward and retribution and this law is as inevitable as the relationship between [a form and] its shadow or between [a sound and] its echo, then we should solely rely on ourselves. Certainly this has nothing to do with what is dark and abstruse.”

When we investigate why the teachings of the scriptures were established, we see that the reason is probably to make us aware of relying on ourselves. In the way to rely on oneself, however, there is no awakening that is not based on the teachings. If awakening is based on the teachings the merit [one may obtain from relying on oneself] derives from the Way of the Spirit. If exultation arises within the mind, [this feeling] certainly takes a deﬁnite form in phenomena. It is just like when simply singing a song is not enough [to express an exultant feeling], so one [also] dances for joy. If this is so, to admire and respect [the teachings] is probably not necessary in reason but it cannot be rejected in feeling. We should efface ourselves and master thor- oughly the tenor of the teachings and absorbedly and joyfully think of [the teachings]. We must place ourselves in sentient beings’ place in order to lead them with our own bodies. Consequently, we can secure the ambitions of new followers [of Buddhism] and cause them to have the determination to consign their feelings to [Buddhism].

A sutra says, “Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering, meeting one’s enemies is suffering, separation from loved ones is suffering, and not obtaining what one wants is suffering.”358 If you encounter any of these types of suffering you should think that such suffering is simply a result from what you have done in previous existences, and con- currently you should realize that this is an evil falsehood. You must awake from [these delusions] through a farsighted view and enlarge [merit] with the [four] immeasurable minds.

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Moreover, our brief lifetimes are as short as the time it takes for a white colt to pass a crevice.359 Even though we all have different circumstances, we all pass away in the end. The number of our successes and failures certainly does not deserve counting. If you practice the several ways [mentioned above] concurrently, this thought (i.e., counting up one’s successes and failures) will naturally cease. Furthermore, if you do not enter the [Buddhist] Way, weal and woe arise alternately. In the collecting and dispersing [of the vapor] (i.e., birth and death)360 or in going and coming (i.e., transmigration in birth and death), both the wise and the foolish attain the same thing. Therefore, sutras say, “If there is peace, then there is danger. If there is gain, there is loss. If there is a meeting, there is separation. If there is birth, there is death.”361 This is probably the common force of nature and the ﬁxed rule that inevitably visits you. If you infer [this rule] and pacify [your mind], you will be at ease in whatever you do.

The Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra says, “All phenomenal things take form fol- lowing the workings of a mind.”362 If this is so, there is a sign of a [mental] activity at the beginning and then a phenomenon responds to it later. A thought arises and then there is [a phenomenon]. When thought ceases there is no [phenomenon]. When your mind is stable you are at ease in whatever cir- cumstance you encounter. When your feelings are hindered you are inactive wherever you go. Speaking from this point, the cause of doing something smoothly or being inactive lies within oneself, not in the external world. If fear arises in the mind, a misfortune from the external world takes advantage of [your fear]. When misfortune from the external world takes advantage, fear increases in the mind. If you are anxious that you may lose something, there is nothing to which you will not proceed.363 Therefore, a sutra says, “When a person (zhangfu) is fearful, non-human beings (i.e., ghosts or appari- tions) take advantage of [his fear].”364 If you are able to abide by the [Buddhist] doctrines and the natural bastion is ﬁrm in your mind, other people and spir- itual beings will have no chance to take advantage and the predetermined response will spontaneously cease. In all phenomena there will be nothing that can disturb you and no evils will be able to assail you.

The four types of impermanent things are (1) impermanence (Skt. anitya),

(2) suffering (Skt. duḥkha), (3) emptiness (Skt. śūnyatā), and (4) non-self (Skt. anātman). The fact that our bodies change as we go from young to old

or that a hill and a valley change places [as time goes on] is called imper- manence. That arising and falling away alternate or that joy at its summit certainly turns into grief is called suffering. That all phenomena ﬁnally end in nothingness is called emptiness. That the spirit does not have a permanent dwelling and transmigrates without cessation is called non-self.

A sutra says, “If you place yourself in delusive pleasure you will be aware of [the truth that] there will inevitably be a response of suffering to this.”365 This is probably to regard changes as going and returning and to discern that when pleasure departs, grief arrives. Therefore, even if you reside in peace you still worry about danger, and if you enjoy a good reputation [during the day] you become anxious [about losing it] in the evening.

To deeply concentrate one’s thought on suffering is called clarifying the truth (Skt. dṛṣṭa-satya). This is to realize that having a mind means to have hindrance, and having hindrance means that suffering exists. Even if one were to become the noblest in the heavenly and human realms and concur- rently have a high rank, the more signiﬁcant one’s position, the deeper his arrogance. The greater one’s pleasurable feeling, the more suffering there will be in the law [of reward and retribution]. Therefore, a sutra says, “The three realms of existence are full of suffering; there is nothing pleasurable.”366 Moreover, [another sutra] says, “Sentient beings in the ﬁve realms of existence are all in a large prison.”367 As long as your mind is bound to the world of existence, weal and woe are linked together. This is why the three realms of existence are collectively called a large prison.

The Buddha [once] asked his disciples what impermanence means. One [disciple] answered, “[Life] is unwarrantable even for a single day. This is impermanence.” The Buddha told him, “You are not my disciple.” Another said, “[Life] is unwarrantable even for as brief a time as it takes to have a meal. This is impermanence.” The Buddha said, “You are not my disciple.” Another said, “One has transited to the next life before even his exhaled breath has returned to him. This is impermanence.” The Buddha said, “You are truly my disciple.”368

The evident testimony of impermanence is displayed before [our eyes] every day, yet [people of] all generations continue to act in the same ways and no one realizes [the reality of impermanence] after all. They have no peace even for a moment and yet they make a plan for their whole lifetimes.

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If fear does not exist before [their eyes], they neglect to do everything. If they try to improve their virtue in this manner, they will not have even as small an achievement as overturning a basket [of earth].369 If they control the mind in this way they will be indolent in what they learn.

Consequently, gentlemen who have a grasp of the Way pay heed [even] for a few minutes and regret the passing [of time]. They continually strive for improvement, lashing the laggards, and cultivate themselves through competing with [the passage of] time. Because they do not have enough time, deluded thoughts have no cause to arise and the conditioned response to [these thoughts] has no derivation from which to arise.

The six pāramitās refer to (1) giving (dāna), (2) [observance of] precepts (śīla), (3) forbearance (kṣānti), (4) diligence (vīrya), (5) meditation (dhyāna), and (6) wisdom (prajñā). To be capable of giving away [money and property] that you have accumulated in order to beneﬁt and save sentient beings is giv- ing. To respectfully observe the ten wholesome [acts] and ward off evils by sincerity is [the observance of] precepts. To not retaliate [for any outrage you have suffered] and to always remain humble is forbearance. To practice industriously what you have learned and never be idle, day or night, is dili- gence. To concentrate your thoughts, maintain your intention, and concentrate multiplicity through simplicity is meditation. Generally, if these ﬁve matters are practiced with thoughtfulness, this is called the worldly pāramitās, and if they are operated with the [non-thought of] concurrently forgetting every- thing,370 this is called the wisdom of the Way, [the last of the six pāramitās]. The [Taizi ruiying] benqi jing says, “There are ninety-six different teach- ings. Each believes in what it serves. They all hope for peaceful living. Who [among them] knows their own delusions?”371 To be delighted with gain, hate losing, enjoy living, and lament over death are probably the ordinary delusions of young wanderers (ruosang) and the common feelings of sentient beings.372 However, once the unseen power secretly responds, no matter how one may strive to attach to [these feelings] he cannot keep them. When the [karmic] response arrives he receives retribution. How could [this process]

be controlled by intellectual functions?

Accordingly, those who learn [Buddhism] must unite their minds in the foundation of transformation and understand and view the profound ultimate. When one appreciates and values [the profound ultimate], all [worldly]

thoughts spontaneously disappear. When [all thoughts] disappear, one has [no thought of] forgetting [everything]. When one has [no thought of] for- getting [everything], causation is cut off. Retribution due to causation is therefore already cut off and then one will enter [the state of] nonarising. Since he or she is not reborn, he or she will not trouble to die. Therefore, the Lalitavistra (Puyao jing) says, “There is no place from which things arise and they arise everywhere. In all places they arise, there is no place where they arise.”373 The Nirvana Sutra says, “When your mind and consciousness cease, you neither die nor are reborn.”374 The mind is like a seed, actions are like the soil, and reward and retribution are like the resulting fruit. It is just as one sows each seed according to its kind. When the time has come [the plants] sprout, and no one can stop it. The above section gives a minute account of what kind of rebirth one will receive when the precepts of the ten wholesome acts are planted.

In addition, when one plants the seed of the four abodes of emptiness (sikong) in the realm beyond material elements through dhyāna, he or she will receive the noblest position in Heaven. Several sutras dwell upon the meanings of the four abodes and dhyāna. From the ﬁrst heaven up to the twenty-eighth [heaven]375 merit gradually increases according to what one has done. When one plants the truth of impermanence through meditation, goes against the world of existence, and places himself in the world of nonex- istence, he is able to enter the nirvana of the arhat. Not shunning the world of transience, not being bound by contemplation on emptiness, uniting tacitly with all principles, having no attachment, and depending on nothing results in nothing planted. Since there is nothing that has been planted, one is not subject to retribution. Being unprejudiced and profoundly extinguished is the nirvana of the Buddha.

Nirvana is translated as wuwei (nonaction) in Chinese, and it also called miedu (“liberation of extinction”). The Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra says, “Those six [heretical] masters say their partial teachings are the Way. Those who follow these masters are enmeshed in various [deluded] views, fall into prej- udice, and end up in the eight difﬁculties. They are unable to leave behind the way of birth and death.”376 Even though the profound mental state is repeatedly practiced, if [your mind] moves even slightly you will also be detained in [the way of] limited existence, just as the six [heretical] masters

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were. How much more so in the case of those who cling to existence, who hold biased views, who have self-attachment, and who oppose the ediﬁcation [of Buddhism]! Even if their merits go beyond mountains and rivers and they are the most noble in the three realms of existence, fortune and misfortune alternate with each other377 and return to them. They will fall into punitive suffering in the end. How can they attain the great achievement of pacifying their spirits [and enjoy] calm, restful, profound peace?

Living creatures inevitably have feelings. This is the natural course of Heaven. If they do not settle in wholesomeness they will surely dwell in unwholesomeness. Consequently, those who begin to practice the [Buddhist] Way need something on which to rely. That on which this reliance is based is invariably grounded on existence. That on which existence avails itself invariably avails of tedious things. So a sutra says, “If you want to build a mansion in the air, it is impossible to accomplish this after all. [Equally,] if you want to take hold of the buddha lands it is not [possible only] through [understanding] emptiness.”378 If this is so, the [ﬁrst] ﬁve [of the six] pāramitās and the four immeasurable minds cannot be disregarded. [Beginners] simply have to remove all malicious intentions [in applying those practices] in accor- dance with their practical use [in our daily life].

When you take refuge in the Buddha [you will realize that] there is no emancipation [to be found] in the Buddha. When you take refuge in the pre- cepts [you will realize that] there is no merit [to be found] in the precepts. Then the truth [that is realized through] dhyāna and the ﬁve skandhas will be deeply united. The function [of the precepts] as secondary and contem- plation as fundamental will be equally complete. Even though numerous practices may be concurrently arranged, this is originally only to practice emptiness within emptiness.

Some people may think, “In emptiness there is nothing to practice. If it can be practiced, then it is not emptiness. Since there is already practice, isn’t it [instead] to lose emptiness?” Emptiness is a term of no-thought, not a designation of [an actual place like] a government ofﬁce or a residence. Nonbeing is truly nonbeing. If we existentialize nonbeing, we will completely remain in the limited [world]. Being is really being. If we forget both [being and nonbeing] then we will attain profound realization. If this is so, being and nonbeing derive from the mind and they have nothing to do with the

external world. Although physical objects and phenomena (i.e., being) are dis- played in their practical use [in daily life], when sensations cease they deeply unite with the principle (i.e., nonbeing). How could there be nonbeing after the extermination of being? How could we reach exhaustion only by means of gradual decrease? Speaking from this viewpoint, being is indeed not in itself a hindrance. It is only because we are hindered by being that we go against the ultimate Way. If we reverse the current, return to the origin, and entrust ourselves to the foundation we will spontaneously be without limit.

Therefore, bodhisattvas’ profound practices unify [delusion and realization] consistently. [Bodhisattvas] understand that all things in the universe are always deeply united, they profoundly apprehend [the truth] availing them- selves of what is consigned to them, they know that all things that come to them are originally empty, they continually comprehend [all things] with the same view, they realize that the four physical forms (i.e., the four great ele- ments) are devoid of self, and they discard all things following ultimate truth. Since they ascertain the nature of all things in the universe they see, they leave no trace behind no matter what they practice. In the profound Mahayana sutras the three periods of existence are always combined in one, and the phenomena we see right in front of our eyes are usually not considered to be existent. Accordingly, the purpose of “to practice emptiness within empti- ness” is [clearly] seen here.

The Family Code: Clarification of Two Issues by Chamberlain for the Attendants Yan Yanzhi

[There are three methods] to discern that [Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism] are equally wholesome and to become proﬁcient in divergent sub- jects. First is to speak [based on] the Way; next is to discuss [based on] the mind; and the last is to examine [based on] reason. To speak [based on] the Way is to talk in conformity with Heaven; to discuss [based on] the mind is to argue on the basis of human beings; and to examine [based on] reason is to take [reason] in phenomena. When we distinguish [the three teachings] following [these methods], we separate them from one another and arrange each by its path. When we summarize and understand [these three teachings we ﬁnd that] they all reach the same point in the end.

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Things like profound and marvelous [Buddhist] scriptures and extremely brilliant [Buddhist] doctrines all offer clues of these three signiﬁcances (i.e., the Way, the mind, and reason) and reach the highest point of nonduality. The language [of Buddhist scriptures], however, originates in a foreign region. Therefore [the Buddhist teaching] has been disliked by worldly scholars. The teaching was established in [a place with] different moral principles [from those of the Chinese]. So [Buddhism] is considered to be wrong in Chinese common practice. In the Way bestowed by Heaven there is no dif- ference between foreign countries and China. Whenever a person receives the spirit [in his body], how could it be that [the spirit] is limited to a speciﬁc place, either outside or within [China]? When we consider this, there can be no arbitrary judgment.

[Issue One]

Those who practice Daoism are of the school that came out of the Way of the [Divine] Transcendents. Therefore, reﬁning the form is considered to be primary. Regarding those who worship the Buddha, the origin lies in enlight- ening the mind. Accordingly, controlling the mind is considered to be foremost. Those who follow the school of reﬁning form must go to a deep and spacious place, where they try to return to ﬂying spirits. They take cinnabar as food and consume the essence of numinous mushrooms. Consequently, they become rejuvenated, reject aging, prolong youthful charm, and preserve the bright appearance of youth. They intend to unite their bodies with the light red clouds and spread their traces all over the empty sky. These are their strong points. If false [Daoists] practice this, [however,] they fear divine punishment, force people to offer crude prayers, mix male and female together, and throw evil and justice into disorder. In these points, they are consummate villains.

[Issue Two]

In the art of controlling the mind, people must part from their relatives and wives, restrain themselves [from committing vice] in both body and mind, revere the Pure Awakened One (i.e., the Buddha) as their teacher, and believe in causality and [former] lives. Therefore, they return to nonarising and are able to achieve the sacred enterprise; their intelligence is brighter than the sun and their aspirations are [as extensive] as innumerable kalpas are narrow. These are their distinguished points.

If those who go against [the Buddhist Way] practice this, they take advan- tage of [the appearance of monks by] taking the tonsure, become overly familiar with high-ranking people, attend those who have honor and fame, and seek proﬁt. These are their severe deceptions.

In anything there is a case of not-so; in any matter there is nothing without harm. Even if we measure something with a weight and check it every day, we still worry about ﬁnding a difference. Moreover, the Way of the Spirit is formless and assuredly something of which numerous matters avail themselves. If one is not suspicious that there is no spirit before he is able to comprehend the spirit, I think that this is because the nature of numinous beings is subtle and obscure. We can understand [the spirit] by accumulating principles. Great change happens abruptly [and cannot be seen by our eyes, but] we can rely on great conformity (i.e., the laws of nature). [The Way of the Spirit] shines just as the clear sky does, and it is as cautious as when one looks into an abyss. Those who can con- sider that principles and [great] conformity make a person can altogether say that there is the spirit. If someone slanders the truth and blames [the teaching] for its disadvantages, he has simply not yet developed discernment.

Sunshine by Wang Gai

When I inquire [I see that] the scriptures of the highest Way (i.e., Buddhism) explicate the origin of birth and death, indicate reward and retribution for good or evil conduct, and explain that there is a ferryboat to take us beyond this world. The instructions and precepts are clearly stated and fully enumer- ated, going into particulars. Nevertheless, “sincere words are not beautiful.”379 The compositions [of the scriptures] are complicated and the expressions are vague. Profound [reasons] piled up one after another are extremely obscure. Waves separate us from the deep pool [in which a pearl worth a thousand ounces of silver is found].380 Therefore, those who learn [Buddhism] have not attained its gate or they have not paid attention to it. When the profound music of Xianchi [composed by the Yellow Emperor] is taken up even a little, it accidentally becomes the common music heard in the streets. When we avail ourselves of the small in order to reach the great, we may unexpectedly come close to secular customs. To assist Heaven and to enhance brightness is called sunshine.

89c

I was inﬂuenced by my pioneer leader’s (i.e., the Buddha’s) great admo- nitions, and opened a lock with a profound key at the numinous gate. I go all around the Grand Void in order to look far into the distance, enjoying myself. I investigate exhaustively what is magniﬁcent and do not come to an end. I tread on an [expansive] terrain [as if walking on] a small piece of land, and I wear the round sky [as if on] an overturned bowl. I see the bound- lessness of the three realms of existence far in the distance, and I encounter the vigorous yin-yang vapors. I seek the profound origin of the Grand Creator and survey the deep root of Nature’s nourishing. Then [I ﬁnd that] the body that avails itself of the four great elements will dissipate like foam, while the spirit that is subtle among all things exists permanently. This is the state understood by those good people. Consequently, [the transmigration of] birth [and death] is sad and [the permanence of] the spirit is pleasing.

As for all living creatures, the spirit has no set pattern. Regarding the species of wriggling living creatures, their disposition is impermanent. To come [into existence] occurs as swiftly as ﬂowing water, and to entrust [one’s life to this world] is [as brief as] a spark. [The spirit] follows and entangles us. It alternates between withering away and spreading fragrance. It goes and returns, appears and disappears. It is imperceptible and vast. It ﬂows around in the great sea [of birth and death] and transmigrates in the great change [of Nature]. It rides upon the waves and drifts far away. What stepping stone does it have in order to cross [the stream]? It transmigrates in the three lowest realms of existence and stagnates in the environment of the eight dif- ﬁculties. It is pitiful that there is no hope to attempt to break [free from this environment and escape]. It is lamentable that there are hired people (i.e., lowly people) who return to [the three lowest realms of existence].

We regard respectfully that virtue should be quickly exalted, and we con- sider that the accumulation of evils must be delayed. This is the easy point to see the accomplishment of this undertaking (i.e., edifying people). The mental movement of foresight is not weak. The ﬁve kinds of happiness arise from performing correct things, and the six extreme evils are formed by fol- lowing evils.381 It is natural to be moved by the truth. Imperceptible responses take shape profoundly. Who creates happiness? Who launches disasters? Water moves and makes a pool in a lower level. The way of human beings hates arrogance. Sins are caused by the accumulation of wealth and blessings

are brought about by the promotion of modesty. When even a child acts cor- rectly, evil spirits run away. When even an adult man does evil conduct, the mischievous spirits insult him.

When we look at the pair of a form and [its shadow], or of a sound and [its echo], or when we examine a pair of signs such as weal and woe, the principles exactly ﬁt our thoughts. With our own eyes we can see that the traces correspond to [the principles], just as a round wheel holds a pair of compasses or a carpenter’s ink string is attached to a straight rafter. The blue dog, [a reincarnation of Ruyi, who committed suicide because Empress Dowager Lü had murdered his concubine,] was begotten of his father, Emperor [Gaozu, the founder of the Han dynasty].382 The yellow bear, [a reincarnation of Gun, the father of Yu,] helped the sage [Yu in his work of building an embankment].383 If they had transformed yet did not save [their relatives], how could we say that familial relations are reliable?

To seek happiness sincerely lies in oneself, and to become a good person truly lies in one’s own [actions]. Alas! Those who breathe have nothing per- manent. We have no idea to where they arrive after suddenly departing. If that (i.e., cause and condition) is not what people can accumulate, wouldn’t there be something from which vapor begins? We sympathize with a young beauty who dies at a tender age. She might return [to this world] reincarnated as a pig owned by her former household. She was raised with great love and care in her former life but in her current life [as a pig] she will be slaughtered [as an offering] in a sacriﬁcial ceremony. The spirit subtly and continually dwells within us but our bodies undergo changes and transform into other bodies. Even before ten years have passed after our deaths we will be for- gotten. We should sigh deeply and weep for this. This is not only what one person does—we ignorant people all act like this.

When we investigate why intelligent species [usually] have a small number of offspring and comprehend the reason that insects reproduce in vast numbers, [the former] is compared to an incessant drizzle that is seen as a light rain, while [the latter] is like overturning a full bag from which rice grains spill out. The latter are restlessly proliﬁc, day after day. Who knows how to secretly clear up the cause of this? It is not something I can surmise. I may be wrong but I have learned as follows.

90a

People who turn things upside down and those who idly live in vain abruptly and secretly go far away when rumors of war reach their ears. Even though the Way of the Spirit is obscure, the law of spirits is particularly clear. [The spirits of the dead] wander around in the intermediate state between death and a new life (Skt. antarā-bhava), and they go to the iron city [of hell] where Wang Shu (i.e., the driver of the moon) is terminated in the night and where there is no sun in the daytime. The occupants [of that hell] are in fetters. They have to pass through a yard of burning charcoal. On the mountain of sharply pointed blades knives are piled up. The forest of swords that raise up their sharp tips are awe-inspiring and exquisite. There is a vast expanse of melted copper that gushes out like the sea. In a huge cauldron boiling water undulates and makes a sound like thunder. King Yama supervises inspections [of the dead], and beside him the wardens of hell hold prongs in their hands. [The wardens] place their triple-forked prongs between the two middle ﬁngers of their left hands, and once they wield [the prongs] myriad things are piled up and arranged. There are venomous birds called zhen with sharp beaks, bright and scintillating ﬁery carts, sharply pointed nails, pointed spears, and dogs called jiao that bare their fangs.

Licentious people are burned on an illusory pole. Hungry convicts are laid out to dry up on dirt and sand. Even though [the dead] avail themselves of a light and clever numinous quality, they are easily subjected to more and more pain and humiliation, tormented for a long time. [This suffering] lasts for numerous kalpas. Is there anything crueler than this? It is impossible to list all of the harsh punishments of the eighteen [hells]. There are a thousand different severe [torments] and they cause diverse types of suffering. You cannot go through it without gasping for breath. You suddenly arrive in [hell] and forget your home. I have brieﬂy described [hell] in a short period of time, but you will tremble with fear and be distressed until you die.

Thereupon, there are those who observe the ﬁve precepts without failure and who are perfect in performing the way of the ten wholesome acts. When they pass away, just as the evening sun sets, they fortunately ascend to the nine heavens where they will see a dazzling holy palace hall and a stately mansion built in the air. There are altogether a hundred beautiful buildings and nearly a thousand clean households. The Gate of Gold shines as brightly as crystal; the lanes made of gems sparkle as attractively as lapis lazuli; pearl

trees line the streets and the fabulous birds luan and phoenixes sing in the tree branches. Fragrant ﬂowers are digniﬁed, splendid, and elegant, and an aromatic breeze blows gently, diffusing the aroma. If you merely think of clothing, a beautiful garment is put on you. If you think of eating, fragrant food appears in abundance before you.

Xi He (the driver of the sun; i.e., the sun and moon) goes on a long journey, and one day [there] is as long as ten thousand years [here]. No one ever does anything to offend his nature. [The inhabitants] are always naturally calm. They look at the splendid ﬂower buds glittering. They narrow their eyes and see that beings lightly ﬂy around. They master the highest level of music of wonderful sounds. They go to the end of existence prolonging their lives. They abandon this vulgar world and ascend. Accompanying their outstanding peers, they ascend higher.

If this is so, delicacies are served daily in order to provide a feast for the virtuous people of the past. This land is barren; agriculture cannot take place. Even if there were a large accumulation of resources, how could they be inexhaustible? Even if someone is blessed with longevity, his life will come to an end at last. When the three disasters (i.e., ﬁres, ﬂoods, and windstorms) arise even the palace buildings will be lost. When the seven symptoms reach there384 the revenues conferred by the Lord of Heaven will cease. When the great autumn season comes and [the plants,] having fulﬁlled [their growing season,] wither away, there is no distinction between the legendary tree called dachun,[whose life span is enormously long,] and a [short-lived] fungus. Therefore, the Tathāgata, the Great Sage, clearly illuminates us with the three transcendental knowledges, feels compassion for those of us who are in trouble and ignorant, and explains clearly the essentials of the [Buddhist] Way. He washes away [our deﬁlements] with skillful expedients and [leads us,] sometimes broadly and sometimes subtly, just as the dark sea turns the currents [within] or the sun bestows daylight on us. A superior person opens wide his mind and forgets what he wished to say,385 but a mediocre person

tenaciously holds to his aspiration and sticks to the teaching.

The [Tathāgata’s] teaching has no ﬁxed pattern; it follows whatever people do. [For instance,] if one is traveling on land he should go by a vehicle, but when he is traveling on water he requires a boat. [The Tathāgata] lays down various [expedients] and extensively speaks in numerous and abundant ways.

90b

The “Section on Pasture” (Jiong) [of the Praise Odes of Lu] does not comprise all of the three hundred odes (i.e., the Book of Odes). The key point [of the teaching] lies in one point: profundity. If we grasp the outline of all profundity, put away minor matters into a fur bag, and extensively encompass the great instruction, then we will develop our intelligence. There is nothing unequal in the teaching but there is sharpness and dullness in individuals’ temperament. He who goes to [the Tathāgata] empty will come back full.386 Each person will be content in mind. The foolish and the wise are guided equally; dragons and spiritual beings are ediﬁed together. Myriad paths come together and return to one through transcendental wisdom. This can be compared to the fact that one cannot cross the sea in anything other than a ship. If we urge numerous people to move to a place where the Buddhist Way is studied, they will complete wuwei (i.e., attain nirvana) and cease transmigrating [in the cycle of birth and death].

Originally in the beginning, the three vehicles equally returned to one: nonexistence. Each individual, however, differs in his or her natural abilities and intelligence. So, for practical purposes, [the vehicles] are differentiated. Arhats dismiss existence from their minds and seek emptiness. Consequently, they are absorbed in emptiness and are peaceful and contented. Pratyeka- buddhas understand troubles through knowing the minute (wei). Accordingly, they move to a profound place and do not dwell [in a ﬁxed place]. Though their subtle traces are lost again [because they have left the world of existence, they still make an impression] as if they remained there. Bodhisattvas have released all the things that may detain them and have nothing to which to attach in their doings. How would they need to remove anything? They under- stand clearly before they examine. They keep [the truth] in mind and unite it in their initial intention. Their principles are important and deep, beyond words. Who else is able to clearly see and act just as they do?

In former times, when ancients met the Imposing One (i.e., the Buddha) whose light shined upon them, they were able to personally receive the sacred instructions. The people who adored [the Buddha] respectfully gave their eyes and ears to him. Some were enlightened by the sound of a single cough from him and some repented and reformed themselves on account of receiving a single meal [he provided to them]. They were all ediﬁed on the basis of language and there was not a single person who was not liberated.

[The teaching of] one who has attained emancipation (Skt. sugata) extends to today, even as the fortune of the [Buddhist] Way has begun to decline. The great teaching still exists, but those who appreciate it are rare. Sandalwood is considered to be as fragrant as smartweed or purple perilla. Moonlight is considered to be as bright as a ﬁreﬂy.

Yu [Falan] transcended the secular world and realized the profound tenor [of Buddhism]. He led the life of a recluse in the hills and valleys and his benevolence moved even tigers and water buffaloes. Eminent [Zhu Fa]hu was pure and peaceful. His morals were profound and good. When he chanted in a feeble voice in a deep ravine water in the dried-up spring gradually arose and increased. Elder Que [Gongze] ascended to the sky and Wei [Shi]du belonged to the [Buddhist] path, but they were both indifferent to nonarising, so they left their bodies and became immortals.

Today, Zhi Dun (314–366) is particularly outstanding. He understands and grasps the profound symbols. His great enterprise is deep and pure and his spiritual manner is clean and reverent. When he utters a single word the obstructions people have collected [in their minds] disperse. When one con- tacts [Zhi Dun] time and time again, the serious obscurity of his mind becomes bright. To see him is enough to wash away one’s stinginess. By hearing his [teaching] one can leave behind arrogance.

[Zhi Dun] humbly cleansed himself in the stream [of the Buddhist teaching] in order to depart from worry and suffering. He fulﬁlled his original [purpose] and now enjoys composing poems on the eastern mountain. What kind of deep appreciation must he have in order to live such a simple life and to con- sider that the great treasure is as light as a very tiny thing? [It is probably] because the guidance of the Way instigates him to do so and he has reached the deep state of enjoyment in untroubled ease. If no one has difﬁculties in his talent, the wise is not valued. If the fool is not laughed at, sages are not lofty. Profound music seems shallow to vulgar ears. Who [but Confucius] could forget the taste [of meat] when he hears the Shao, [the music composed during the time of the sage Emperor Shun]?387 Wherever we go there is the Way. There are spirits wherever we go. There are exquisiteness and coarseness in principles. There are able, virtuous people and people of the greatest sin- cerity. The great occupies the position of an exquisite lord and the minor

becomes a minister of great virtue. Winged birds follow the sacred bird called 90c

garuḍa. The creatures that have a shell belong to the asuras. The two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth) take the Grand Terminus as their origin.388 All the stars link to the North Polar Star.

Therefore, the ninety-six [non-Buddhist] schools abundantly spread their branches, slight and abandon the important root, and rashly reject what is tranquil and great. Their followers all claim that they participate in sacredness. Each school arbitrarily operates in its own area. Some move to a mountain and dwell near a stream, and some are short-lived. They command beautiful beings who wear heavenly garments, howl at the savory odors in a numinous kitchen, glorify the atrocity of the orderly returning troops, transform a pebble into a ﬁne piece of jade, exhaust every means of transformation, and tower above others in eccentricity. They regret that what they rely on has no per- petuity. These are pleasures within the limited world and they are not as good as even the chaff and bran of the highest Way (i.e., Buddhism).

Regarding those found in the [Biographies of] Arrayed Transcendents and those who [practice to] reﬁne the body, they pass their time like a [dor- mant] bear, stretch and twist [their bodies] like a bird,389 and breathe in the Grand One. In the evening they consume the brilliant moon along with the moisture of an elm tree, and in the morning they take the bright rosy clouds together with the red sun. Chifu lived long by taking cinnabar. Juanzi ﬂew into the sky by eating glutinous millet. An [Qisheng] enjoyed longevity by eating pine resin. Fengren lightly lifted his body to the sky by eating nuts of the cypress tree.

What the elixir imbues is enough to support life and sustain the body. Inwardly they are not peaceful if they rely on their outward appearance. They vainly climbed into the clouds, fell, and died. They tie up a sack in order to try to strengthen the ground for resentment.390 As a matter of course, even if they all go out of the same gate together they will not ascend to the hall of Yan [Hui] in reason and will be eternally blocked from gazing at Confucius’ home. It is esteemed to be able to ﬂy, yet even moths and butterﬂies can ﬂy high.

It is wonderful that one hardly grows old, yet even turtles and snakes live long. While we make ourselves comfortable in this inn (i.e., this transient world) only the mind should be treasured. Those who wish to sustain the body are not worthy of discussing the spirit with us. Those who are familiar with secular customs cannot talk about the Way with us.

What is it that is called the Way? There is no method to ask or answer this. Those who try to inquire about it are at a loss in asking, and those who try to answer are conﬁned in themselves. To keep silent about it is to under- stand it. When it is spoken of, it is exhausted. As for the dark-colored pearl (i.e., the essence of the Way) and the explanation of the Way, I would say that [the former] has no phenomenon and [the latter] has nothing to say. If we keep still and silent, there are admonitions in the profound response. Even if we intensively investigate superﬁcial sounds we do not understand the profound sound. The more we expect to know [the Way], the more mistakes we make. The more we seek it, the deeper it sinks. Ever since a man of Ying, [the capital city of Chu state,] died, who can serve as a chopping board for the artisan [Shi]?391 (i.e., what can we do without those things on which we have relied?) Even if one [has completed preparations to know the Way, just as one] sets up a bamboo ﬁsh trap in deep water or sets a snare in a dense vegetation, waiting for a ﬁsh in the river or a rabbit in the forest, if he attains the meaning beyond what is spoken then as soon as he has seen it he should abandon the mind.

Before no movement is observed [people] abruptly go and come back. Wise people suddenly arrive and abide in this world (Skt. sahā-lokadhātu).392 A great number of teachers have educated people [in this land]. Now, for the ﬁrst time, we can cross over [the limited world like] a die. Maitreya is now glorious. We respectfully expect [Maitreya] to benevolently edify us. Who could say in blame that[Maitreya’s ediﬁcation] is far from us? When you catch a glimpse of it you will be dazed. Even though the divine reins move swiftly, the mechanism of causality is unending. There is no beginning and no end in it (i.e., the mechanism of causality), but there is a beginning and end with oneself. People temporarily take steps [in the world as feebly as] the end of a streak of bright lightning, and they breathe amid violent winds that carry stones and gravel. They know to fear [the dangers of] a path and to be terriﬁed of bandits, but they puzzle over the fact that the desires caused by objects of the six sense organs have invited the foreign [teaching]. People neglect what is profound and superb yet covet what is familiar to them. They think that luxury and frugality are both aspects of wealth. They do not protect [trees] from becoming leaﬂess when there are violent sand- storms. After the strong winds have stripped [away all the leaves], they think

91a

to return to the beginning and try to make [the leaves] more beautiful than before. Even if they feel regret myriad times, how could their [desires ever] be satisﬁed?

Consequently, those who have made a great oath burn their ﬁngers and bore through rocks [to create Buddhist niches]. They secretly expect to attain [their goal] without [having the wish] to wait for it. They accumulate [good conduct] for their aspirations, deepen the moat of intelligence, and raise high the wall of wisdom. They draw the divine sword and brandish the halberd of the [Buddhist] precepts. When [wild] thoughts are about to be harbored in their minds, they exterminate [those thoughts]. When [vulgar] feelings are about to arise, they sever and remove [those feelings]. They weed out the six thieves (i.e., the six sense organs) from their minds and try to put an end to an expedition (i.e., transmigration) in the ﬁve paths. Folding their hands (i.e., not taking any action), they regulate what is internal in themselves and completely have the decisive mind to attain Dharma wisdom (Skt. dharma-kṣānti). The [confusions of] the three periods of existence will then all be extinguished and their minds will become entirely open. Even if they commit their ears to hearing what is not clear and consign their eyes to seeing what cannot be relied on, deﬁlements will fruitlessly fall away following [the causes] and impurity will futilely dissipate along with them.

The spacious and wonderful awakening makes everything true in the light of expedients. It universally saves people and peacefully ferries them across [to the yonder shore]. Who commiserates with great benevolence? People entrust [their bodies] to the lodging house (i.e., this world) in order to [mingle with the world by] tempering their brightness. They customarily ramble about and abide in what is deep and dark. They act like Heaven [during their life], and [at death] they undergo transformation just as [all] things do.393 They are just like someone who treads water with no worry [of drowning].

If through the subtle wonders of supernatural transformation one regulates miracles, he can lift up the trichiliocosm on his palm, cause a mustard seed to contain Mount Sumeru394 and the four seas to be held within a single pore of one’s skin,395 and make the seven treasures [last] longer than the period of a kalpa.396 These can be believed but they cannot be sought; these can be followed but they cannot be understood. These are not what are propagated

through talking or chanting. How could these be revealed by writing on pure white silk (i.e., paper)?

How good are the words expounded by the Buddha of his own accord (Skt. udāna)! Even if the world were full of wise people and one of them had a hundred heads, and one of those heads had a hundred tongues, and one of those tongues explained a hundred meanings with sharp and outstanding ora- torical talent, and even if all those people gathered and praised the [Buddhist] Way, [the value of their praise] would still be less than one ten-thousandth [of the real value of the Buddhist Way]. Only by the fact that awakened ones sigh in wonderment [the value of the Buddhist Way] spreads out and manifests itself entirely. Moreover, I, an ignorant bigot, respectfully give an account of [the Buddhist Way] under the pretext of being ambitious and too hasty. Am I one who tries to raise the brightness of the glow of a ﬁreﬂy and who intends to increase the light of the sun in order to assist the sun?

Alas! The repository of numinous beings outside of this secular world is excessively far and vast. Of all that is subtle and wonderful, the innermost is immeasurable. People of minor attainment cannot walk in it. Those who have great words unexpectedly lose [their words].

The virtue of Earth is deep. It contains all things. We are startled when we hear about immense gullies. We are surprised when we see lofty mountain masses. Chinese classical books carry [the virtue of Earth] in their grasp of them. Foreign scriptures record this as if listing doors and windows. Zhuangzi was already versed in [things] but he could not settle this. So he believed in the lowly and disgraceful stories of the Qi Xie.397 He saw the bird called peng and the ﬁsh called kun and indicated that they are large, but he did not see the king of birds (Skt. garuḍa) or the mother of ﬁshes (Skt. makara). Alas! Alas! Unusual and extraordinary things have accumulated but they are too subtle and extensive to record. How could they all be described and recorded? [Numerous things] are extensively arranged in the book Huanglan. This book is worthy to search for what is profound or to learn singular phe- nomena. How can we shallowly detest [the record of the sword that can] cut jade? Furthermore, why would we largely bring a false charge against [non-

combustible] textiles [that can be washed in] ﬁre?398

Moreover, below these there is the tenor of the teachings bound together,

but these are the expedient baits of Emperor Yao and Confucius. I always 91b

devote myself to [the Buddhist Way] and abide by the law. I am afraid to overstep what I am told, to completely reject reason in order to testify to statements, to not understand meanings inferring in accordance with [similar] categories, to vainly make things vast and scheme to complicate things, and further to increase suspicion and invite fear. I realize that I have skillfully made a display of my wisdom and astonished people. Therefore I will lay down my brush and stop thinking. I put one corner (i.e., my humble view) in my rough purport. I will wait for someone who has clear knowledge to embody truthfulness.

End of Fascicle Thirteen of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Fascicle Fourteen

Written Appeal to Mount Tai by Zhu Daoshuang

I, Śramaṇa Zhu Daoshuang, dare to address the Spiritual Government Office and the messengers of the Overseer of Mount Tai, the Eastern Moun- tain [of the Five Sacred Mountains].

When the profound primordial vapor (xuanyuan) began its disintegration399 and the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth) began to separate from each other, the ﬁrst four stars of the Big Dipper were arranged above, helped by the light of the sun, moon, and stars. The god of earth was placed below and guarded by the Five Sacred Mountains. The yin and yang spread Nature’s nourishment throughout the eight directions. All things were born in this [environment].

Therefore, Mount Tai occupies the region of the blue dragon (east), Mount Heng and Mount Huo are located in the body of yang (south),400 the mountain of Huayang (i.e., Mount Hua) manifests itself in the area where the sun sets (west), Mount Heng and Mount Tai line up near the place of the profound turtle (north), and Mount Song juts out in the middle of the great river and suppresses the banks of the Four Holy Rivers (i.e., Yangzi, Huai, Yellow, and Ji). These [Five Sacred Mountains] receive pure vapor, make use of the truth, and have no impurity of evil. They are the Way of the Spirit; they are spon- taneous, digniﬁed, and not false. They follow the laws of Heaven and Earth. They are sincere, honest, upright, straight, tranquil, calm, profound, and pure. Advancing, they lead the beginning of the operations of the four seasons. Retreating, they follow the essence of the teaching of the ﬁve kinds of prin- ciples of human relationships.401 They conceal the disposition to understand what is subtle within and clearly show the brightness of the Way and its out- ﬂowing operation without. At the upper level they master absolute vacancy and at the lower level they nourish the masses. They cherish virtue and secretly understand it thoroughly. There is no place, no matter how far away it may be, that they cannot penetrate. They roam around the nine cliffs (i.e., the edges of the world) and ﬂy with a ﬂap of the wings to Mount Xuanque [in

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the north]. Consequently, it can be said that they do not have an exact begin- ning for their formation, that they breathe the yin-yang, grasp Heaven and Earth (qian kun) in their hands, and walk all over the world.

The Eastern Mountain (i.e., Mount Tai) is the starting point of the east and springtime, and the vapor of pure yang. It nurses, moves, and produces [all things]. It is in the rank of king or father, just like the constellation Nanji and the Big Dipper that are the central stars in the nine heavens, or the King- Sire of the East (Dong wanggong) and the Queen Mother of the West (Xi wangmu) who are the former rulers of the ultimate of nonbeing (wuji).402 [Mount Tai] ﬂies like a phoenix riding on vapor and goes to this subtle and profound world, which is clearer and more still than the primordial sub- stance,403 and in which human beings do not exist. All ﬁlthy things are cleansed there. Its Way is spontaneous.

Nevertheless, why do you use apparitions and other prodigies or specters under the pretext of the Way of the Eastern Mountain, or numinous beings who dwell on the mountain, and mislead the ignorant feelings of secular people on the basis of the wild deceptions of the wandering spirits of the dead? You make books about deities and artiﬁcially erect images of them. There is originally no record and in the end nothing to ascertain the truth. In your appearance there is a poisonous vapor caused by destroying the lives of living creatures, and within you a hundred evil spirits prevail. During the day grains and cooked rice are greatly offered to you; during the night numerous evil spirits haunt in the yard. These are all spirits of wolves and snakes. Owls and pythons vainly cry out. From the time the Three Augusts established the foundation up to the present time, when the tradition is trans- mitted, I have never seen such a divine message among what has been respected for successive generations. Therefore, the Records of Minor Con- quest (Lingzheng ji) says,404 “When the spirit is right, its light is hidden in dimness. It goes up high above to the celestial bodies, and plays below at Mount Xuanque [in the north]. It roams around in the clouds’ shadows and soars like a dragon to the eight ends of the universe. A wind rises and rain is distributed. Nature’s nourishment is [dispersed] just like thunder and light- ning. Even though no lunch basket is provided, foods of numerous ﬂavors are spontaneously offered. [The right spirit] bears benevolence and holds the [primordial] substance in hand. [Consequently,] its kindness beneﬁts the

masses. Its favor surpasses that of parents. Its kindness is as bright as the morning sunlight. If you eat in accordance with Heaven, you will not destroy the life of numerous living creatures.”

This is a subtle principle regarding the wonderful soaring and the Way of the Spirit that is pure and free from prejudice. If the spirit is not right, it offends all things. According to the circumstances or when taking advantage of divine messages, [the wrong spirit] conveys to secular people things that confuse them. [The wrong spirit] causes calamity, damages the simple nature [of people], agitates their minds, squanders their fortunes, and leads to the most atrocious destruction of life. The lives of numerous living creatures are cut off, living creatures who are in the middle of their lives are unfairly killed and their bones and ﬂesh are put on a cutting board [in order to offer them to the wrong spirit]. The people’s minds then become scattered and their pri- mordial energy (yuanqi) is painfully injured. How could the deity of the East- ern Mountain be considered in this way?

Therefore, the Zhenzhong jie (Admonitions on the Pillow) says,405 “Those who bear vapor, those who wriggle, and numerous insects should not be harmed.406 Never eat the eggs of birds. They have spirits within them. [All living things] receive life from the primordial energy of Heaven and form their bodies in the yard of Earth. At their origin they received [their lives and bodies] from the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth). How could these lives be destroyed?” These acts are all against reason and go against the essen- tial principle of the Way. Many people bear benevolence in mind, so they do not kill others, obeying [the mandate of] Heaven. It is needless to mention the taking of the lives of pigs and sheep and drinking their blood [for rituals]. From this, we can infer that [the deity you name] is not the [right] spirit.

Furthermore, the true deities of the Five Sacred Mountains are the symbols of the spirits. They are modeled after the ﬁrst four stars of the Big Dipper above, and they abide by [the laws of] Heaven and Earth below. They receive the Way, so they are pure and free from prejudice. They have neither voice nor sound. They take no pleasure in being respected and they do not feel sad- ness even if they are disrespected. They have no sense of beneﬁt or loss even if they are praised a thousand times or slandered ten thousand times.

Nevertheless, you falsely say, “[The deities of the Five Sacred Mountains], disguised as living people, become angry groundlessly and eat butchered

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[animals]. Those who follow them are granted favors, but those who disobey them receive misfortune.” Your course of action is unjust and false. You eter- nally have no rule, as do the wise. You defame and disgrace the true deities. It is not their Way.

Therefore, the section called the “Record of the Midst of Profundity” (Xuanzhong ji) of the Huangluozi jing (Sutra on Huangluo) says,407 “One who claims to be the deity of a mountain is most certainly a python or a snake. One who calls himself the deity of a large river or the sea must be a sea turtle, an alligator, a ﬁsh, or a freshwater turtle. One who represents himself as the parent deity of Heaven and Earth is certainly a wild animal such as a cat or raccoon dog. One who assumes the title of the deity of generals must be a bear, brown bear, tiger, or leopard. One who calls himself the deity of ofﬁcials must be a small or large monkey. One who refers to himself as the deity of a household is most certainly a dog, sheep, pig, or cow.” Mis- chievous spirits incarnate themselves as categories such as a door, a well, a furnace, or broken utensils. They all call themselves deities but they are only vapor of vicious spirits that frighten people. The energies of obscene spirits are all recorded in scriptures and clearly analyzed in commentaries.

More than six years have passed from the time you made the assertion of fortune and misfortune. You invite people from remote places in the four directions. There is no one who does not promptly respond to you. Those who escort a sick person and come to you, [seeking your help,] are like a small stream ﬂowing to the sea, but the grief of those who take their dead back from you ﬁlls the road. A person with a severe illness soon dies; you then say that that person has exhausted his life span. A person with a minor illness easily recovers; you then praise yourself [for giving] your good fortune to him. If it is difﬁcult for you to save someone with an advanced disease, you have no favor. The disease of the ancient state of Zhongrong was not cured by you.408 You had no efﬁcacy in these two cases. How can you render service to [people]? You try to cause a large number of people to join themselves to you and take refuge in you. Without a good physician and good medicine, even those who take the tonsure (Buddhist monks) cannot subdue [the demon of disease]. Even after ten days or a month have passed, there would be no sign and response [in recovering from illness]. Inferring from this point, what

efﬁcacy do you possess?

Furthermore, at the great beginning of the country King Huan was installed as a feudal lord.409 He bestowed virtuous relationships on the six states, restrained the assistance of the Three Communicating Agencies (santai), and gloriﬁed the Imperial house. The masses were delighted with his benevolence. Heavenly calamity, [however,] accidentally befell him and his body was attacked by a minor illness. He thought that your god of the land (qi) could reveal the mysterious virtue. Consequently, he propagated your virtue and believed in your command. He visited your sanctuary, offered three kinds of livestock (i.e., cows, sheep, and pigs), and gave an additional gift of rare and precious things. If you represent the sacred Way, if you can communicate with Heaven, and if you can achieve what is subtle, why is it that you could not remove his illness and attain peace for him by informing the Nine Augusts (the Great Bear and two assistant stars) above, consulting with the god of the earth (houtu) below, gathering a hundred numinous beings, manifesting a miracle, or utilizing the good assistants of the country? Since there was no prompt efﬁcacy [in healing], [King Huan] suddenly passed away. We have veriﬁed these kinds of falsehoods. Why are you [trust]worthy enough to be believed?

Moreover, in ancient times the stones on Mount Tai stood by themselves and the altar of the god of the land (she) moved. Divine spirits sent down omens. This legend has been passed down for ten thousand generations. This is a case where Heaven and Earth responded to [Mount Tai] and [the response] manifested as auspicious events of the time. You claim the sacredness [of Mount Tai] for yourself. You are not able to manifest supernatural virtue by raising clouds and causing rain at all. You plot evil in order to damage the true Way. Even if you are able to move chopsticks along the surface of a tray and completely drink wine by lifting a cup, it is similar to performing super- natural magic. [These performances] are not of a real deity. Moreover, there is no evidence that you do. What deity is there?

Furthermore, Mount Tai is ruled by King Yama. His domain is dark and obscure, different from this world in its mysteriousness. The messengers of the Overseer send down [good or bad omens] in the same manner as deities do. One’s life span is laid down in the light of the great record (huangji), and the register of life spans is examined at the heavenly ofﬁce. Myriad evils are all recorded, even if they are triﬂing. Trivial acts of wholesomeness

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are unimportant but nothing is left out [of the record]. All spirits [of the dead] are completely collected [in the heavenly ofﬁce]; it is not a government ofﬁce with which living people must comply.

Nevertheless, why do harmful spirits falsely state this purpose, throw off all restraint at will among human beings, and deceive and jeopardize people in all respects? Among the trees of a dense forest or in a ﬁeld full of magpies, they draw together or move around. They are enumerated in books of cere- monies from remote [times] to the present [time]. They assemble men and women and plant earthly desires in their minds. Their foul vapor invites mis- fortune from the external world. The hooting of an owl spreads out into the distance. Their poisons accumulate in the king’s territory, become harmful, and increase exceedingly.

Clouds and fog cover the sky. Various kinds of evil conceal what is right. Many things are harmed through your weird and peculiar means. Even though I am but an insigniﬁcant follower, I fully step up to the rank of the Three Seasonal Tailoring Groups (sanfu). I often read classic books and commentaries and now I see these calamities. Inferring from ancient matters and examining present matters, [I can say that] evil does not go along with good. I will wash away impurity and brightly raise the sacred Way. I inform you that I will strictly inves- tigate the faction of mischievous spirits and make them return to the graveyards to roam about there. If they eat fruit and drink spring water, it is enough for them to open a path to living. This then causes the masses to cut off the trouble of exhausting their wealth and the birds and animals to not be killed in snares. If there are still some spirits that turn their heads around, feel a persistent attachment [to this place], and do not leave here, hoping for food, then I will summon deities such as the divine king Vaiśravaṇa and Rāṣṭrapāla, to whom I will grant vajra. I will station a military division of true [spirits] that are brave and sternly powerful. They will rigorously move the trichiliocosm. They are ﬁerce; [their enemies] are difﬁcult to endure. The mere posture of couching their shining spears or drawing their bright swords can break a mountain into pieces, subdue dragons, and bring demons to their knees. No

one among them does not bow with his head to the ground.

You are a minor spirit. If you dare to touch the sun, moon, and stars, you will be like a swan’s feather that goes in charcoal [and is burned up], or like a ﬁsh that swims in a cauldron of boiling water, or like a ﬁre that is extinguished

by all the water of a large river, or like the morning dew dried up by the sun. I think of benevolence and feel pity for you for what you do. When I warn you of this danger and worry about you, my heart hurts. Quickly appear before me and return to your original form! Go on a long journey myriad miles back to blue waves on the seashore! Do not stay here any longer! Show your submission and do as I have ordered!

Written Appeal to the Demon by Shi Zhijing410

I, Shi Zhijing, repeatedly bow to you with my head to the ground.

O Brilliant General! Your Excellency and I have traveled on different ferries in the profound path, but human beings and Heaven are uniﬁed. Even though our most honored masters differ from each other, we are fundamentally the same in terms of being in the three realms of existence. I often plan to have a good meeting with you and speak various issues of long standing, but what we profess is not yet profound. This therefore results in the separation between you and me. At the present time the Dharma King manages the world and everyone in the ten directions desires to follow him. The marvelous net is precisely spread and the large rope of the net is seized completely. There is the tide for the Great Pervader to prevail411 and the lofty assembly will soon be held. I cannot stand up eagerly longing for it, so I am simply writing this to make my intention clear.

The times that are blocked have a way to be opened. When a negative sit- uation ends it becomes peaceful. A thousand sages hand [this belief] on from one to another. A great number of teachers inherit this in succession.

In ancient times, our great founder, the heavenly king Ultimate Source (Benyuan), embodied the functions of all changes and ascended the throne in the original region [of his kingdom,] in accordance with an auspicious omen sent down from Heaven. He relied on the expedient form and subjugated all countries. He exerted the axe of benevolence and covered the whole wide world. He powerfully washed away the four evils412 and cleansed the three realms of existence. He duly stretched the majestic rope toward the whole world and spread the marvelous net over the entire universe. He brought calmness to the remote backward regions in the seven directions and paciﬁed and uniﬁed the nine lands (i.e., China).

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Nevertheless, the profound laws of nature were not sympathetic to him. His true appearance became tranquil. The double brightness [of the sun and moon] stopped the luminosity and waves capsized an empty boat. Conse- quently, this caused evil [thoughts] to arise one after another, just as when ants [swarm], and [wrong] views like an owl to develop ﬁercely. The true path was dimmed and polluted. Pure people became stained and confused. Cruelty accumulated among the masses. Poison ﬂowed for myriad kalpas. Sentient beings who cherish the Way in mind have different thoughts from one another but they come to anger in the same way.

Our Dharma King received the mandate [of Heaven, appeared in this world] as occasion demands in order to rectify confusions. He was born as an heir of a noble house of the upper level [of society], and charged himself with numerous people’s minds on the lower level. He held in hand the star called the Heavenly Banner (Tianqi) and encompassed the trichiliocosm. He took a ﬁrm grip of the sacred chart and caused the great enterprise to prosper. Clouds arose in the four palaces and the auspicious bird luan ﬂew to India, when the spirit [of Śākyamuni] descended to Kapilavastu and made the moat of time around the city. [Śākyamuni] paciﬁed the masses and nicely ease high- ranking ofﬁcials’ minds. He encouraged and led people’s minds and offered comfort and instruction to the sick. He adorned his heart with the axe of wis- dom, wore the wondrous armor on his body, sympathized with the eighteen innocent people,413 and felt sad that the path to the three kinds of emptiness was cut off. He was determined to relieve [even those who live] in the end of the world and had to conquer many difﬁculties. All the people in the countries of numerous regions respectfully bowed before his excellent ediﬁcation. I have heard [the following] about you. You are unafraid that serious delu- sions may cover you; you are deeply attracted by silly thoughts; so you stick to false views; like a wolf, you occupy a heaven of the realm of desire; like an owl, you hoot at a mysterious watchtower; you betray and leave [your allies] at national borders; you oppose the divine principle; and you think that you are able to ascend the Throne and change great laws. Looking at even just two or three of these issues causes me to draw a deep breath. Formerly Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū governed the world and all regions depended on him, just as a shadow follows [a form]. There was a deceitful idiotic heavenly demon who did not observe the right principles, disobeyed

the will of Heaven, and disturbed deities’ minds. Soldiers led [by him] ﬁlled the empty sky, took temporary forms, and variously transformed. Their ﬁne armor gleamed in the sunlight and their pointed spears wiped out the area. Mysterious drums vied with one another in their loud pounding. [The drum- beats] went to the world beyond this world. [The demons] vigorously walked about or ran around, thinking themselves to be strong and energetic.

Once King [Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū’s] army rose in force the group of evil spirits was brought to an end. Many deluded beings reformed themselves, adored [Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū] from a distance, and were subjugated by him, just like a shadow [is subject to a form]. Needless to say, you are only a single general and try to be valiant. Even if an upright person employs many people, if he has no set rules he cannot form them into a brigade. Nevertheless, you intend to go against [the Dharma King], usurp and oppress the splendid capital city, seize the powers of the spiritual world, and ﬂy over the Supreme One (i.e., the Buddha). If you disgrace truth with falsity, you are really wrong. Today Śākyamuni governs the world. His Way has ﬂourished since the time of the beginning of this kalpa. His subtle ediﬁcation is vast and his supernatural net is stretched even in remote places. Intelligent people are harmonious. They are counted as numerous as clouds; they cover the world. Warriors [for Śākyamuni] leap like dragons. There are myriad troops of archers. Arhats strategize together and their clever schemes are outstanding.

Consequently, they give orders [to the generals].

Sadāprarudita, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, Vanguard Gen- eral-in-Chief, Commander-in-Chief of Jambudvīpa, and the Marquis who Pledges Allegiance to Justice, you alone received the heavenly wonder and ﬂew from the capital Mysterious Mirror [to this world]. Your spirit is as lofty as Mount Sumeru. Your brave energy encompasses the world. You are skilled in military affairs and you have completed literary arts. Your loyalty is famous in the Imperial palace. Lead forty trillion people, collect your horse, and go to battle!

Guru (Skt. nara-nāyaka),414 Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, General-in-Chief of the Subjugation of Remote Lands, Commander-in-Chief of the Four Heavens, and Duke of Trāyastriṃśa, you are preeminent in military skill and your literary skill surpasses great schemes. Your subtle thoughts are beyond earthly affairs. Your mind stays outside of this illusory world.

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You are concerned about the times and forget yourself. You are determined to save the world by all means. Lead a hundred trillion people and ﬂy like the great bird luan to the thoroughfare of Heaven!

Vimukticandra, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, General-in- Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against Demons, Commander-in-Chief of the Six Heavens, and King of Tuṣita Heaven, your subtle thoughts are very profound, and you loftily walk outside of this world. Your strategy is on the same level as that of [bodhisattvas] in the eighth of the ten stages (Skt. kumāra-bhūta) and your merit is equal to that of [bodhisattvas] in the ninth stage. You mournfully feel compassion for beings in the three lowest realms of existence. When you become angry you go so far as to indulge yourself in destruction. When you draw your sword you are impassioned by lamen- tation and indignation. You think to rise up in force, going around and around just like a dragon [in the sky]. Lead four hundred trillion people and revolve around the heavenly gate just as clouds do!

Vajragarbha, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, Proﬁcient in Subtlety General-in-Chief, Commander-in-Chief of the Seven Heavens, and King of the Four Meditation Heavens, your bright disposition shines and reﬂects. Your golden face illuminates even remote places. Your kindness is greater than the place where the sun rises. You have the physical strength to overthrow mountains and seas. When you glance to your right, waves splash in the Meng and Fan Rivers. When you gaze to your left, even the gleam of the divine tree called fusang is diminished.415 There is no place that your virtue does not illuminate. There is no one who does not submit himself to your dignity. Lead seven hundred trillion people and glare ﬁercely, just like a tiger, on Mount Sumeru!

Great Vimalakīrti, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, Garrison General-in-Chief, Commander-in-Chief of the Nine Heavens, and King of the Bodhisattvas of the Eighth Stage, your outstanding schemes are marvelous. With the axe of the Dharma you invigorate [people] in remote lands. You bear a lofty air. Your temporary manifestation exceeds myriad transformations. When you breathe, all the people of the world follow you, just as the clouds ﬂow [in the sky]. When you command, all people in the ten directions obey you, just as trees and plants bend before the wind. You grieve for innocent

people who have many hardships. Lead nine hundred trillion people and let the horses drink water at a ferry of the sky!

Great Mañjuśrī, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, General-in- Chief of Illuminating the Coming Age, Commander-in-Chief of the Thirteen Heavens, Military Supervisor of the Small Thousand Worlds (Skt. sahasraścū- ḍika-lokadhātu), and King of the Bodhisattvas of the Ninth Stage, you are a descendant who has received the origin from remote times. Your body is as bright as the sun, moon, and stars. You are descended from [the Celestial Thearch of] the Palace of Purple Tenuity (the constellation to which the polar star is central). Your mind is lofty and your physical body is great. In responding to [the requests of sentient beings] you have a thousand paths to reach them. Your profound schemes number in the tens of thousands. You feel various kinds of movements upon yourself and [are able to] calm numerous worries in one moment. You deeply hold benevolence in mind and possess all the four methods of winning people over (Skt. catur-saṃgrahavastū) in your heart. Lead people as numerous as particles of dust and soar up from this land! Avalokiteśvara, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, General-in- Chief of Reforming the World with the Teaching, Military Supervisor of Recording of Demons, Commandant Against Various Evils, and King of the Middle Thousand Worlds (Skt. dvisāhasra-madhyama-lokadhātu), your resources are profound. With the axe of wisdom you invigorate [people] in remote lands. You clearly master the four ways to enlightenment (Skt. catur- pratipadā) and brightly examine the three kinds of deﬁlements. You some- times appear among numerous evil beings and rise with irresistible force to perform a feat. You sometimes manifest yourself in temporarily transformed forms in the eighteen [hells] and stop the direst distress in those places. When you wave your hand the iron rocks of Mount Iron Surroundings (Skt. Cakravāḍa) are smashed. When you exhale a single breath from your mouth the drifting clouds [are blown and] break apart on a cliff. In all directions you are able to be a friend who helps people without being asked to do so.

Lead people as numerous as a miraculous number, take up arms, and howl

like a tiger!

Great Maitreya, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, General-in- Chief of the Promulgation of Ediﬁcation, Commander-in-Chief of the Three

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Realms of Existence, and King Who Will Take Up a Buddha’s Place [in the Next Life], you have an excellent body with which you cast the net [of the law]. Your natural constitution is outstanding. Your body is stronger than vajra and your mind encompasses the world beyond this world. Your brave energy soars into the clouds and with the axe of wisdom you invigorate [peo- ple] in remote lands. The insight of nonarising (Skt. anutpattika-dharma- kṣānti) revolves in your mind. With the wisdom of expediency you conform to the outside of this phenomenal world. Regarding what you plan with your determination, you are successful wherever you go. You exercise both power and kindness and equally exert noumenon and phenomenon. Lead eighty- four thousand people and wait for our order, taking strict precautions! The trichiliocosm is brimful of brave warriors. Vajra ﬁghters ﬁll the eight ends of the universe (i.e., the entire world). They all wish to help in this mil- itary action and sweep across the world. They ride the honorable chariots of all the pāramitās, guard the long eightfold holy path to enlightenment, sit astraddle on the divine horses of the six supernatural powers, and control the spiritual reins of the ultimate law of profound emptiness. They draw the powerful bows of the four stages of meditation (Skt. catur-dhyāna) and shoot the sharp arrows of a temporary manifestation (i.e., an incarnation of a buddha or bodhisattva). Great horses neigh ferociously and their light hoofsteps are strong and powerful. [All the troops] receive orders from the Imperial court.

They have never failed.

The guru of your domain has only ﬁve hundred distinctive people. You should deeply examine the mandate of Heaven and come to submit to our king’s ediﬁcation. His Majesty (i.e., Śākyamuni) will open his heart to you, be moved by your intention to submit, confer ofﬁcial positions and titles of nobility upon all of you, and award ﬁefs as well. Your achievement will be considered equal to that of vassals of long service. Your reputation will spread over myriad regions. Nevertheless, what frame of mind do you possess? You unreasonably give rise to a peculiar plot. You are haughty in a deserted border region and scheme to strengthen a permanent position. [Consequently] harmful inﬂuence will break out among the masses and disasters will ﬂow eternally. How sad this is! It is really wrong!

Formerly, according to circumstances, you were misled by [external] objects. Your mind was unrestrained and confused. You plunged yourself

into danger and escaped to the non-Buddhist teaching. If someone makes a single mistake out of a hundred acts, even though he may be wise and virtuous he loses his normal state [of mind]. I have said this for a long time. If you become aware of this, turn back from ignorance, plead guilty to your sins at the palace gate, restrain yourself, take the tonsure, study together with many prominent people, and entertain yourself with the Way, honor and fame will then be yours from beginning to end.

Why do you choose ignorance, cling to absurdity, and seek merely tem- porary ease in an evil position? You commit yourself to the mountain of igno- rance and consider yourself to be lofty. You rely on the grove of wrong views and rest in comfort. You indulge in the deﬁlements of the six desires, amuse yourself with evil delusions, and please your spirit. You raise the standard of arrogance aloft, lead the ferocious battle array of ignorance, stride along a deserted path, and make light of the sacred treasures. You try to usurp the heavenly palace and compete with the sun and moon. I am afraid that you will not be successful.

[Regarding actions such as] reﬂecting back the light of the sun, moon, and stars by raising the hands, or ﬁlling a huge ocean by grasping the earth, even if you intend to do so, these are illusions and difﬁcult to carry out. You, General, have planted merit at the profound ferry and I heard that it originated a long time ago. Your splendid features are bright and shining and you are the center of public attention. It is easy for you to ascend to the fundamental [status] of the descendant of a respected family. Merit that you have made from the very ﬁrst should be valued. You should reﬂect on your past conduct, cultivate yourself for the future, and quickly submit to us. You should apol- ogize for your faults at the red gate [of Buddhism]. When everything is set in order by the Way, family and nation coexist, the sovereign and his vassals are equally eminent, your body and fame are secure, you are able to understand with a philosophic eye, and your dependents are peaceful and easy. How good this is!

The [Dharma] King’s army now sets the time to take the ﬁeld. In the ten directions the reins [of the horses] are raised. [Warriors] carry trumpet shells in their hands. A group of sages dance in unison. The axe of the Way glitters in [the corps of] the vanguard and mysterious drums roar in the rear guard. Once the spiritual bell has been struck the ten directions will be overturned,

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the waves of the sea will splash, and lands will quake, just like a boiling [spring]. At this moment, Mount Sumeru is enclosed within a particle of dust and Heaven and Earth revolve within a millet grain. [The land of] Akṣobhya is put in the left palm and [the lands of] wondrous happiness shines in the right palm. Given that the supernatural power [of the Buddha] is like this, how could you face it?

Our Dharma King who has mastered the Way is benevolent. He has scru- ples about easily attacking you, temporarily stops all military forces, and collects the reins of divine [horses] for the moment. At the very moment to go to the front, he had me send this letter to you, hoping that you will order your deluded vehicles to about-face. You should decide soon what is good for you, tie your hands behind your back, submit yourself at our gate, leave your fate to our Imperial court, and enjoy untroubled ease in the profound realm. Your gloriﬁed name will then shine within you and your freely moving body will sojourn in the external world. Who else but you, then, could take an ofﬁcial post of the celestial realm?

Wisdom is to clearly know a crucial point; intelligence is to value avoiding calamities. To know to return at the time of coming to the end is what a gen- tleman considers to be good. This is precisely the best time to turn misfortune into a blessing and a good opportunity to secure merit.

In ancient times, when King Jie of the Xia dynasty was a tyrant, King [Tang] of the Yin dynasty subjugated him; when King Zhou of the Shang dynasty was the principal of disorder, King Wu of the Zhou dynasty took up arms against him. These are exactly [clear matters] that were divined with stalks and tortoise shell, and they serve as comprehensible lessons for generals [of all ages]. Even though you and I are against each other in these years, our intellectual style in the sense of the [Buddhist] Way should be the same. Human and heavenly beings are uneasy and troubled, but why is it worth causing a separation between us [on this point]?

I would like to quickly send an order through this writing.

Why I secretly feel sad about these words and yet still send a letter describ- ing all this in full detail is that I do not wish to cause a fragrant orchid to wither in summer or cut its stalk until it is destroyed (i.e., I do not want to cause you to come to ruin in the prime time of your life). Deeply think about my statements! Make a good consideration by yourself! Do not cause yourself

to fall into the three lowest realms of existence! Do not cause the six heavens [of the realm of desire] to raise worthless grass! I feel anxious when I take a quick sidelong look at your situation. I send you this letter on the verge of taking the ﬁeld. I am confused with various feelings in my mind so I cannot fully express my thoughts in words.

Written Appeal to Destroy Demons Composed by Shi Baolin

On the ﬁrst day of the month when the ﬁve deﬁlements vigorously arise, just as water in a cauldron boils up, and the current life span of people is a hundred years, in the year of the minutest particle of the trichiliocosm in the Auspicious Kalpa (Skt. bhadrakalpa, the present cosmic period), your vassal Vajragarbha, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, Commander-in-Chief of All Mil- itary Affairs in the World of Gaṅgānadīvālukā, General-in-Chief of an Expe- ditionary Force Against Demons, Regional Inspector of the Pure Province, and King of the Bodhisattvas of the Tenth Stage; your vassal Vimukticandra, Commissioned with Extraordinary Powers, Commander-in-Chief of All Mil- itary Affairs in the World of Eighty Thousand Pāramitās, General of Destruc- tion of Deﬁlements, Commandant of Leading Demonic Barbarians, Minister of War, Regional Inspector of the Brahman Province, and Duke of the Bodhi- sattvas of the Eighth Stage; and others bow with our heads to the ground, bow with folded palms, and present [a written appeal] to the Imperial Secretary of the Imperial Court.

We think respectfully that the whole world is equally illuminated by the numinous mirror (i.e., the sun), numerous streams return to the king of all the valley streams (i.e., large rivers and seas),416 myriad transformations are equal to what is empty and profound, and all wonders take absolute intelli- gence as the foundation. This is most likely because there is unity in the foundation of truth, and in phenomena there is nothing with which to gather together different kinds of things.

Therefore, the Tathāgata went beyond the serious darkness of confusion and alone arose. He diligently accumulated abundant merit for numerous kalpas, emitted lofty bright [light] into the three lowest realms of existence, uprooted immense ignorance that exists from the beginning of the creation of the world, mastered the innermost of the sacred virtue, investigated

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exhaustively the abstract tenor of nonarising, examined the vital element of the transformation of things, and grasped the large rope to control the great virtue. With regard to the fact that his distinguished appearance is outstanding and extraordinary and his supernatural light is glorious, even if a thousand suns shine at the same time, [the Tathāgata] is assuredly unparalleled. [The Tathāgata] manifests in myriad forms but this does not mean that [his manifestations] are too numerous. His true form unites with what is the most subtle but this does not mean that it is the same. He manifests in the ﬁve realms of existence corresponding to [sentient beings’ needs] but this does not mean that he is born [in those realms]. He demonstrated entering [nirvana] through physical death but this does not mean that he was extin- guished. He is elusive and inaudible.417 He is indeterminable and ﬂeeting. He has neither name nor image. His depth is immeasurable and his breadth is unknown. He responds to many people’s feelings yet he is not troubled. He provides for myriad movements but he is always tranquil. He quickly goes through as many kalpas as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. He relieves the whole world momentarily. Even if the two polarities (i.e., Heaven and Earth) were to fall down he can never be harmed. Even if a strong man were to carry him off on his back and try to move him secretly, [the Tathāgata] would not change [position from his original place]. If he is visited by a disastrous ﬁre he will not be not burned. If he is immersed in a torrent he will not drown. Even Heaven and Earth are beneath his virtue. Someone who possesses profound literary knowledge is still unqualiﬁed to clarify the [Tathāgata’s] Way. The enormity [of the Tathāgata] contains the whole world, but this cannot describe his greatness. His ﬁneness goes into inﬁnitesimal space between things but this cannot describe his minuteness. So he nourishes the masses. His ediﬁcation holds both the Originator and the Mother of all things. He has no desire. He does nothing [just for the sake of doing it], yet there is nothing that he does not do.418 He soars on the path of complying with mutation and saunters about in the world beyond existence and nonexistence. He is outstanding and prominent and the visible embod- iment of a multitude of sages. He is peaceful in the state of nirvana. The two vehicles (i.e., of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas) conceal their thoughts in the tenor of emptiness as emptiness. Bodhisattvas of the tenth stage stop thinking at the pivot of movement. The Brahmā King sighs with praise and

takes refuge in the [Tathāgata’s] virtue. Śakra-devānām-indra keeps [the Tathā- gata’s virtue] in mind and detests being in the rank [of the lord god of Trāyas- triṃśa Heaven]. The Tathāgata’s sacredness goes to extremes [in this way]. Thereupon [Śākyamuni] responded to Dīpaṅkara’s prediction and veriﬁed Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū’s prophecy. [Śākyamuni] went out of the ﬁve realms of existence and rose just like a dragon. He is prominent in the world beyond emperors. His Way is the most powerful in the three realms of existence and his virtue covers the ten directions. The areas [he governs] near the capital are as numerous as grains of sand in the Ganges River and his capital city is the trichiliocosm. He is at rest in the comfortable room of the nine kinds of meditation (Skt. navā-anupūrvasamāpatti), ascends the lofty mansion of the seven factors of wisdom (Skt. sapta-bodhyaṅgā), washes in the clean pond of the eight kinds of meditation leading to liberation (Skt. aṣṭa-vimokṣa), and roams about in the spacious garden of dhāraṇī. Thereafter he resides in the palace of benevolence, places himself on the seat equal to emptiness, wears the [eighty] minor marks of physical excellence as his imperial cere-

monial dress, and has a topknot (Skt. uṣṇīṣa) as his heavenly cap.

He appoints the one who belongs to Maitreya as Minister of the Left and a peer of Mañjuśrī as Minister of the Right. Graceful hymns of Mahayana sutras are sung before him and the bells and whisks of the four methods of winning people over dance behind him. He is guarded by ofﬁcers who have mastered the contemplation for bodhisattvas of the eighth stage, and he is attended by numerous eminent transcendents who have attained the four fruits. Ofﬁcials of the Three Communicating Agencies are all sages and the Six Tax Supervisors have only wise people.419 Thereupon, the Duke of Zhou and Confucius propagate the teaching. Yao and Shun preside over [China]. King Tang and King Wu elevate the great authority. The Regional Governors are the Three Augusts.

When [Śākyamuni’s] ediﬁcation is accomplished the level thoroughfare of the eightfold holy path to enlightenment (Skt. ārya-aṣṭāṅgika-mārga) becomes evener, the ferries of the three vehicles are opened to all directions, the wonderful residences of wuwei are arranged, [people who have] severe suffering are liberated from deﬁlement, the crooked paths of the three lowest realms of existence are closed off, pleasure is opened to heavenly and human beings, the stage of fruition [attained through cultivation] is considered a

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title of nobility, and the meal of nectar (Skt. amṛta) is taken as ofﬁcial pay. Those who have great merit are rewarded with a ﬁef of the Pure Land. Those who have small merit are directed to the peace of the city created by supernatural powers (Skt. ṛddhi-maya-nagara). This is what goes beyond the great enterprises of all kings and the highest administration of the world of great peace.

The ﬁve realms of existence are the pure Imperial court for government ofﬁcials. The four modes of birth are the culmination for those in the ofﬁcers’ ranks. Nevertheless, people are deluded and gravely ignorant. They waste time going against the truth. They are pleased by familiar satisfaction, just as [ﬁshes] that keep one another wet by tiny bubbles on the surface of water completely forget about distant rivers and lakes.420

Therefore Devil King Pāpīyas planted the root of ignorance in himself at the very beginning, accumulated delusions in his mind in the illusory world, drifted on the turbulent waves of the three major evil passions,421 and entered the dense forest of perverted views. Consequently he has come to stealthily make sport of the sacred treasures, avail himself of falsehood, and profane the truth. He boastfully reigns over the heavenly palace and divides the high mountains and lands [among his vassals]. He issues a command to the six heavens of the realm of desire as he likes and indulges in the power of prej- udice. Internally he designates various poisons as the three dukes (three para- mount aides to the ruler) and the nine kinds of deﬁlement (Skt. nava-saṃ- yojanā) as ministers. Externally he employs the six coverings (greed, breaking precepts, anger, indolence, distraction, and ignorance) as his generals and the four kinds of deﬁlement (delusion regarding the self, the view that the self exists, self-conceit, and attachment to the self) as soldiers. Internally he rampantly acts in deﬁance of authority; he is not afraid of ordinances of the August (i.e., the Buddha). His light is as feeble as the glow of a ﬁreﬂy yet he still competes with the sun for brightness. Consequently he has recently challenged the divine authority and risen in arms against the bodhi tree. He raises his voice just as Lord Thunder makes a sudden peal of thunder, and he arranges people in a line just as Mount Khadiraka belches out ﬁre. Furthermore, Vasudhāra Bodhisattva became confused in his meditation room422 and Sadāprarudita Bodhisattva cried mournfully [over military maneu- vers] at a marketplace.423 These are all due to the fact that the crazy idiot

(i.e., Pāpīyas) indulges in savagery and damages the holy principles. He has caused disorder in China for a long time.

The Sage King (i.e., the Buddha) laments that confused people are deaf and blind [to the True Dharma]. He is saddened by the fact that a young person who has lost his way [to return home] grows more homesick. He will unite numerous evil people in order to equalize [and correct] their views, and will assemble [the followers of] the nine heretical schools in order to cause them to get on board the same ferry.

Hereupon, [the Buddha] orders his followers who have great powers to be his generals and selects soldiers from among the vajra [wrestlers]; these are men who eat gold and chew iron and people who can break up ice or walk through ﬁre. Brave soldiers are as numerous as particles of dust and sand. There are myriad intrepid people. They move like a shooting star, rise like a wind, and prance like a dragon in the devils’ territory. The corps is sta- tioned according to a carefully thought-out plan and [the soldiers] press their enemies to the ﬁeld of inevitable death.

Nevertheless, the devil rebels do not behave themselves prudently. They dare adhere to the ignorance of the savage tribes in the south. They oppose us by ignoring the order, just as the states of Zong and Kuai did,424 unfurl a commanding ﬂag in the land of self-conceit, and solidify deﬁlement on the steep mountain of a multitude of delusions. [Devil rebels] impertinently approach again and again, waywardly repeating [their actions], one after another just like the scales of a ﬁsh. Moreover, as for their situation, the mountain of ignorance is high, steep, and ﬁrm in front of them, the vast river of lust swells behind them, the forest of evils luxuriantly covers their left ﬂank, and the deep abyss of the mountain stream of ignorance gloomily lies on their right. The soldiers of [the four kinds of] deﬁlement alternately watch for [a chance] just like jackals in a border region. The generals of the six coverings walk just like tigers on a long thoroughfare. When you gaze into the distance, it looks just as it does when clouds rise and cover the sky and fog envelops the whole world. The vigor of [the devil rebels] is a rare case since the creation of the world.

We, the vassals [of the Buddha], hereupon receive the lofty authority from the Imperial court and devise a superior wonderful strategy.

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We set up splendid plans with excellent wisdom and extensively make an enclosure of profound stratagems. Skilled cavalry and foot soldiers surround [the devils] a thousand or ten thousand times over. Covering the battle ﬁeld, the reserve forces are stationed at positions of strategic importance. General Dāna (giving) in the front line watches the ﬂag of parsimony and advances straight ahead. General Vīrya (diligence) in the rear pushes [the devil] soldiers of indolence to the back. [General] Dhyāna (meditation) captures the cavalry of sloth on the left. [General] Śīla (precepts) defends against [the soldiers of] wickedness on the right. [General] Upāya (expedient means) of the outer army moves the cavalry to a steppe and causes the soldiers of frivolity to run swiftly to the point under cross-examination and submission.

We spread out the brave brigades and we are in high spirits. We set up the dangerous machinery in hidden places. [General] Prajñā (wisdom) of the central army grasps the subtle mirror of the profound pivot, handles the won- derful art of victory, controls myriad powerful generals, and possesses as many strong soldiers as there are particles of dust and sand.

Hereupon all our forces act in concert and vie with each other in advancing on myriad paths. Their minds move the world and their voices shake Heaven and Earth. Exercising their authority, brave men move quickly like waves. The brightness of their drawn swords dazzles people’s eyes even more than sunshine. The sound of the Dharma drums mixes with thunderclaps. [Spirited] horses run and prance. Swift elephants jump and run around. The bow of meditation is like smoke going up or clouds rising. The arrows of wisdom ﬂy like a shower and drift into the air. [Soldiers] wield the whip of provisional name (Pāli saṃmuti) and tread onto the steppe of does-not-exist (Skt. asaṃ- pravṛtti). They burnish themselves through the lion’s roar (i.e., the Buddha’s exposition of the Dharma), pierce [their enemies] with the sound that suffering is emptiness, wield [the famous sword called] Ganjiang and cut [the enemy solders] to pieces, and brandish spears and lances, vying with each other to win victory.

We lay the corpses of deﬁlement down and cover the ﬁeld with them. The blood of the deﬁlement runs just as a long river does. We demolish the high and steep mountain of ignorance, dry up the great stream of lust, drive those who defy [authority] to the cave of various wrong views, and crush imper- tinence in the nest of the seven kinds of self-conceit.

Thereupon, even if the devil rebels can make their way, they have lost the spirit to oppose. Even though they try to retreat, they have no hiding place where they hope to escape [from their difﬁculties]. They exhaust their resources. Their path comes to an end. They run about anxiously but there is nothing on which they can depend. Devil King [Pāpīyas]’s hands are tied behind his back and he is brought before the military tribunal. His subordinates bring death upon themselves at our camp gate. All heavenly beings arise just as lightning ﬂashes and take refuge in [the Buddha’s] ediﬁcation. Confused people come swiftly as the wind to receive their ﬁrst light of the sun (i.e., the Buddhist teaching). The power of the August (i.e., the Buddha) wipes out [the devil rebels] just as the sun melts morning frost or the whole water of a great stream is poured to extinguish a bonﬁre. Therefore, in the morning we cause the enemies who have absconded for myriad generations to collapse just like a landslide and purge the difﬁculties from ancient times in China within a brief moment. This is truly the wonderful achievement of the spiritual assembly by the holy August (i.e., the Buddha), and an excellent meritorious deed that is rare in the world.

Formerly King Tang of the Yin dynasty [defeated King Jie of the Xia dynasty and] established merit as great as a cloud in the outskirts of the Xia dynasty; King Wu of the Zhou dynasty exterminated [King Zhou of the Yin dynasty] and cleansed the atmosphere in the pasture of the Shang (i.e., Yin) dynasty. These are, however, simply the heroic and wonderful incidents of remote ages. How could it be possible to view [these achievements] as equal to the achievement of our Sage?

Thereupon, I reverently propagate the Imperial plan and pacify those who adhere to [Buddhism] for the ﬁrst time. I content them with the house equal to emptiness, ﬁll them with the stream of the eight kinds of meditation leading to liberation (Skt. aṣṭa-vimokṣa), defend them from [evils] through the pro- priety of the [ﬁve] precepts and the [ten] wholesome acts, and cause them to follow the breeze of the six pāramitās. Old people understand to follow the truth in a new song, and young wanderers hear for the ﬁrst time the sound of “Let me return [to Buddhism]!”425

To be punished in accordance with Heaven’s decree is the way of the Spring and Autumn era. To render a meritorious deed and suppress a rebellion are acts that are praised by former kings. When a great criminal follows the

sacred law by respecting peace, the world is equally bright and this world is reformed and puriﬁed. The profound breeze incites [people of] remote areas. Those within the territory of our state have joy in their minds. In the imperial court there is the song of “[all affairs] will be happily performed!”426 and outside the government there is the song of “happy borders!”427

[The Buddha’s] merits are high and his Way is great. They are beyond expression. His sacred thoughts are deep and profound, and they cannot be described in words. I have brieﬂy itemized the Imperial authority and the methods of wonderful schemes. Moreover, I have displayed the vigorous power of our military. Our courier who travels as fast as lightning goes quickly, like a shooting star, [carrying this appeal to you]. We respectfully inform you with this written appeal. We, the vassals [of the Buddha], sincerely humble ourselves and clap our hands in joy.

Having become free from giving sermons, I again somehow prolong the day (i.e., have leisure time). With allegory I created this ﬁctional account, hoping to clarify the Great Way. I hope that those who are fond of the wrong way will return before they go too far.

A sutra says, “Nirvana is nonarising and yet there is nothing that is not brought into existence. The most genuine intelligence is non-illuminating and yet there is nothing that is not illuminated. Only the Tathāgata [possesses both of these].”428 Victory is not won through the merit of shields and spears. To invade territory is not achieved through a powerful army that is well known in the world. An emperor or king is not esteemed just for being in that rank. Regarding supreme rulers’ vassals, not only those of Lord Huan [of Qi state] or Lord Wen [of Jin state] are noble. The teaching of Confucius and the Duke of Zhou is far [from that of the Buddha] at this point. The words of Laozi and Zhuangzi appear to be similar to [those of the Buddha] but they are not equal to [the Buddha’s words]. Therefore, we know that the foundation of truth exists beyond the views of the common people, and that the most August (i.e., the Buddha) is the king within the true mirror. Middle-class people hesitate between existence and nonexistence. The ignorant people of the lowest class are surprised and laugh in a state of permanent confusion. I hope now that those who read this will abandon their conceit, which is just like that of Hebo, [the deity of the Yellow River,] who was happy about the abundant water in the river in autumn, [showing that he had no knowledge

that there is more water in the Northern Sea], and that they will go to a distance and enjoy themselves at the profound gate of Ruo, [the deity] of the Northern Sea who ruled over vast expanses of water].429 We should not bind our minds with the familiar teaching or frighten our spirit with absurd doctrines.

Afterword to the Collection for the Propagation and Clarification of Buddhism by Shi Sengyou

The [Collection for] the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism] I have compiled is intended to guard the Dharma against [heretical] insults. It consists of erudite people’s well-intentioned discussions and distinguished scholars’ excellent statements. It is also completely equipped with the fort to destroy evils and break delusions and the moat to propagate the [Buddhist] Way and protect the Dharma. The wise, however, are free from confusion, and those who are confused contradict wisdom. If we lead people by [only speaking of] the profound Dharma, we will end up causing them to understand nothing. Therefore, I have further collected instances from secular writings and point to issues with evidence. These words are not glorious or elegant but their logic is simple and concise. I pray that those who have gone astray will return to [the Buddhist Way] before too long and that they will completely dispel all doubts. Therefore, [this] is entitled the Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism].

I say [as follows]. The twofold truth (i.e., absolute and relative; Skt. para- mārtha saṃvṛti) differ from each other. So Buddhists and non-Buddhists are separated from each other in this point. The way to enlightenment (Buddhism) is [the teaching of] emptiness and tranquility, and it encompasses the three realms of existence and it regards them equally. The worldly teaching is con- ﬁned and stagnated; it directs only [the affairs of] a country and it limits the mind. If your mind is limited to [the affairs of] a country, you will be doubtful of all things except for whatever you can directly hear and see. If you regard the three realms of existence equally, then the law of the mutation of the spirit (i.e., the transmigration of birth and death) will always be understood. To be seized with doubt and waver in understanding is the reason that sentient beings are submerged [in the transmigration of birth and death] forever.

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When we closely inspect the worldly teaching and examine and clarify the Five Classics, only Heaven is revered and only sages are given as paragons. [The worldly teaching], however, does not survey the shape of Heaven and does not infer the minds of sages, either. People respect [the teaching] and have faith in it, but it is still obscure to them and they do not understand it. Much less do they understand the Buddha, who is more honorable than Heaven, or the Dharma, which is more wonderful than sages’ [teaching]. The [Buddhist] ediﬁcation goes beyond the world and its law is beyond the world in which we cling to language. Even Jian Wu was frightened by the Milky Way.430 How could it be possible that worldly scholars would not be suspicious of or surprised by the ocean of enlightenment? If they are surprised by the ocean of enlightenment, their surprise is the same [as that of Jian Wu when he heard about the vastness of] the Milky Way.

Their ﬁrst doubt is that what the Buddhist scriptures expound is prepos- terous and exaggerated and cannot be veriﬁed. The second doubt is that since one’s spirit perishes when one dies, it is hardly possible that [the spirit will transmigrate] in the three periods of existence. The third doubt is that people have never seen the real Buddha and [that his teaching] has no beneﬁt to the governance of the state. The fourth doubt is that the Dharma teaching did not exist in ancient times and only recently emerged during the Han period. The ﬁfth doubt is that the [Buddhist] teaching should exist only in the region of the western tribes and its ediﬁcation is not for Chinese people. The last doubt is that the Dharma was rarely [practiced] in the Han and Wei periods and began ﬂourishing only during the Jin period. Because of these six doubts, no faith is planted [within the people]. We must save people from being drowned [in delusion]. Therefore, I will clearly discuss these matters. If people have the doubt that what the Buddhist scriptures expound is pre- posterous and exaggerated and it has no veriﬁcation, this is probably because [in the Buddhist doctrine] the periods of time are inﬁnite and the world is boundlessly vast. People in the present world all know that it will certainly last tens of thousands of years, well beyond a hundred years, yet they do not believe that after the lapse of tens of thousands of years it will reach innu- merable kalpas (Skt. anādi-kāla). This is because they measure the Creator only with their limited minds. All the people are aware that there are surely the four polar regions outside of China,431 yet they do not believe that there

are even more worlds far beyond those regions. This is because they adhere to their own views in judging the Grand Void (i.e., the universe).

Formerly King Tang [of the Shang dynasty] asked [Xia] Ge, “Is there a limit to the universe?” Ge replied, “There is more boundlessness outside the boundless, and there is more limitlessness within the limitless.” [The king then said,] “I, therefore, know [that the universe is] boundless and limitless.”432 The great wise man of ancient times taught the sage king according to reason, and it completely tallies with [the teachings of] the Buddhist scriptures even after a thousand years.

With what information do a group of people of limited knowledge object to [the Buddhist teaching]? They look to themselves with their narrow minds and make mistakes. With small round eyes they cannot see things and com- plain that their view is blocked by a wall. Moreover, they intend to disgrace the esteemed Buddhist scriptures, go against the holy doctrine, and bring false charges against [the teachings of] the inﬁnite time period and the worlds [beyond the four polar regions]. This is the ﬁrst point for which they should be pitied and lamented.

If people have the doubt that because one’s spirit perishes when one dies and it is hardly possible that [the spirit will transmigrate] in the three periods of existence, this is a case where someone falsely accuses his own spiritual nature and despises and casts away his ancestral shrine.

The Duke of Zhou and Confucius, however, drew up statute records in which they spoke the excellent words of spiritual beings. The Book of Changes says, “[The union of essence and breath form things]. The wandering away of the anima (hun) produces changes. Therefore we know the sentiments and the appearances of spiritual beings.”433 Since [spiritual beings have] both sentiments and appearance, would they be shapeless? The Book of Odes says, “The three sovereigns reside in Heaven and King [Wu] is in charge of the capital.”434 Spirits ascend to Heaven. Can it be said that they perish? The Book of Rites says, “Under the Xia dynasty it was the [administrative] way to give honor to the nature conferred on people; they served the spirits of the departed (gui) and respected the spiritual beings (shen).”435 How could what Great King Yu revered be viewed as unreal and preposterous? The Book of History says, “When the Duke of Zhou tried to sacriﬁce himself for King Wu, [who was critically ill,] he said, ‘I am capable of serving spiritual beings

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(guishen).’”436 Is it possible that the Duke of Zhou’s prayers to his ancestors were deceptive?

If one dies and yet his spirit [continues to] exist, then [the law of] the three periods of existence is as clear as a mirror. Who can know the end of the transmigration of birth and death? Worldly scholars cling to ceremonies and betray the Five Classics. They not only falsely accuse the Buddha but also disgrace the sages. If they believe in the spirit (gui) found in the Five Classics but doubt the spirit (shen) spoken by the Buddha, such people are assuredly deaf or blind. They are unspeakable. This is the second point for which they should be pitied and lamented.

If people have the doubt that they have never seen the real Buddha and [that his teaching] has no beneﬁt to the governance of the state, then offering sacriﬁces to Heaven and worshiping the deities of mountains and rivers should be discontinued. Why? Who can see the Supreme Thearch’s face in the deep blue sky? How could we recognize the appearance of Houji on the vast earth? People plough the ﬁeld with their own hands. What help do they receive from the god of the land? People create the footpaths between the ﬁelds. Why do the zha deities get credit for this?437 Nevertheless, people still spend a lot of money on the sacriﬁcial offerings and perform numerous sea- sonal religious services [for these deities]. Isn’t this because it is considered that such unseen numinous beings should be revered and the people are taught to render good returns [to the numinous beings]?

Moreover, the Buddha’s wisdom prevails throughout the realm of ultimate reality and his divinity takes shape beyond the world. On the basis of [the Buddha’s] compassion in creation the Supreme Thearch achieves [the func- tions of] Heaven. The sage kings rule over the people depending on [the Buddha’s] nourishing precepts. If you revere the Dharma the six heavens are all delighted. If you reject the Way myriad deities are vexed. People today have never seen the appearance of [the Lord of] Heaven, yet they say that offering a sacriﬁce to Heaven and Earth brings them happiness. They have never seen the golden countenance [of the Buddha], yet they say that there can be no reward even if they respectfully serve [the Buddha]. They make light of the root and value what is insigniﬁcant. This is the third point for which people should tremble in fear.

If people have the doubt that the Buddha’s teaching did not exist in ancient times and only recently emerged during the Han period, [I would like to say that] the miraculous ediﬁcation [of the Buddha] is now in and now out of our sight. Who can gauge its beginning and end? When we think of the far distant time of [Fu]xi and [Shen] Nong, even their administrative achievements are obscure. If the Dharma teaching existed during their times, how could we have learned about it?

Formerly Fotudeng knew that there were an old [buddha] image and a dew basin under the stone buried in the earth in the city of Linzi.438 Jiantuole perceived the foundation of an old temple on Mount Panchi.439 Many people tried to dig there and found that everything was just as he had said. These are the vestiges left behind over many generations that were revealed in the Jin period. Who can conclude that the Buddha’s teaching never existed in ancient times?

The Liezi says, “During the reign of King Mu of the Zhou dynasty, a wizard came from the far west. He could enter water and ﬁre [without being harmed], pass through metal and stone, overturn mountains, cause river streams to ﬂow backward, and move cities and towns. He stayed in the air and never fell down. He was not obstructed when he ran into solid substances. He performed various transformations without exhaustion. He was able not only to change people’s physical forms but also to change their thoughts. King Mu respected this wizard as if he was a god, and served him as if he was [the king’s] mas- ter.”440 When we observe the [wizard’s] mysterious conduct we see that there were already ediﬁcation by a bodhisattva and the foreshadowing of the great Dharma at the outset of the Zhou dynasty. It was not during the Han period that the portent of the Buddha’s responsive activity in conjunction with human beings’ receptivity ﬁrst occurred. Nevertheless, people ﬁrmly stick to this single period (the Han period) [when the Buddha’s teaching emerged]. This is the fourth point for which they should sigh in lamentation.

If people have the doubt that the [Buddhist] teaching should exist only in the region of the western tribes and that its ediﬁcation is not for Chinese peo- ple, this would mean that the sages of former times stood on speciﬁc regions in order to lay down their teachings; it would not mean that they established their teachings in order to teach the people.

95c

A long time ago the Three Augusts ediﬁed the people with wuwei, the Five Thearchs did so by means of virtue, the Three Kings did so through observing the proprieties and inﬂicting a punishment, and the seven states [of the Warring States period] did so through wielding power and inﬂuence. The region [they ruled over] was always China, yet the worldly teaching changed nine times. Today, when we return to the origin of the highest path and take lessons from great wisdom, [the teaching of Buddhism] touches us and consequently we understand it thoroughly. Is there any region where the teaching does not spread?

Yu (the legendary founder of the Xia dynasty) is from the western tribe Qiang, and Emperor Shun was born in the eastern Yi tribe. Who would say that these sages’ birthplaces were humble and therefore he rejects them? Confucius wanted to reside in the region of the Yi tribe and Laozi went to the western region of the Rong tribe. How can a place be ﬁxed as the location for the teaching? When even the sages of the mundane world founded their teachings, they did not concern themselves with the location, whether China or a non-Chinese region, not to speak of the Buddha who governs over the trichiliocosm. How could he restrict his ediﬁcation to the western region?

According to the “Chapter on Royal Regulations (Wangzhi)” in the Book of Rites, “Within the four seas [China occupies] a space of three thousand li square.”441 The space that China occupies is not very large, either. The regions along the Yi River and the Luo River originally used to belong to China, but in the end they became the Rong tribe’s territory. The Wu and Chu areas [along the Yangzi River] were originally non-Chinese territory, but they became part of China. The Way moves and ﬂows everywhere, yet the land is not placed under constant ediﬁcation. Moreover, the earth is boundless and each large area is governed differently. The polar star is seen in the northwest. Therefore, we know that India occupies the center of the world. Today [Chinese people] call this small middle land “the prosperous land (hua)” and reject the True Dharma. Even though they want to estrange themselves from [the True Dharma], the miraculous ediﬁcation [of the Buddha] is continuously transmitted [into China]. This is the ﬁfth point for which they should feel mournful. If people have the doubt that the Dharma was rarely [practiced] in the Han and Wei periods and began ﬂourishing only during the Jin period, this is only because the fortune of the Way has its ups and downs. We cannot

investigate this thoroughly. If we believe that śramaṇas cultivate Śākyamuni’s teaching, how different is this from Confucius’ giving an account of [Tao] Tang (Emperor Yao) and Yu (Emperor Shun)? Confucius studied the Five Classics and left a model for all kings of later generations. Nevertheless, the feudal lords of the Spring and Autumn era were not willing to follow and employ [the model left by Confucius]. In the Warring States period [Confu- cius’ instruction] was slighted and at a low ebb. In the time of the ﬁrst emperor of the Qin dynasty [the Confucian canon] was burned to ashes. Did this happen because Confucius was unworthy or the Book of Odes and the Book of History were shallow and superﬁcial?

More recently, in the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, Confu- cianism began to be celebrated. Those who were well versed in the Classics were appointed as ministers and the art of Confucius was honored. How could it be possible that [Confucianism] is discarded in later ages because it was slighted in the seven states [of the Warring States period]?

The preface to the Biographies of Arrayed Transcendents compiled by Liu Xiang in the reign of Emperor Yuan of the Han dynasty says, “Seventy-four [transcendents] are found in the Buddhist scriptures.” Therefore, we know that the Buddhist scriptures were ﬁrst transmitted to China a long time ago. When Emperor Ming dreamed [of the golden man], Fu Yi called [that man] the Buddha. Thereafter, Qin Jing went on a mission from the east (China), and Kāśyapa-mātaṅga came [to China] from the west. After that, a [buddha] image was drawn on the watchtower outside of the Kaiyang Gate [of Luoyang], and Buddhist scriptures were deposited in a room of Lantai (the palace library). [Nevertheless,] the profound scriptures were not expounded and the people did not acknowledge the heart of the scriptures. Therefore, King [Ying] of Chu built a shrine for benevolence and purity and Emperor Huan established worship under a lotus ﬂower-shaped canopy. The Buddhist doctrine did not unite with [people’s minds]. [The Buddha] was

only worshiped as a deity, nothing more than that.

During the Wei dynasty Emperor Wu intelligently examined [the scriptures] and explained the subtle ediﬁcation in his writing. Sun Quan, [the founder of the Wu kingdom,] carried out a grand project and built a Buddhist temple. At the beginning of the reign of Emperor Wu of the Jin dynasty, [Buddhism] had a chance to take root deeply [in Chinese society]. Jīvaka brightly showed

96a

traces of supernatural powers. Zhu [Fa]hu collected the [three] stores of the Dharma treasures (Skt. tripiṭaka). Consequently the princes and dukes as well as ofﬁcials made progress in virtue by cleansing their minds. Numerous intellectuals of myriad countries painstakingly reformed their ways.

In the Jin dynasty Emperor Ming was perspicacious and awakened. He concentrated his mind preserving the one and drew treasured images with his own hands to depict [the Buddha’s] appearance, which he enjoyed looking at. Shortly, Master Daoan spread the Buddhist scriptures in the eastern region of Mount [Taixing]. Kumārajīva propagated the Dharma in the Guanyou area (i.e., Chang’an). The profound meaning [of the Buddhist Dharma] completely extended and the ultimate reality [of things] was increasingly illuminated. People of outstanding ability and wisdom veriﬁed the [Buddhist] doctrines together, kept them in mind, and adhered to them.

We know therefore that the Dharma clouds began to rise [from a very small place where] pebbles touch each other, and the wisdom water began to ﬂow from [a tiny pool], the water which was only as much as could be held in a wine cup. It is the normal state of the miraculous ediﬁcation [of the Buddha] that there are certainly gradations in the teaching. The [mysterious] responsive activities [in conjunction with] people’s receptivity are in accor- dance with the times. If we are in no condition to receive them, what can we do about them? [It cannot be helped.]

Accordingly, it is not that Confucianism was unintelligent in the Qin dynasty and only became intelligent in the Han dynasty. It is simply a matter of whether or not [Confucianism] was adopted [in those respective times]. It is not that the Buddhist Dharma was unimportant in the Han dynasty but became important in the Jin dynasty. It is solely a matter of whether or not [the Buddhist Dharma] was clariﬁed. Consequently, we know that the Five Classics are continually wholesome and their ups and downs follow the turning of the wheel of fortune and that, [similarly,] the Buddhist ediﬁcation is always thriving and whether or not it spreads widely depends on the con- ditions. Once you think about it in this way, you can no longer harbor deep doubts. The [worldly scholars who have doubts about Buddhism], however, stick to their doubts and have never been awakened. This is the sixth point for which they should bitterly grieve.

Believing in and following [Buddhism] is the foundation of good fortune. Being confused and engaging in slander is the gate to misfortune. How much more should dark people do so! The majority of them do not estimate their own abilities. On the basis of their ignorance they falsely accuse the Awakened Precursor’s omniscience, and on the basis of their lack of observation they slander the discernment of the Perfect One (i.e., the Buddha). They contrarily tell everyone that those who are experts on [the causality in] the three periods of existence are perverse. Devoted only to immediate events, they consider themselves to be intelligent. Thereupon, their minds are choked by confusion and doubt and calumny ﬁlls their mouths. They expiate their hasty arguments with heavy suffering and they bring on themselves punishments of the unseen world through their conspicuous slander. Their words do not have even a tri- ﬂing amount of merit; their thoughts do not have even a hairbreadth’s amount of beneﬁt.

A river ﬂows as fast as if ﬂying. If a hill is hidden [in a marsh] [it may be carried away] as quickly as a ﬂash of lightning.442 Before an exhaled breath comes back, we suddenly leave this world behind. Retribution follows us just as a shadow [follows the form]. If you repent of your folly would it be possible to try to recover?

The mutation of the spirit (i.e., the transmigration of birth and death) is endless. We go through this world and the netherworld alternately. We expe- rience the transmigration of birth and death in the ﬁve realms of existence. Is there any [realm] we would not go to? The heavenly palace is the clear evidence that was bestowed upon Zhao Jian[zi] and Lord Mu of Qin state.443 Retribution that alternately comes from the spiritual world is seen in the cases of Du Bo and Pengsheng.444 The case that good fortune visits those who cultivate virtue is veriﬁed by the examples of [Tai]wu of the Yin dynasty and Lord Jing of Song state.445 That misfortune falls upon those who kill many people is proven by Bai Qi and Cheng Pu.446 Obscure and marvelous things in this world are minutely recorded in ancient books. The beneﬁcial activities of unseen divine beings in the next existence are extensively explained in venerable [Buddhist] scriptures.

The laws of dependent origination and the Buddha’s responsive activity in conjunction with human beings’ receptivity are, however, recondite, and

the truth of causality is subtle. Since it is difﬁcult to understand subtle things, I omit and do not explain them here. [These] key points have already been correctly shown in what wise people of the past debated. I somewhat follow my shallow thoughts and add them here at the end of this volume. Although my writing is not as beautiful as the jade tablets used in ofﬁcial ceremonies, the content is sufﬁcient to instruct people (panjian).447 I hope that amiable, courteous gentlemen will seek great fortune for themselves.

End of Fascicle Fourteen of The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation [of Buddhism]

Notes

1 The Daoist term zhongmin refers to those who attained sagehood and longevity through the instruction of a brilliant sage master. The concept of zhongmin developed in southern China and was later applied by Kou Qianzhi (365?–448) of the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534). By the time of the Tang dynasty (618–907) the notion of zhongmin was no longer popular.

2 This derives from a historical fact in the Han dynasty. During Emperor Wu’s reign (141–87 B.C.E.), “worm magic” (wugu; i.e., the art of poisoning or casting a spell over someone) was popular in the court. When the emperor fell ill, his son Prince Wei (131–91 B.C.E.) was falsely accused by Jiang Chong, who claimed the prince’s practice of worm magic had caused the emperor’s illness. The prince then killed Chong and attempted a revolt, but he was defeated and subsequently committed suicide. The emperor, having found that the prince was falsely charged, felt pity for him and built the Sizi Palace. See the Hanshu, Wu wuzizhuan.

3 There is no equivalent English name for the Chinese herb danghua, also called tian- xianzi. It is a narcotic that causes frenzied behavior when ingested.

4 Corpus spirits are generally called sanshi (“three corpses”), evil spirits that inhabit a human body and shorten one’s life span.

5 The Yellow Books are generally known as instruction books for the arts of the bed- chamber. Presently, only four texts called Huangshu are extant in the Daozang.

6 Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū (Kyoto: Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo, 1973–1975), vol. 3, p. 445, n. 1, suggests that this passage refers to Prince Sudāna’s charity (Skt. dāna-pāramitā). See the Taizi Xudana jing (T.171.3:419a28–b1, 420c7–8).

7 In the Later Han dynasty three sheng was equivalent to six hundred milliliters.

8 This expression is based on a conversation about death between Marquis Jing and Yanzi, found in the Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s twentieth year. See James Legge, The Chinese Classics (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960), vol. 5, p. 684 (right column).

9 The Baopuzi explains the huangshen and yuezhang talismans. See James R. Ware, trans. and ed., Alchemy, Medicine, and Religion in the China of A.D. 320: The Nei p’ien of Ko Hung (Pao-p’u tzu) (Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1966), p. 298.

10 The Discourse on the Triple Destruction was composed as a rejection of Buddhism by a Daoist writing under the pseudonym Zhang Rong.

299

11 Xiaojing. See Henry Rosemont, trans., The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence: A Philosophical Translation of the Xiaojing (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009), p. 105.

12 Shiji, juan 4, Zhou benji. See William H. Nienhauser, Jr., The Grand Scribe’s Records

(Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994, 2008), vol. 1, p. 57.

13 Lunyu, Taibo. See James Legge, The Chinese Classics: With a Translation, Critical and Exegetical Notes, Prolegomena, and Copious Indexes (Taipei: Wen shih che ch’u pan she, 1972), vol. 1, p. 207.

14 The ﬁve kinds of disasters refer to those that King Wu of the Zhou dynasty encountered during his expedition to defeat King Zhou of the Yin dynasty: (1) he departed on an inauspicious day, (2) he saw the planet Jupiter in the east, (3) he encountered a ﬂood,

(4) he was besieged, and (5) he encountered a landslide. See Xunzi, Ruxiao.

15 The Red Eyebrows were a rebel group that emerged toward the end of the Former Han dynasty. The members applied red paint on their eyebrows in order to distinguish themselves from Wang Mang’s soldiers.

16 T.262.9:60a16–b13.

17 T.475.14:557a18–b3.

18 The metaphor of passing horses derives from the Zhuangzi, Zhibeiyou: “'Man’s life between Heaven and Earth is like a white colt passing by a crevice, [which is brieﬂy glimpsed but then it] suddenly disappears.” See James Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji (Taibei: Wen xing shu ju, 1963), p. 505.

19 Lunyu, Zi han. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 222.

20 Yijing, Xici xia. See James Legge, I ching; Book of Changes (New Hyde Park, NY: University Books, 1964), p. 385, n. 22.

21 This expression is based on a passage in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “A keeper of monkeys, in doling out their acorns, [once] said, ‘In the morning I will give you three [acorns] and in the evening four.’ This made them all angry, so he said, ‘Very well. In the morning I will give you four and in the evening three [acorns].’ His two proposals were substantially the same, but the result of the ﬁrst was to make the creatures angry, and of the second to make them pleased.”

22 The source of this statement is unknown.

23 Shijing, Wei tian zhi ming: “[The ordinances of Heaven/]How deep are they and non- intermittent! (yu mubuyi).” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 570.

24 Shangshu, Yaodian: “[Yao] was reverential, intelligent, accomplished, and thought- ful—naturally and without effort (qin ming wen si anan).” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 15.

25 Zhuangzi, Waiwu. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 581.

26 Mengzi, Wangzhang shang: “Those who explain the odes may not insist on one term so as to do violence to a sentence, nor on a sentence so as to do violence to the general scope.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 353.

27 The people of Song state during the Warring States period were referred to as ignorant.

28 Jie Yu was a madman of Chu state; Lunyu, Weizi. See Legge, The Chinese Classics,

vol. 1, pp. 332–333.

29 “The sayings of an uncultivated person of the east of Qi state” means unreliable talk. This expression is found in Mengzi, Wangzhang shang. See Legge, The Chinese Clas- sics, vol. 2, p. 351.

30 Generally the term “Nine August Ones” refers to all legendary rulers before Shen Nong; however, there are other interpretations. See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 2, p. 242, n. 160.

31 The term jingyi is found in Zhuangzi, Keyi. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 414, n. 3.

32 This citation is given in Liu Xie’s Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions as “Death is named nirvana. I have never seen a person who learns about death and yet does not die” (T.2102.53:49c10).

33 This expression is based on the statement found in the Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 50: “There are also three in every ten [people] whose aim is to live, but whose movements tend to the land (or place) of death. And for what reason? Because of their excessive endeavors to perpetuate life.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 140.

34 Zhuangzi, Dasheng. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 457.

35 Liji, Liyun. See F. Max Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1885), vol. 27, p. 378, n. 15.

36 Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 13. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 104.

37 Da banniepan jing (T.375.12:802a13–19).

38 Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:473c3–474a2).

39 Xiuxing benqi jing (T.184.3:468a11).

40 This is based on a passage in the Zhuangzi, Tiandi: “If an ugly man has a son born to him at midnight, he hastens with a light to look at it. Very eagerly he does so, only afraid that it may be like himself.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 376.

41 See, for example, Da banniepan jing (T.376.12:881b24).

42 Liji, Tangong, shang. Legge translates the passage: “[Slight mourning is worn for an aunt, and an elder or younger sister, (when they have been married);] the reason being that there are those who received them from us, and will render to them the full

measure of observance”; See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 147, n. 43.

43 No speciﬁc scripture is noted here.

44 Shiji, Gaozu benji. See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 2, p. 69.

45 Sanguo Weizhi, juan four, Gaogui Xianggong zhuan.

46 Jinshu, juan thirty two, Kangxian Chu huanghou zhuan.

47 Gaoseng zhuan (T.2059.50:409c18–21).

48 Zuozhuan, Aigong’s seventh year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 813 (right column).

49 See Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 1. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 95.

50 Zuozhuan, Xianggong’s twenty third year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5,

p. 502 (right column).

51 Zengyi ahan jing (T.125.2:706a17–18).

52 This expression is based on a passage in the Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 48: “He dimin- ishes it and again diminishes it, until he arrives at doing nothing [on purpose].” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 138.

53 This expression derives from Lunyu, Zi han. Legge translates it as “I looked up to them, and they seemed to become more high; I tried to penetrate [into] them, and they seemed to become more ﬁrm”; The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 220.

54 Foshuo Beijing chao (T.790.17:730a16–736a20).

55 Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 13. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 104.

56 See the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi. Legge translates it as “the destruction of life is not dying, and the communication of other life is not living”; Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 294.

57 Shijing, Beifeng, Bozhou. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 40, n. 5.

58 Shijing, Xiaoya, Jiaogong. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 404, n. 1.

59 Liji, Tangong, xia. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, pp. 198– 199, n. 24.

60 Liji, Ruxing. English translation by James Legge, in Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 408, n.16.

61 Zhuangzi, Tiandi and Rangwang. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 363, 589.

62 The Xiaojing states, “When we have established our character by the practice of the [ﬁlial] course, so as to make our name famous in future ages and thereby glorify our

parents, this is the end of ﬁlial piety.” See Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 105.

63 This expression is from the Zhuangzi, Tiandao, based on a conversation between the wheelwright Bian, who could not tell a knack by word of mouth, and Duke Huan, who learned through reading the words of the sages. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 391–392.

64 Zuozhuan, Xigong’s twenty-fourth year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 192 (left column).

65 This expression is not found in the Zhuangzi.

66 The phrase “to empty the room in order to produce bright light (xushi shengbai)” derives from the Zhuangzi, Renjianshi. Legge translates it as “the empty apartment is ﬁlled with light through it”; Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 258.

67 Zhuangzi, Xuwugui. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 545.

68 One zhang is equivalent to ten chi. In the sixth century, when the Hongmingji was compiled, one chi was 24.5 centimeters (about 9.6 inches).

69 See the Miaofa lianhua jing (T.262.9:22c3–6).

70 The Scripture on the Clean and Pure Dharma Practice (Qingjing faxing jing) is a Chi- nese indigenous text. The manuscript fragment of this sutra is found in the Nanatsudera manuscript collection. The text was published by Tairyō Makita and Toshinori Ochiai, eds., Nanatsudera koitsu kyōten kenkyū sōsho, Chūgoku senjutsu kyōten (Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1994–), vol. 2, pp. 6–15; the passages concerned are on pp. 13–14.

71 Miaofa lianhua jing (T.262.9:42c3).

72 Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:473b10).

73 This expression derives from the Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou; “east and west it (i.e., a cat) leaps about, avoiding neither what is high nor what is low, until it is caught in a trap or dies in a net.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 222.

74 Penzu is a legendary ofﬁcial during the reign of Emperor Yao. Penzu was believed to have lived eight hundred years.

75 Zhuangzi, Zhibeiyou. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 499.

76 Zhuangzi, Zhibeiyou. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 506.

77 Xuanni is a posthumous title conferred upon Confucius by Emperor Ping of the Han dynasty.

78 Chengshi lun, T.1646.32:274c19.

79 Taizi ruiying benqi jing, T.185.3:475a1–3.

80 Weimojie suoshuo jing, T.475.14:542b5.

81 Da bannie pan jing, T.374.12:533b4 and T.375.12:778a26–27.

82 Da banniepan jing, T.374.12:411a23 and T.375.12:652a5–6.

83 Da banniepan jing, T.374.12:411b18–19 and T.375.12:652b2–3.

84 Mozi, Minggui, xia and Guoyu, Zhouyu, shang.

85 Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s seventh year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 618 (left column), in which Boyou is given as “Pih-yëw.”

86 Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s thirty-ﬁrst year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 738 (right column), in which Wu would invade Ying.

87 Zuozhuan, Chenggong’s tenth year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 374 (right column).

88 Zuozhuan, Chenggong’s sixteenth year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 397 (left column).

89 Taiping yulan, juan 398.

90 The biography of Lü Shang is found in the Shiji, juan 32, Qi Taigong shijia, but this story is not found there.

91 The source of this story is unknown.

92 Hou Hanshu, juan 56.

93 Jinshu, juan 41.

94 Shiji, juan 3, Yin benji. See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 1, p. 48.

95 Shiji, juan 125, Ningxing liezhuan.

96 Divination of the six kinds of dreams by the sun, moon, and stars is mentioned in the

Zhouli, Chunguan Zongbo.

97 This expression is based on a passage in the Zhuangzi, Qiushui, “People that do busi- ness on the water do not shrink from encountering iganodons and dragons—that is the courage of ﬁshermen. Those who do business on land do not shrink from encoun- tering rhinoceroses and tigers—that is the courage of hunters”; see Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 434.

98 The Chinese character fo, “buddha,” here is replaced with the character shen, “spirit.”

99 For Sun Bin, see Shiji, Sunzi Wu Qi liezhuan; Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. 7, pp. 39–41; for Lu Fu, see Jinshu, juan 44, Lu Fu zhuan.

100 Shujing, Shanshu, shuoming, shang. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 252.

101 Shijing, Xiaoya, Qiaoyan. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 342.

102 Shiji, juan 62, Guan Yan lie zhuan. See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 7, pp. 9–10.

103 Shiji, juan 92, Huiyinhou liezhuan. See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records,

vol. 8, p. 94.

104 Gao Yao served as a chief judicial ofﬁcer for the legendary ruler Shun.

105 This expression is based on a story in the Shiji, Yin benji: King Zhou, a tyrant and the last emperor of the Yin dynasty, became angry at Bi Gan, who remonstrated with him. Zhou cut open Bi Gan to examine his heart, saying, “I have heard that a sage’s heart has seven apertures”; see Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 1, p. 51.

106 The Chinese character li, “to stand,” is read as the character qiu, “hillock,” and the character yang, “sun,” is read as the character tang, “hot water,” according to Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 492.

107 Zuozhuan, Xigong’s second year; see Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 136 (right column) for the jade produced in Chuiji, and vol. 1, n. 69, for Bian He’s jade. King Zhao of Qin state asked King Huiwen of Zhao to exchange He’s jade that he possessed for ﬁfteen of his cities; Shiji, juan 81, Lian Po Lin Xiangru liezhuan; see Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 7, p. 263.

108 This statement is probably based on Zhuangzi, Quishui, “The [horses] Qiji and Hualiu could in one day gallop one thousand li”; see Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 429.

109 Xiaojing; see Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 116.

110 Yijing, Xici shang. Legge translates this passage: “Seeing their spirit-like intimations and understanding them [depended on their being proper men]”; I ching: Book of Changes, p. 378.

111 Pengsheng was killed by the people of Qi state. Later he appeared as a boar. The mar- quis of Qi state saw him and fell down in his carriage. See the Zuozhuan, Huangong’s eighteenth year and Zhuanggong’s eighth year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, v. 5, p. 70 (right column) and p. 82 (right column).

112 Yijing, Xici shang. Legge translates this: “[T]hus he knows the characteristics of the anima and animus. There is a similarity between him and Heaven and Earth, and hence there is no contrariety in him to them”; I ching: Book of Changes, p. 354.

113 Yijing, Kui. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 140.

114 According to Shiji, juan 130, Taishigong zixu, Mohists overemphasize frugality, and [therefore] it is difﬁcult to follow their teaching.

115 Shiji, juan 3, Yin benji, says, “Carrying a chopping board and a tripod on his back, [Yi Yin] persuaded King Tang by means of a dainty”; See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 1, p. 43.

116 Han Feizi, Shuonan. See Burton Watson, trans., Han Feizi: Basic Writings (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), p. 78.

117 Shiji, juan 43, Zhao shijia.

118 Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 245.

119 Liji, Tangong xia. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 193.

120 Xiaojing. See Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 110.

121 Lunyu, Zihan. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 220.

122 Lunyu, Xiangdang. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 233, n. 10.

123 Liji, Jiyi. Legge translates: “We meet the approach of our friends with music, and escort them away with sadness, [and hence at the sacriﬁce in spring we use music, but not at the sacriﬁce in autumn]”; see Müller, The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 210.

124 Taiping yulan, juan 398. Sun Jian’s wife, Wu, dreamed that the moon entered her bosom and she gave birth to King Huan of Changsha.

125 Xiaojing. See Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 116.

126 Xiaojing. See Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 116.

127 Lunyu, Xianjin. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 240, chap. 11.

128 Zuozhuan, Chenggong’s ﬁfteenth year, has sheng da jie ci shou jie, which Legge translates as “A sage is equal to the duties of all positions; a man of the second class maintains the duty of his position”; The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 388 (right col- umn).

129 Mengzi, Liang Huiwang xia. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 167, chap. 8.

130 Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 508, n. 30, suggests that Cao Siwen’s statement starting with this and the Imperial response should come after the second criticism on Secretariat Fan’s Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit.

131 The entire passage in the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit is “[The relation] between the body and the function is similar to that between a sword and its sharpness” (T.2102.53:55b16–17).

132 Lunyu, Shuer. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 203, chap. 25.

133 These expressions are based on a passage in the Zhuangzi, Qiushui, “A frog in a well cannot be talked with about the sea—he is conﬁned to the limits of his hole. An insect of the summer cannot be talked with about ice—it knows nothing beyond its own season”; see Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 423.

134 Zhuangzi, Qiushui. This expression is found in a conversation between Hebo and Beihai Ruo; Mencius is not a correct reference. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 425.

135 Liji, Jiyi. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 212, n. 6.

136 Liji, Jiaotesheng. The attribution of the section on Liyun (“Ceremonial Usages”) is incorrect. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 448, n. 20.

137 Lunyu, Zihan. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 220, chap.10.

138 Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:547c20–22).

139 Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:551c20–22).

140 See “Section Five: The Body is Mortal but the Spirit is Immortal,” in “The Discourse on Why Śramaṇas Do Not Bow to the Sovereign (Shamen bujing wanghe lun) by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan,” in The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism, Vol. I, Fascicle Five, pp. 183–190 (T.2102.52:31b10–32b11).

141 This expression is based on Confucius’ statement in Lunyu, Shuer, “When I have pre- sented one corner of a subject to someone, and from it he cannot learn the other three, I do not repeat my lesson”; see Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 197, chap. 8

142 Mengzi, Lilou xia. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 317, chap. 1.

143 Yijing, Xici shang. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 354.

144 Liji, Tangong shang. Legge translates this passage as “Under the Yin they used the [ordinary] sacriﬁcial vessels, intimating to the people that [the dead] had knowledge”; See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 151, n. 6.

145 Lunyu, Bayi. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 159, chap. 12.

146 This expression is based on a passage in the Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 25, “In the uni- verse there are four that are great, and the [sage] king is one of them”; see Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 116.

147 This expression is based on a passage in the Lunyu, Gongzhi Chang, “His (i.e., Con- fucius’) discourses about human nature and the Way of Heaven cannot be heard”; see Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 177, chap. 12.

148 See the Shangshu, Yi xun. Legge translates this passage “[Think of them!—] Sacred counsels of vast importance, admirable words forcibly set forth!”; Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 198.

149 Wulu Chongzong was an intellectual of the Han dynasty who was favored by Emperor Yuan, so no one dared to argue against him. Only Zhu Yun refuted him in an argument and brought him to submission, whereupon all the Confucianists said, “Zhu Yun broke the long horn of Wulu”; see Hanshu, Zhu Yun zhuan.

150 Yijing, Xici xia. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 381, n. 10.

151 This is in accordance with the description found in the Gongyang zhuan, Aigong’s fourteenth year. The Zuozhuan contains the writings of Confucius until his death, in Aigong’s sixteenth year.

152 Mengzi, Gaozi shang. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 418–419. “Nobility of Heaven” refers to benevolence, righteousness, self-consecration, ﬁdelity, and inde- fatigable joy in these virtues.

153 The sophistry of a white horse not being white refers to the “Chapter on the White Horse (Baima lun)” in the Gongsun Longzi, by Gongsun Long of Zhao state.

154 The expression “separating the hardness [of a stone] from its white color” is based on a sophistry asserted by Gongsun Long during the Warring States period: “A piece of stone has two different characteristics: hardness and white color. Two different characteristics cannot mean one object, stone.”

155 This expression derives from a passage in the Yijing, Meng. Legge translates “‘[A second and third application create annoyance, and] I do not instruct so as to create annoy- ance’—annoyance [he means] to the ignorant”; I ching: Book of Changes, p. 217.

156 This expression derives from a passage in the Yijing, Kun, “In the ﬁrst SIX, divided, [we see its subject] treading on hoarfrost. The strong ice will come [by and by]”; Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 60, n. 1.

157 Lunyu, Shuer, says, “The subjects on which the Master did not talk were: extraordinary things, feats of strength, disorder, and spiritual beings”; Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 201.

158 These expressions are based on passages in the Yijing, Xici shang and xia, respectively, “By their spirit-like ability they knew [the character of] coming events, and their wis- dom had stored up [all experiences of] the past,” and “I may venture to say that the son of the Yan family had nearly attained [the standard of perfection]”; Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, pp. 372, 392–393.

159 See note 111.

160 Hou Hanshu, juan 111, Fan Shi zhuan.

161 Lunyu, Bayi. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 159.

162 Liji, Jiyi. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 211, n. 3.

163 The Chinese phrase jian shuang lu (“to treads on hoarfrost and dew”) in the Liji, Jiyi, is translated as a feeling of sadness on the basis of the passage, “When he (i.e., the superior person) treads on the dew which has descended as hoarfrost he cannot help a feeling of sadness, which arises in his mind, and cannot be ascribed to the cold”; see Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 210.

164 See “Criticism of Secretariat Fan’s Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit by Cao Siwen,” in Fascicle Nine, pp. 65–68.

165 The six coverings are originally found in the Lunyu, Yanghua; they lead to (1) foolish simplicity, (2) mental dissipation, (3) disregard of harmful consequences, (4) rudeness,

(5) insubordination, and (6) extravagant conduct. See Legge, The Chinese Classics,

vol. 1, p. 322, n. 3. In Buddhism this term refers to (1) greed, (2) breaking precepts,

(3) anger, (4) indolence, (5) distraction, and (6) ignorance.

166 Yijing, Kun Wenyan. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 419.

167 Xiaojing. See Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 109.

168 Xiaojing. See Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 112.

169 Mengzi, Dengwengong xia. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 283–284.

170 This expression derives from the Lunyu, Gongye Chang. Legge translates, “[Hui hears one point and] knows all about a subject”; The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 176.

171 See note 111.

172 Shujing, Yushu, Yi Ji. Legge translates this as “the imperial progenitors come to the service”; The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 87.

173 Zhouli, Chunguan, Zongbo.

174 Zuozhuan, Xuangong’s ﬁfteenth year. Wei Ke was able to escape death in dangerous battle because his enemy was tripped up by tied-up grasses; later he came to know in a dream that the grass had been tied by the father of his father’s concubine, as repayment for Wei Ke’s previous kindness to the man’s daughter. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 328 (right column).

175 Zhuangzi, Waiwu. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 576, n. 6.

176 Lunyu, Xianjin. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 241.

177 Shujing, Jinteng. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, pp. 353–354.

178 Shijing, Daya, Wenwang zhi shi, xiawu. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 458.

179 See note 172.

180 Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. The Discourse on the Coexistence of Opposite Views refers to the theory that that view and this (the opposite view) mutually produce one another. This was originally asserted by Zhuangzi’s friend, Huishi. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 230.

181 Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 60. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 152.

182 Zhuangzi, Yangshengzhu. Legge translates “What we can point to are the faggots that have been consumed; but the ﬁre is transmitted [elsewhere]”; Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 250.

183 See note 167.

184 Liji, Yueji. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 99, n. 19.

185 Shijing, Zhou song. Legge translates, “In solemn unison they give forth their notes. Our ancestors will give ear”; The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 588.

186 See note 173.

187 According to the Liji, Jiyi, one hears the sigh when he is departs through the door of the hall. Legge translates this whole section, “On the day of sacriﬁce, when he enters the apartment [of the temple], he will seem to see [the deceased] in the place [where his spirit tablet is]. After he has moved about [and performed his operations] and is leaving at the door, he will seem to be arrested by hearing the sound of his movements, and will sigh as he seems to hear the sound of his sighing”; Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 211, n. 3.

188 See note 177.

189 Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s seventh year for Gun and Boyou, and Zhuanggong’s eighth year for Pengsheng, respectively. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 617 (right column), p. 618 (left column), and p. 82 (right column).

190 This expression is based on a passage in the Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou: “A cicada and a little dove laughed at it, saying, ‘We make an effort and ﬂy towards an elm or sapan- wood tree; and sometimes before we reach it, we can do no more but drop to the ground. Of what use is it for this [creature] to rise 90,000 li [in the sky] and make for the South?’”; see Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 214.

191 The Chinese term liubian (six elemental energies of the changing seasons) derives from the term liuqi zhi bian found in the Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 217.

192 Ban niyuan jing (T.6.1:188c25–26), and Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:472c7–8).

193 See note 147.

194 See the Miaofa lianhua jing (T.262.9:4b11–13): “Among eight hundred disciples there was one called Seeking Fame. He was greedy for proﬁt. Even though he repeat- edly read and recited many Buddhist scriptures, he did not attain nonobstruction through this practice, and forgot many points he had read. Therefore, he was called Seeking Fame.”

195 The expression “Zichan of Dongli” derives from the Lunyu, Xianwen. See Legge,

The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 278.

196 Liji, Tangong xia. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 193.

197 Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:475a2).

198 These statements derive from the Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 214.

199 Dhammapada (Faju jing) (T.210.4:574b5–6) and Beijing chao (T.790.17:735b13–14).

200 These passages are not found in the Book of Rites. In the Zuozhuan, Xigong’s tenth year, there is this passage: “I have heard that the spirits of the dead do not enjoy the

sacriﬁces of those who are not of their kindred, and that people only sacriﬁce to those who were of the same ancestry as themselves”; see Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 157 (left column).

201 Zuozhuan, Xuangong’s third year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 294 (left column).

202 See note 174.

203 The Chinese term tianzao means hanging pearl ornaments of a heavenly crown, but this does not ﬁt the context. I translate this term as “heavenly beings,” following the treatment in Ōta Teizō, trans., Kokuyaku issaikyō, Wa-Kan senjutsu bu, Gokyōbu 1 (Tokyo: Daitō Shuppansha, 1936), p. 251, n. 194.

204 Shanhai jing, Dahuangbei jing, for Zhulong. See Pu Guo, Yixing Hao, Hsaio-Chieh Cheng, Huizhen Zheng Bai, and Kenneth Lawrence Thern, Shan hai ching: Legendary Geography and Wonders of Ancient China (Taipei: Committee for Compilation and Examination of the Series of Chinese Classics, National Institute for Compilation and Translation, 1985), p. 249.

205 This expression is based on the phrase in Zhuangzi, Zhile: “A short rope cannot be used to draw water from a deep well”; see Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 447, n. 5.

206 This quotation is not found in the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō.

207 The Chinese term erqiandan refers to a governor-general because the salary for this position was two thousand dan of grain. During the period between the Western Jin and Liang dynasties one dan was equivalent to 26.4 kilograms.

208 The phrase “A man can propagate the Way” derives from the Lunyu, Weilinggong. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 302.

209 Zuozhuan, Xigong’s ﬁfteenth year. Legge did not translate this section.

210 Confucius said, “Ever since I have had You, I have not heard malicious words”; Shiji, juan 67, Zhongni dizi liezhuan. See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 7, p. 69.

211 The term “four that are great” from the Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 25 refers to the Way, Heaven, Earth, and the Sage King. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 116.

212 In the original version of this story in Zhuangzi, Tiandi, there is Xiangwang (Pur- poseless) instead of Wangxiang. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 360.

213 Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:537a16).

214 Miaofa lianhua jing (T.262.9:43b24).

215 Dīpaṅkara Buddha gave a prediction to Māṇava Bodhisattva about his future attainment of buddhahood. See Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:472c18–473a23).

216 Miaofa lianhua jing (T.262.9:25a1–2).

217 See note 166.

218 Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:537c16).

219 The Chinese name Pao (“kitchen”) Sheng (“to produce”) is not known. Probably the Chinese character sheng is ding; Zhuangzi, Yangshengzhu. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 246–248.

220 “Thus Come” (Tathāgata) and “Well Gone” (Sugata) are two of the ten epithets for the Buddha.

221 This expression derives from Confucius’ statement in the Lunyu, Weilinggong, “Let every man consider virtue as what devolves on himself. He may not yield the per- formance of it even to his teacher”; see Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 304.

222 Lunyu, Yan Yuan. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 253.

223 This story is found in the Gaoseng zhuan (T.2059.50:325b7–c5).

224 A similar story to this is found in the Gaoseng zhuan (T.2059.50:409c18–28).

225 In the biography of Yu Falan in the Gaoseng zhuan (T.2059.50:349c22–29), there is a story about a tiger that came into Falan’s room on a snowy day, stayed overnight, completely tame with Falan, and left the next morning when it stopped snowing.

226 Gaoseng zhuan (T.2059.50:326c17–20).

227 The following section before the letter of King Wenxuan (460–494) consists of partial descriptions of the Discourse to Clarify Buddhism, T.2102.52:12b27–29, 12c8–10, 12c11–21.

228 This quotation is not found in the Mengzi.

229 I moved the Chinese character xiao (“small”) between the characters shi (“to lose”) and cun (“to exist”), following the suggestion found in Ōta, Kokuyaku issaikyō, Gokyōbu 1, p. 263, fn. 2.

230 This expression is based on a passage in the Xiaojing, “Our bodies—to every hair and bit of skin—are received by us from our parents, and we must not presume to injure or wound them. This is the beginning of ﬁlial piety.” See Rosemont, The Chinese Classic of Family Reverence, p. 105.

231 Zuozhuan, Mingong’s ﬁrst year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 125 (left column).

232 This expression is based on a passage in Shiji, juan 83, Lu Zhonglian Zou Yang liezhuan, “Your servant has heard that if the bright-moon pearl or a glowing jade ring were tossed from the dark to a man on the road, he would put his hand to his sword and glare at those around him.” See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 7, p. 290.

233 There are different deﬁnitions of the ﬁve kinds of principles of human relationships (wujiao). The Zuozhuan, Wengong’s eighteenth year, says, “Fathers became just and mothers gentle; elder brothers kindly, and younger ones respectful; and sons became ﬁlial.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 283 (left column).

The Mengzi, Tengwengong shang, says, “To teach the relations of humanity: how, between father and son there should be affection; between sovereign and minister, righteousness; between husband and wife, attention to their separate functions; between old and young, a proper order; and between friends, ﬁdelity.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 251–252.

234 This expression derives from the Lunyu, Yan Yuan: “If a man can for one day subdue himself and return to propriety, all under Heaven will ascribe perfect virtue to him.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 250.

235 According to the Zuozhuan, the “four wicked ones” refer to Chaos, Monster, Block, and Glutton. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 283 (left column).

236 In the Shiji, juan 130, Taishigong zixu, the frugality of the earthen steps of Yao’s res- idence is praised as an example of virtuous conduct.

237 Zhu Duo’s obsequious manner is also mentioned in the Lunyu, Yong ye. See Legge,

The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 190.

238 The Chinese term liuzhi (six kinds of hindrances) is unknown. The Gumyōshū kenkyū suggests that this probably refers to the six sense objects of sensation and perception (liuchen): visual color and form, sound, odor, taste, tactile object, and mental object; see Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 598, n. 3.

239 This expression derives from the Lunyu, Yan Yuan. See Legge, The Chinese Classics,

vol. 1, p. 250.

240 For the expression “a pair of bellows,” see the Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 5; Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 98. For non-self, see the Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:545a1).

241 Yijing, Xici shang. See Legge, I ching; Book of Changes, p. 373, n. 70.

242 Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 25. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 115, chap. 25.

243 Chuci, Jiubian.

244 Hou Hanshu, Liezhuan 40, Yang Li Zhai Ying Huo Yuan Xu lie zhuan.

245 Sanguo Weizhi, juan 11, Guan Ning zhuan.

246 Yan Junping was a diviner in Chengdu. See the Hanshu, juan 72, Wang Kong liang Gong Bao zhuan.

247 Hou Hanshu, Liezhuan, juan 73.

248 Sanguozhi, juan 42.

249 The Gumyōshū kenkyū suggests that the four Chinese characters fa fu fa zhi after Sengqian could be interpolations, redundancies owing to misprints, or scribal errors. I follow this and have not translated them here. See Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 606, n. 9.

250 Shiji, juan 44, Wei shijia.

251 The “four bright men” refer to Dongyuangong, Luli, Qili Ji, and Xiahuanggong of the Qin dynasty.

252 Hou Hanshu, Liezhuan 43.

253 Jinshu, juan 94.

254 Foshuo Beijing chao (T.790.17:729a1–736b1).

255 Zuozhuan, Zhuanggong’s ninth year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 84 (right column).

256 This expression derives from the Zhuangzi, Qiushui. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 437–438.

257 See note 176.

258 Bian He, a man of Chu, obtained a jade on Mount Chu and presented it to King Li and King Wu, but both kings thought that it was only a stone and He’s legs were amputated as punishment. King Wen later realized that it was a real jade. This story is found in the Han Feizi, Heshi. See Burton Watson, trans., Han Feizi: Basic Writings (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), pp. 81–82.

259 See note 18.

260 Laozi Dao de jing, chap. 41. Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 132, n. 1.

261 This expression is based on the passage found in the Xiuxing benqi jing (T.184.3:463a20– 21).

262 Qiwulun. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 242.

263 Miaofa lianhua jing (T.262.9:16c4–17b17).

264 This expression is based on the statement of the king of Zhou found in the Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s ninth year: “I am to you (i.e., Shuxiang of Jin state) as the cap or crown to the other garments, as the root to the tree, or the spring to the steam, as their counselor to the people. If you tear the cap and break the crown in pieces, tear up the root, stop up the spring, and take it on you to cast the counselor away, what can be expected by me, the one man, from the Rong and the Di?” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 625 (right column).

265 Jinshu, juan 33.

266 Hanshu, Liezhuan 28, Gongsun Hong, Bu Shi, Er Kuan zhuan.

267 Neither Wei Zhi nor Zun Zu is known.

268 This statement derives from the Lunyu, Yang Huo: ‘“It is according to the rules of propriety,’ they say. Are gems and silk all that is meant by propriety?” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 324.

269 This statement is based on the proverb in the Hanshu, Jia Yi zhuan, “We learn from the follies of others (qianche fu houche jie).”

270 Lunyu, Wei Linggong for Zang Wen Zhong. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 298–299.

271 Sanguo Weizhi, juan 11, Tian Cou zhuan.

272 Shiji, juan 86, Cike zhuan. See Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang, trans., Selections from Records of the Historian (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1979), pp. 387–389.

273 The expressions “the penetrating (i.e., the assemblage of excellences)” and “great good fortune” derive from the Yijing, Qian Wenyan and Kun, respectively. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, pp. 60, 408.

274 This statement is based on a description found in the Zhuangzi, Quishui: “There is in the south a bird called ‘the Young Phoenix’—do you know it? Starting from the South Sea, it ﬂies to the Northern [Sea]; never resting but on the bignonia, never eating but the fruit of the melia azederach, and never drinking but from the purest springs.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 439.

275 Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 96, n. 6.

276 Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 408, n. 16.

277 The three editions of the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, and the old Song edition of the Kunaichō Library have the Chinese characters ji (“then”) and xian (“transcen- dent” or “hermit”) instead of the characters yu (“I”) and zuo (“to make”). Since the three appeals (found in Fascicle Fourteen) list the composers’ names, I translate here following the four editions mentioned above; however, it is possible that Sengyou composed them on the basis of only three names.

278 This expression is based on a description in Zhuangzi, Qiwulu: “When the breath of the Great Mass [of Nature] comes strongly, it is called Wind. Sometimes it does not come so; but when it does, then from myriad apertures there issues its excited noise”; see Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 225.

279 Shenri jing (T.535.14:819b2–3).

280 Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (T.2085.51:865c1–6).

281 “King of Nanqiao” refers to Liu Yixuan (415–454), the sixth son of Emperor Wu of the Song dynasty.

282 Lunyu, Shuer. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 203.

283 Liji, Xueji. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 89.

284 Shujing, Dayumo. See The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 59, n. 12.

285 Yijing, Kun Wenyan. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 419.

286 Zuozhuan, Yinggong’s ﬁfth year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 19 (left column).

287 This is based on the statement found in the Lunyu, Yan Yuan: “To subdue one’s self and return to propriety is perfect virtue. If a man can for one day subdue himself and return to propriety, all under Heaven will ascribe perfect virtue to him.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 250.

288 The formal sitting style refers to sitting with both knees on the ground or ﬂoor with the buttocks resting on the legs (the traditional Chinese style); the informal style refers to squatting with raised heels (the Indian style).

289 This expression derives from the Lunyu, Xueer. Legge translates the passage as “In practicing the rules of propriety, a natural ease is to be prized”; The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 143.

290 Gaoseng zhuan (T.2059.50:353a23–27).

291 Zuozhuan, Huangong’s fourteenth year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 61, for the Chinese text. This statement means that lacunae in the text should not be interpolated based on presumption.

292 The Lunyu, Xianwen, for Pi Chen and Shi Shu. See Legge, The Chinese Classics,

vol. 1, p. 278.

293 Zuozhuan, Xuangong’s ﬁfteenth year. Wei Ke was able to escape imminent death in a dangerous battle because his enemy was tripped up by tied-up grasses; later he came to know in a dream that the grass had been tied up by the father of his father’s con- cubine, as repayment for Wei Ke’s previous kindness to the man’s daughter. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 328 (right column).

294 This statement is based on a description in the Liji, Yueji: “The times of the ﬁve Dis were different and therefore each did not adopt the music of his predecessor. The Three Kings belonged to different ages and so each did not follow the ceremonies of his pred- ecessor.” See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 102, n. 27.

295 Zhuangzi, Tianyun. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 401.

296 Mengzi, Jinxin xia. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, p. 479.

297 This expression is based on a conversation between the Duke of She and Confucius recorded in the Lunyu, Zilu: “The Duke of She informed Confucius, saying, ‘Among us here there are those who may be styled upright in their conduct. If their father have

stolen a sheep, they will bear witness to the fact.’ Confucius said, ‘Among us, in our part of the country, those who are upright are different from this. The father conceals the misconduct of the son, and the son conceals the misconduct of the father. Upright- ness is to be found in this.’” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 270.

298 The expression “the virtuous person who is in charge of the tallies (siqi)” derives from the Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 79. Legge translates the Chinese term siqi as “the conditions of the engagement”; Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 169.

299 This expression is based on a passage found in the Liji, Quli shang: “At eighty or ninety, we say of him, ‘He is very old.’ When he is seven, we say that he is an object of pitying love. Such a child and one who is very old, though they may be chargeable with crime, are not subjected to punishment.” See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 66.

300 According to the Jinshu, Liezhuan 47, the name Chu Yi is read as Chu She.

301 Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s third year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 589 (left column).

302 Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 73. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 164.

303 This expression is based on a phrase found in the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi: “He overspreads Heaven and supports the Earth.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 304.

304 The Chinese word chong (in the name He Chong) means “fullness,” “complete,” “great,” or “reality.”

305 The statement starting with the sentence “Even though the Buddha’s ediﬁcation is endlessly vast and infers the world beyond the visual and aural senses, respect is con- sidered to be its foundation” up to this point is found in “The Discourse on Why Śra- maṇas Do Not Bow to the Sovereign (Shamen bujing wanghe lun) by Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan,” in The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism, Vol. I, Fascicle Five, p. 174 (29c24–30a3).

306 Liji, Sanfu sizhi. See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 466, n. 5.

307 This phrase “letting the people act freely and exercising forbearance (zaiyou),” is the title of a chaper in the Zhuangzi.

308 Zhang Chang is probably the Metropolitan Governor of the Former Han dynasty, who often quoted the Chinese classics at court. His biography is found in the Hanshu, juan 76.

309 Lunyu, Taibo. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 211.

310 This passage derives from the Yijing, Guan, Tuan. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes,

p. 230, XX, n. 3.

311 Lunyu, Xianjin. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 240.

312 This statement is based on one found in the Yijing, Xici shang: “The superior person occupies his apartment and sends forth his words. If they are good, they will be responded to at a distance of more than a thousand li—how much more will they be so in the nearer circle! He occupies his apartment and sends forth his words. If they are evil, they will awaken opposition at a distance of more than a thousand li.” See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 361, n. 42.

313 Lunyu, Yan Yuan. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 250.

314 T.185:3.480c2–3.

315 This statement based on the “Chapter on the White Horse (Baima lun)” in the Gongsun Longzi is known as a sophism asserted by Gongsun Long of Zhao state in the Warring States period.

316 This statement is based on a conversation between Zhuangzi and Huizi regarding the enjoyment of ﬁshes, found in the Zhuangzi, Qiushui: “Zhuangzi and Huizi were walk- ing on the dam over the Hao [River], when the former said, ‘These thryssas come out and play about at their ease—that is the enjoyment of ﬁshes.’ The other said, ‘You are not a ﬁsh; how do you know what constitutes the enjoyment of ﬁshes?’ Zhuangzi rejoined, ‘You are not I. How do you know that I do not know what constitutes the enjoyment of ﬁshes?’ Huizi said, ‘I am not you; and though indeed I do not fully know you, you certainly are not a ﬁsh, and [the argument] is complete against your knowing what constitutes the happiness of ﬁshes.’ Zhuangzi replied, ‘Let us keep to your original question. You said to me, ‘How do you know what constitutes the enjoy- ment of ﬁshes?’ You knew that I knew it, and yet you put your question to me—well, I know it [from our enjoying ourselves together] over the Hao.’” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 439–440.

317 This expression is based on that found in the Liji, Zhongni Yan ju: “When the three disciples had heard these words from the Master, they saw clearly as if a ﬁlm had been removed from their eyes.” See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 277.

318 The Dao de jing states, “Therefore the Dao is great; Heaven is great; Earth is great; and the [Sage] King is also great. In the universe there are four that are great, and the [Sage] King is one of them.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 116, n. 3.

319 There are basically two deﬁnitions of the six generations: (1) the Yellow Emperor, Yao, Shun, Yu, King Tang, and King Wu; and (2) the Xia, Yin, Zhou, Qin, Han, and Wei dynasties.

320 This statement is based on a conversation between Confucius and Zigong found in the Lunyu, Bayi. When Zigong wanted to stop the offering of sheep on the inauguration of the ﬁrst day of each month, since the sacriﬁcial ceremony had degenerated into formalism, Confucius said that it is regrettable to lose the form of the old ceremony. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 161.

321 According to Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū

han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 684, n. 3, Huan Xuan issued this decree on the third day of the twelfth month of Yuanxing (403), the day he ascended the throne.

322 See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 116, for “the four that are great.”

323 This expression is based on a conversation between Ziyou and Ziqi found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “Ziyou said, ‘The notes of Earth then are simply those which come from its myriad apertures; and the notes of Man may just be compared to those which [are brought drawn from the tubes of] bamboo—allow me to ask about the notes of Heaven.’ Ziqi replied, ‘Blowing the myriad differences, making them stop (proceed) of themselves, sealing their self-selecting—who is it that stirs it all up?’”

324 Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 691, n. 18, suggests that “non-Buddhist teaching” here refers to the ediﬁcation of the king based on a description found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun: “. . . thus it was that the Dao, which inwardly forms the sage and externally the king, . . .”

325 Zhi Daolin lived from 314 to 366, Huan Xuan from 369 to 404. The date of this letter is the ﬁfth day of the fourth month of the third year of Long’an (399). Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 696, n. 1, presumes that this letter was composed by someone else.

326 This statement is based on one found in the Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 48: “He who practices the Dao daily diminishes his doing. He diminishes it and again diminishes it, till he arrives at doing nothing (wuwei). Having arrived at this non-inaction, there is nothing that he does not do.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 138.

327 Zhuangzi, Dechongfu. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, pp. 274–276.

328 A “complaints board” derives from a story that during the reign of Emperor Yao a board was set up on a roadside for people to record errors made regarding public administration; through these records, the emperor learned of his faults.

329 The Chinese character chi in the family name of Chi Chao (Jiapin, 336–377) is often read as xi. According to Huang Bosi’s Fatie kanwu (Model Book for Errata) compiled in the Northern Song dynasty, chi is the correct pronunciation. See Morohashi Tetsuji, Dai Kan-Wa jiten (Tokyo: Taishūkan Shoten, 1955–1960), vol. 11, p. 243.

330 Puyao jing (T.186.3:507c23–24).

331 The ﬁve hindrances (Skt. pañca-nivaraṇā) are usually listed as (1) greed (Skt. rāga),

(2) anger (Skt. pratigha), (3) lethargy (Skt. styāna-middha), (4) restlessness and mor- tiﬁcation (Skt. auddhatya-kaukṛtya), and (5) doubt (Skt. vicikitsā).

332 Similar phrases are found in the Puyao jing (T.212.4:753a26–28) and the Foshuo Beijing chao (T.790.17:731c14–15).

333 Ban niyuan jing (T.6.1:181a25–27).

334 This expression derives from the Yijing, Xici shang: “The superior man occupies his apartment and sends forth his words. If they are good they will be responded to at a distance of more than a thousand li.” See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 361.

335 This derives from the Liji, Zhongyang: “There is nothing more visible than what is secret.” See Müller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 300.

336 According to the Collection of Records Derived from the Tripiṭaka (Chusanzang jiji, T.2145.55:5c26–27), the earliest extant catalogue compiled by Sengyou in the early sixth century, there are two translations of the Sutra of the Twelve Gates (Shiermen jing) by An Shigao. This text was believed to no longer be extant until a manuscript of the text was found in Kongōji Temple in Kawachi Nagano, Japan. The Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku group, led by Ochiai Toshinori, has researched the Kongōji collection and published three monographs. The Shiermen jing was introduced in one of them, Kongōji issaikyō no kisoteki kenkyū to shinshutsu butten no kenkyū (Tokyo: Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku, 2004), pp. 195–203. The passage quoted here is not found in this manuscript.

337 Lunyu, Liren. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 168.

338 Zhuangzi, Dazongshi. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 301.

339 Zhuangzi, Gengsang Chu. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 523.

340 According to the Collection of Records Derived from the Tripiṭaka (Chu sanzang jiji, T.2145.55:8c3), this scripture is called the Pusa zhengzhai jing, the Pusa zhaifa, or the Chizhai jing. This quotation is not found in any text in the Taishō canon.

341 Shiji, juan 56, Chen chengxiang shijia. See Yang and Yang, Selections from Records of the Historian, p. 264.

342 Yangshe Xi (Shuxiang) was the elder brother of Fu (Shuyu). See Zuozhuan, Xiang- gong’s sixteenth year and Zhaogong’s ﬁfth year for Xi, and Zhaogong’s thirteenth year for Fu.

343 See the Shangshu, Shundian, for the four criminals. See Legge, The Chinese Classics,

vol. 3, pp. 39–40.

344 Shiji, juan 5, Qin benji. See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 1, p. 91.

345 T.6.1:181b1–3.

346 The phrase “placing [a beautiful gem] into a case” derives from the Lunyu, Zihan. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 221.

347 This expression is found in the Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 73. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 164.

348 See note 336 for the Sutra of the Twelve Gates (Shiermen jing). According to the Kongōji manuscript, the original expression differs slightly from this quotation, but this tenet is designated as the ﬁrst gate.

349 T.533.14:814a20–24.

350 T.210.4:573c8.

351 T.630.15:453a12–14.

352 This sutra is listed in the Collection of Records Derived from the Tripiṭaka (Chusanzang jiji, T.2145.55:7a13) but it is no longer extant.

353 Generally, the “four immeasurable minds” refer to benevolence or loving-kindness (ci; Skt. maitrī), compassion (bei; Skt. karuṇā), joy (xi; Skt. muditā), and giving up [all attachments] or equanimity (she; Skt. upekṣā). The Chinese word hu in the four immeasurable minds is used as an equivalent to the word she in many sutras, such as the Zengyi ahan jing (T. 125), the Sheng jing (T. 154), and the Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T. 185). Here the term hu is literally interpreted as “protection.”

354 This is a summary of the original statement. See T.185.3:475c14–17.

355 This passage is not found in the Chengju guangming dingyi jing (T. 630) of the Taishō canon.

356 T.6.1:189b22–23.

357 The list of the eight worldly matters is found in the Xiuxing benqi jing (T.184.3:496b26– 27), the Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:476c14–15), and the Jingdu sanmei jing, an indigenous Chinese scripture found in Zangwai fojiao wenxian (Beijing Shi: Zong jiao wen hua chu ban she, 1995–), vol. 7; the passage is on p. 301, lines 6–7; CBETA (ZW7.n63.301a6-7).

358 This tenet is found in various sutras. The same Chinese expression is found in the Zhong ahan jing. See T.26:435c27–28, 462a27–28, 464b29–c1, 467b29–c1, 600b8– 9, 673a7–8.

359 This expression is based on a passage found in the Zhuangzi, Daozhi: “Its brief exis- tence is not different from the passing of a crevice by one of King Mu’s horses,” or one from the Zhuangzi, Zhibeiyou: “Human life between Heaven and Earth is like a white colt passing by a crevice and suddenly disappearing.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 615, or p. 505, respectively.

360 This expression derives from the Zhuangzi, Zhibeiyou: “Life is due to the collecting of the breath. When [breath] is collected there is life; when it is dispersed there is death.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 499.

361 This exact statement is not found in any sutra but a similar one is found in the Xiuxing benqi jing (T.184.3:469a18–19), the Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:476b21–22), the Dhammapada (Faju jing) (T.210.4:559a20–21), and the Faju piyu jing (T.211.4:576b4–5).

362 T.474.14:523a25.

363 This statement derives from the Lunyu, Yang Huo: “When they have got them their

anxiety is because they might lose them. When they are anxious that such things might be lost, there is nothing to which they will not proceed.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 325.

364 Weimojie jing (T.474.14:528c1).

365 Chengju guangming dingyi jing (T.630.15:451c25–26).

366 A similar expression is found in the Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:473c3).

367 This quotation is not found in any text in the Taishō canon.

368 A similar story is found in the Sishierzhang jing (T.784.17:724a1–5), in which the Buddha asked his disciples how long is the human life span.

369 This expression is based on Lunyu, Zihan: “The prosecution of learning may be com- pared to what may happen in raising a mound. If but one basket of earth is lacking to complete the work and I stop, the stopping is my own work. This may be compared to throwing earth down onto the level ground. Even though only one basketful is thrown at a time, the advancing with it is my own going forward.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 222–223.

370 The phrase “concurrently forgetting everything (jianwang)” derives from the Zhuangzi, Tianyun: “If it is easy to make my parents forget me, it is difﬁcult for me to forget all the people in the world. If it is easy to forget all the people in the world, it is difﬁcult to make them all forget me.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 395.

371 Taizi ruiying benqi jing (T.185.3:479c27–28).

372 The Chinese term ruosang, which means to leave one’s native place or homeland when young, is originally found in the Zhuangzi, Qiwulun. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 242.

373 T.186.3:507c26–27.

374 T.6.1:181a21: “When your mind, consciousness, and feeling cease you neither die nor are [re]born.”

375 The twenty-eight heavens refer to the six heavens of the realm of desire (Skt. kāma- dhātu), the eighteen heavens of the realm of form (Skt. rūpadhātu), and the four heav- ens of the formless realm (Skt. ārūpyadhātu).

376 Weimojie jing (T.474.14:522b11–13).

377 The Chinese word yifu is based on passages found in the Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 58: “Misery!— happiness is to be found by its side! Happiness!—misery lurks beneath it!” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 150.

378 Weimojie jing (T.474:14.520a14-16).

379 Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 81. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 171.

380 This statement is based on the Zhuangzi, Lie Yukou: “Near the He [River] there was a poor man who supported his family by weaving rushes [to make screens]. His son, when diving in a deep pool, found a pearl worth a thousand ounces of silver.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 651.

381 Shujing, Hongfan, explains the ﬁve kinds of happiness and the six extreme evils: “Ninth, of the ﬁve [sources of] happiness. The ﬁrst is long life; the second, riches; the third, soundness of body and serenity of mind; the fourth, love of virtue; and the ﬁfth, fulﬁlling to the end the will [of Heaven]. Of the six extreme evils, the ﬁrst is misfortune shortening one’s life; the second, sickness; the third, mental distress; the fourth, poverty; the ﬁfth, wickedness; the sixth, weakness.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 343.

382 Shiji, juan 9, Lü taihou benji. See Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 2, pp. 125–126.

383 Zuozhuan, Zhaogong’s seventh year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 617 (right column).

384 The “seven symptoms” (qizheng) are not known. Ōta Teizō and the Gumyōshū kenkyū suggest that this may refer to the seven disasters (qinan): loss of the light of the sun and moon, loss of the light of the constellations, ﬁre, ﬂoods, strong gales, drought, and bandits, according to the Renwang huguo boreboluomiduo jing (T.246.8:843a18– 29). See Ōta, Kokuyaku issaikyō, Gokyō-bu 1, p. 325, n. 43; Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 738, n. 53.

385 The expression “to forget what he wished to say” derives from the Zhuangzi, Dazong- shi. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 288.

386 This expression derives from the Zhuangzi, Dechongfu. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 271.

387 This statement is based on a passage in the Lunyu, Shuer: “When the Master was in Qi he heard the Shao and for three months did not know the taste of ﬂesh.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 199.

388 Yijing, Xici shang. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 373, n. 70.

389 Zhuangzi, Geyi. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 412. The Chinese phrase xiong jing can also be translated as “to climb up a tree like a bear.”

390 This statement is based on the Yijing, Kun: “The fourth six, divided, [shows the symbol of] a sack tied up. There will be no ground for blame or for praise.” See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 60.

391 This statement is based on a story in the Zhuangzi, Xuwugui, that the artisan Shi cleaned off all the mud from a statue of a man of Ying. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 541.

392 The Chinese term ren li is read as rentu, in accordance with Ōta, Kokuyaku issaikyō, Gokyōbu 1, p. 328, n. 78, and Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 740, n. 106.

393 This statement derives from the Zhuangzi, Tiandao: “Those who know the joy of Heaven during their life act like Heaven, and at death undergo transformation like [other] things.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 380.

394 Several Buddhist scriptures state that Mount Sumeru enters into a mustard seed. See, for instance, the Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:546b28).

395 This idea is also found in several scriptures; see, for instance, the Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:546b29–c1).

396 The Gumyōshū kenkyū suggests that the seven treasures could be seven days, based on the description of the Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:546c9–12): “A bodhisattva extends seven days to a kalpa.” See Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 741, n. 124.

397 Qi Xie is the title of a book. It is also said to be the name of a good storyteller of ghost tales. See the Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou. James Legge takes it to be a book; Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 213.

398 According to the Liezi, the sword that can cut jade, called kunyu, and the noncom- bustible textiles that can withstand ﬁre (huowanfu) were presented by the western tribe. See Liezi, Tang wen. The English translation in Eva Wong, Liezi: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living (Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications, 1995) does not include this last section, called “Tang wen.”

399 The Chinese term xuanyuan refers to the profound primordial vapor of Chaos, before Heaven and Earth separated from each other.

400 Mount Heng was designated as South Mountain (Nanyue), but Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty designated Mount Huo as South Mountain. Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty (r. 581–604) later changed the designation of South Mountain back to Mount Heng.

401 There are different deﬁnitions regarding the ﬁve kinds of principles of human rela- tionships (wujiao). The Zuozhuan, Wengong’s eighteenth year, says, “Fathers became just and mothers gentle; elder brothers kindly, and younger ones respectful; and sons became ﬁlial.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 283 (left column). The Mengzi, Tengwengong shan, says, “To teach the relations of humanity: how between father and son there should be affection; between sovereign and minister, righteousness; between husband and wife, attention to their separate functions; between old and young, a proper order; and between friends, ﬁdelity.” See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 2, pp. 251–252.

402 The Chinese term wuji, “ultimate of nonbeing,” derives from the Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 28. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 119. where he translates this passage as “Endless [return to] man’s ﬁrst state [has made].”

403 According to the Liezi, the “primordial substance” (taisu) is the stage where “things have not only assumed deﬁnite shapes and forms but have taken on qualities,” and “in the Primal Beginning, yin and yang divide, and their interaction produces limited but identiﬁable shapes and forms”; Wong, Liezi: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living, p. 28.

404 The Lingzhengji is no longer extant, therefore, it is unknown where this quotation ends. I follow Ōta, Kokuyaku issaikyō, Gokyō-bu 1, p. 331.

405 The Zhenzhongjie is no longer extant.

406 The Chinese characters ying (“baby”) and ying (“gnarl”) do not ﬁt the context here. I follow the interpretation found in Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 745.

407 These texts can be interpreted as the Huangluozi jing and the Xuanzhong ji, both of which are no longer extant. It is unknown where the quotation ends. I follow Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shishōshi Kenkyū han, Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 745.

408 The ancient state of Zhongrong is found in the Shanhai jing, but the source of the disease mentioned here is unknown. See Ching, Cheng, and Thern, trans., Shan hai ching: Legendary Geography and Wonders of Ancient China, p. 216.

409 This sentence is obscure. If King Huan is meant to be Huan Wen (312–373), he died of illness before the Taiyuan era (376–396). Therefore, following Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 746, I translate the Chinese phrase da yuan as “great beginning.”

410 A text that is very similar to this, Written Appeal to the Demon, attributed to Daoan, is found in the Guang Hongmingji (T.2103.52:344a24–345b16).

411 The Chinese term datong is originally found in Zhuangzi, Dazongshi and Qiushui. According to Ogawa Tamaki, Rōshi Sōshi (Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha, 1998), pp. 278, 396, it refers to the Great Way beyond all discriminations. Legge says that it is another denomination of the Dao, and “is also explained as meaning, ‘the great void in which there is no obstruction,’” Daodejing ji Zhuangzi quanji, p. 305, n. 2. Following Legge, I translate datong as “the Great Pervader.”

412 According to Ōta, Kokuyaku issaikyō, Gokyō-bu 1, p. 334, fn. 4, and Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Chūsei Shisōshi Kenkyū han, ed., Gumyōshū kenkyū, vol. 3, p. 759, n. 13, the four evils are (1) ignorance of non-self, (2) belief in the existence of a self, (3) self-conceit, and (4) self-attachment.

413 Ōta suggests that the “eighteen innocent people” may be the eighteen kinds of sages who have not attained arhatship (Skt. aṣṭādaśa śaikṣāḥ); Kokuyaku issaikyō, Wa-Kan senjutsu bu, Gokyō-bu 1, p. 334, fn. 10.

414 The Written Appeal to the Demon attributed to Daoan, found in the Guang Hongmingji

(T.2103.52:344c4), has the name Tanwujie, after the Sanskrit word guru.

415 These two sentences appear to be word games. The Chinese word mengfan refers to the place where the sun sets, while fusang means the place where the sun rises.

416 This expression is based on a passage found in the Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 66: “That whereby the rivers and seas are able to receive the homage and tribute of all the valley streams, is their skill in being lower than they;—it is thus that they are the kings of them all.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 157.

417 The Chinese term xiyi (“elusive and inaudible”) derives from the Laozi Dao de jing, Chap. 14. Legge translates this term as “equable and inaudible”; Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 105.

418 The same statement is found in the Laozi dao de jing, Chap. 37. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 127.

419 The Three Communicating Agencies are a collective reference to three agencies that were intended to keep the emperor in contact with the central administration, the ofﬁ- cialdom at large, and foreign states; respectively, the Imperial Secretary (Central Pavilion), the Censorate (Pavilion of the Fundamental Laws), and the Tribunal of Receptions (Outer Pavilion). The Six Tax Supervisors are six agencies subordinate to the Ministry of Education; they are the agencies of Land, Forest, River, Grain, Crafts, and Market Tax Supervisors.

420 This statement is based on the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi: “When the springs are dried up the ﬁsh collect together on the land. Then that they should moisten one another there by the damp[ness] around them and keep one another wet by their slime, it would be better for them to forget one another in the rivers and lakes.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 290.

421 The Chinese term sanran is taken to mean the term sandu, the “three poisons” of greed, anger, and stupidity.

422 Weimojie suoshuo jing (T.475.14:543a9–25).

423 Xiaopin borebolumi jing (T.227.8:582a.24–26).

424 Emperor Yao once intended to smite the rulers of the Zong and Kuai states; Zhuangzi,

Qiwulun. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 238.

425 The Chinese word guiyu (“to let me return”) derives from the Lunyu, Gongye Chang. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 1, p. 181.

426 Shangshu, Yiji. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 90.

427 Shijing, Weifeng, Shuoshu. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 172.

428 This sutra is unknown.

429 See Zhuangzi, Qiushui, for Hebo, who realized the danger of his ignorance. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 422.

430 Zhuangzi, Xiaoyaoyou. See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 218.

431 According to the Er’ya, the four polar regions (siji) outside of China are (1) Taiyuan in the east, (2) Binguo in the west, (3) Puqian in the south, and (4) Zhuli in the north.

432 Liezi, Tang wen. See Wong, Liezi: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living, p. 131.

433 Yijing, Xici shang. See Legge, I ching: Book of Changes, p. 354.

434 Shijing, Daya, Xia Wu. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, p. 458.

435 Liji, Biaoji. See Müller, The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 28, p. 341.

436 Shangshu, Jinteng. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 3, p. 354.

437 Liji, Jiaotesheng. The eight zha deities were believed to be meritorious for people’s livelihood. During the Zhou dynasty there was a year-end sacriﬁce for these deities. See Müller, The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 431.

438 Gaoseng zhuan (T.2059.50:385b22–24).

439 Gaoseng zhuan (T.2059.50:388c21–25).

440 Liezi, Zhou Muwang. See Wong, Liezi: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living, p. 85.

441 Liji, Wangzhi. See Müller, The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, p. 245, n. 19.

442 This expression is based on a statement in the Zhuangzi, Dazongshi: “If you hide a boat in the ravine of a hill, and hide the hill in a lake, you will say that [the boat] is secure; but at midnight a strong man will come and carry it off on his back, while you, in the dark, know nothing about it.” See Legge, Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji, p. 290, n. 6.

443 The Chinese character mu, “peaceful,” is read as the character mu, “beautiful,” here. When Zhao Jianzi and Lord Mu recovered consciousness after their serious illnesses both said that they had experienced great pleasure in the Heavenly Thearch’s palace; Shiji, juan 43, Zhao shijia.

444 Du Bo was falsely charged and killed by King Xuan of the Zhou dynasty. King Xuan was later shot to death by the spirit of Du Bo; Mozi, Minggui. Pengsheng was killed by the people of Qi state, but he later appeared as a boar. The marquis of Qi state saw him and fell down in his carriage; Zuozhuan, Huangong’s eighteenth year and Zhuang- gong’s eighth year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, p. 70 (right column) and

p. 82 (right column).

445 See Shiji, juan 3, Yin benji, for Taiwu and juan 38, Song Weizi shijia, for Lord Jing.

446 Bai Qi’s biography is found in the Shiji, juan 73, Bai Qi Wang Jian liezhuan. See Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 7, pp. 167–173.

447 The Chinese panjian, a large girdle with a mirror in it used by a queen, derives from

Zuozhuan, Zhuanggong’s twenty-ﬁrst year. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5,

p. 101 (right column). In ancient times people wrote admonitions or maxims on the

panjian and used it as a note of instruction.

Glossary

bhikṣu (biqiu): A mendicant monk; a Buddhist monk. See also four kinds of Buddhist disciples; śramaṇa.

bhikṣuṇī (biqiuni): A Buddhist nun. See also four kinds of Buddhist disciples. bodhisattva: Literally, “enlightenment (bodhi) being (sattva),” one who has generated

the aspiration for highest enlightenment (bodhicitta) and is on the path to buddhaood.

In the Mahayana bodhisattvas seek enlightenment not just for themselves but in order to compassionately aid others to attain liberation as well. The bodhisttava path entails the perfection of six qualities or attitudes (Skt. pāramitās) and completion of ten stages of spiritual development (Skt. daśabhūmi) See also Mahayana; One Vehicle; six pāramitās.

dharmakāya ( fashen): The Dharma body. There are various interpretations for this term. In the Sarvāstivādin school it refers to the True Dharma expounded by the Buddha or the collection of the auspicious qualities of the Buddha, including his wisdom, compassion, and various powers. In the Mahayana the term evolved into a kind of cosmic principle that was regarded as the true nature of the Buddha or ultimate reality and the source from which his other forms derived. For instance, the dharma- kāya is one of the two kinds of buddha bodies along with the physical form (rūpakāya), or of the three kinds of buddha bodies along with the enjoyment or reward body (saṃbhogakāya) and the accommodative body (nirmāṇakāya), or of the four kinds of buddha bodies along with the enjoyment or reward body, the accommodative body, and the transformed body, or of the ten kinds of buddha bodies, two versions of which are presented in the Huayan jing (Garland Sutra)..

Dao de jing (Scripture of the Way and Its Virtue): The foundational Daoist scripture authored by Laozi. Also called Laozi or Laozi Dao de jing.

Decadent Dharma See three periods of the Dharma.

dependent origination (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda): A fundamental Buddhist teaching on the twelvefold chain of causation through which all phenomena come into being dependent on their causes and conditions; nothing exists independently of its causes and conditions.

eight difﬁculties (ba’nan): The eight conditions in which one is unable to encounter a buddha or hear the Dharma: being in hell; being in the state of an animal; being in

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the state of a hungry ghost; being in the heaven of long life or in Uttarakuru, the continent to the north of Mount Sumeru where people always enjoy great happiness (people in these worlds would not therefore be motivated to seek liberation); being deaf, blind, and mute; being knowledgeable about worldly affairs and eloquent (which may impede people from following the true path); and living during the period before or after the Buddha’s appearance in the world.

eightfold holy path (bashengdao): The last of the fundamental Buddhist teaching of the fourfold truths is the cessation of suffering through the eightfold path to enlightement or nirvana, consisting of (1) right view, (2) right thought, (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right livelihood, (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness or recollection, and (8) right meditation. See also fourfould truths.

eight kinds of gods and demigods that protect Buddhism (babuzhong): Gods (devas), demigods (asuras), dragons (nāgas), demons (yakṣas), divine musicians (gandharvas), mythical birds (garuḍas), half-horse, half-human beings (kiṃnaras), and great ser- pents (mahoragas).

Five Classics: The Confucian canon comprised of the Book of Changes (Yijing or Zhouyi), which looks into the law between Heaven, Earth, and human beings and asserts that all phenomena of the universe arise from changes caused by the union and sep- aration of yin and yang; the Book of History (Shujing or Shangshu), a record of two ideal rulers, Yao and Shun, and the three dynasties of Xia, Yin (Shang), and Zhou; the Book of Odes (Shijing or Maoshi), a collection of three hundred odes composed prior to Confucius’s time; the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu), which discerns virtue and vice in various historic events that took place in all states for a period of two hundred and forty-two years, from the ﬁrst year of Lord Yin up to the time of Lord Ai of Lu state; and the Book of Rites (Liji), a compilation of records of theory and practice regarding rites.

ﬁve desires (wuyu or wuqing): Desires that arise in connection with the ﬁve senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch; or desires for wealth, sex, food and drink, fame, and sleep.

ﬁve kinds of ceremonies (wuli): Sacriﬁcial ceremonies, funeral rites, ceremonies for guests and visitors, ceremonies for the army and military forces, and coming of age and marriage ceremonies.

ﬁve penalties (wuxing): Harsh punishments for crimes, including branding, cutting off the nose or feet, castration, and death. The earliest record that describes wuxing is the Canon of Shun in the Book of History, in which Gao Yao carried out these penal- ties at Shun’s command.

ﬁve precepts (wujie; Skt. pañca-śīla): The ﬁve basic precepts taken by laypeople on entering the Buddhist path: not killing, not stealing, not using false speech, not engaging in sexual misconduct, and not ingesting intoxicants.

five realms of existence (wudao, wutu, or wuqu): The realms of hell, hungry ghosts, animals, human beings, and heavenly beings. See also six realms of existence; three realms of existence.

ﬁve roots of wholesomeness (wugen): (1) Belief in the Three Treasures, (2) making efforts to practice good, (3) being mindful of the True Dharma, (4) concentration, and (5) investigation into the true nature of reality. See also Three Treasures.

ﬁve skandhas (wuyin or wuyun; Skt. pañca-skandha): The ﬁve constituent elements of existence that produce various kinds of suffering: matter or form (rūpa), perception (vedanā), conception (samjñā), volition (samskāra), and consciousness (vijñāna).

Five Thearchs (wudi): Five legendary emperors of Chinese antiquity: the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), Emperor Gaoyang (Zhuanxu), Emperor Gaoxin (Diku), Emperor Yao, and Emperor Shun.

four abodes of emptiness (sikong; Skt. catur-ārūpyāvacara): (1) The abode of limitless space, (2) the abode of limitless consciousness, (3) the abode of emptiness, and (4) the abode of neither thought nor non-thought.

four devils (simo; Skt. māras): Deﬁlements (Skt. kleśas), the ﬁve skandhas, death (Skt. maraṇa), and the king of devils, Māra, in the Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven, who tries to thwart followers’ attempts to carry out good acts. See also ﬁve skandhas.

fourfold truths (sidi): The fundamental Buddhist teaching: the truth of suffering, the truth regarding the cause of suffering, the truth regarding the extinction of suffering, and the truth of the cessation of suffering, which is the eightfold path to enlightenment or nirvana. See also eightfold holy path.

four fruits (siguo): The four stages of spiritual attainment in the Hinayana: the fruit of entering the stream of the sacred Dharma (Skt. srota-āpanna), the fruit of having only one more rebirth (Skt. sakṛdāgāmin), the fruit of not returning (Skt. anāgāmin); and the fruit of arhatship. See also Hinayana.

four great elements (sida): Earth, water, ﬁre, and wind.

four immeasurable minds (sidengxin or siwuliangxin; Skt. catur-apramāṇa): Benevolence (ci; Skt. maitrī ), or giving pleasure and happiness to others; compassion (bei; Skt. karuṇā), or removing others’ pain and suffering; taking joy (xi; Skt. muditā) in making other people happy; and giving up all attachments, or equanimity (she or hu; Skt. upekṣa).

four kinds of Buddhist disciples (sizhong): Monks (bhikṣus), nuns (bhikṣuṇīs), laymen (upāsakas), and laywomen (upāsikās).

four methods of winning people over (sishe; Skt. catur-saṃgrahavastu): Means of con- verting people to Buddhism through offering donations, kind speech, kind conduct to beneﬁt others; and doing things together with others.

four modes of birth (sisheng): Four ways in which living beings are born: birth from the womb, from an egg, from moisture, and through metamorphosis.

four small elements (siwei). The ﬁrst four of the ﬁve skandhas: color or form smell, taste, and touch. See also ﬁve skandhas.

Grand Terminus (Taijizhang): In Daosim, the origin of all things in the universe.

Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”): A derogatory term applied by Mahayana Buddhists to early schools of Buddhism whose primary soteriological goal is individual salvation. Hinayana followers are grouped into two paths of practice of śrāvakas and pratyeka- buddhas, and there are four stages of spiritual development culminating in arhatship. See also four fruits; Mahayana; pratyekabuddha; śrāvaka.

icchantika (yichanti): One who has no good roots and thus no possibility of becoming a buddha.

kalpa ( jie): An eon, an immeasurably long period of time.

Mahayana (“Great Vehicle”): A school or movement in the development of Buddhism that took place over several centuries begining around the second century B.C.E., often contrasted with the earlier Buddhist traditions termed by Mahayanists as the Hinayana. The ideal of the Mahayana is the bodhisattva path. See also bodhisattva; Hinayana.

Mount Sumeru (Xumishan): In Buddhist cosmology, the highest mountain that rises from the center of the world.

nine kinds of Buddhist scriptures (jiubujing): The ﬁrst nine of the twelve kinds of Buddhist scriptures. See twelve kinds of Buddhist scriptures.

nine kinds of deﬁlements ( jiujie): (1) Clinging or attachment, (2) anger or hatred, (3) arrogance, (4) ignorance, (5) holding evil views, (6) attachment to the body, (7)

doubt, (8) jealousy, and (9) greed.

nine realms of the transmigration of birth and death (jiudi): Subdivisions of the three realms of samsaric existence, consisting of the realm of desire, the four meditation heavens of the realm of form, and the four domains of the formless realm. See also three realms of existence.

nine schools ( jiuliu): Confucianism, Daoism, the school of Yin-Yang, Legalism, the Nom- inalist school, the school of Mo Di (i.e., Mohism), the school of the Political Strate- gists, the school of Miscellaneous Thoughts, and the school of the Farming Life.

nirvana (niepan): The ultimate goal of Buddhism, a state in which delusions are extin- guished and the highest wisdom (Skt. prajñā) is attained.

One Vehicle ( yisheng): A Mahayana teaching of the single path to enlightenment of the bodhisattva, as opposed to the paths of śrāvakas or pratyekabuddhas. See also bodhisattva; Mahayana; śrāvaka; pratyekabuddha; three vehicles.

pratyekabuddha (“self-enlightened one”): One who attains enlightenment through direct apprehension of dependent origination (Skt. pratītyasamutpāda) without the aid of a teacher and who does not teach others. One of the two types of Hinayana paths. See also dependent origination; Hinayana; two vehicles.

Semblance Dharma See three periods of the Dharma.

Seven Classics: The Five Classics plus the Book of Music (Yuejing), no longer extant, and the Analects (Lunyu) of Confucius. See also Five Classics.

seven factors of wisdom (qijing, qijuezhi, or qiputifen): (1) Distinguishing the True Dharma from false teachings, (2) making effort to practice the True Dharma, (3) rejoicing in the True Dharma, (4) eliminating slothfulness and attaining ease and relaxation, (5) mindfulness to maintain the equilibrium of concentration and insight,

(6) concentration and (7) detaching one’s thoughts from external objects, thereby securing mental serenity.

seven imperial shrines (qimiao): Shrines dedicated to the earliest ancestor (taizu) in the center, to the three sons of the earliest emperor (san zhao) on the left, and to the three grandsons of the earliest emperor (san mu) on the right.

seven kinds of self-conceit (qiman): The feeling of superiority toward those who are inferior to oneself; the feeling of superiority toward those who are one’s equals; the feeling of superiority toward those who are superior to oneself; being proud of oneself and despising others; considering oneself to be more worthy or virtuous than one actually is; false humility, i.e., feeling pride at one’s humility; and proudly thinking that one is virtuous when, in fact, one has little virtue.

seven states: The seven dynastic states that formed during the Warring States period (403–221 B.C.E.) when China was embroiled in warfare: the states of Qin, Chu, Qi, Han, Zhao, Wei, and Yan.

six arts (liuyi): Six areas in which a reﬁned person must be skilled: rites, music, archery, driving a chariot, learning, and mathematics.

Six Classics: The Five Classics plus the Book of Music. See also Five Classics.

six desires (liuyu): Desires arising from the contact of the six sense organs of the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind with their respective objects: form or color, sound, odor, taste, tactile objects, and mental objects. Also called the six feelings (liuqing). See also six dusts; six sense organs.

six dusts (liuchen; Skt. ṣaḍ viṣayāḥ): The objects of the six sense organs: color or form, sound, odor, taste, tactile objects, and mental objects. See also six sense objects.

six extreme evils (liuji): Misfortune that results in shortening one’s life span, illness, mental distress, poverty, wickedness, and weakness.

six pāramitās (liuboluomi or liudu): The six qualities or “perfections” a bodhisattva prac- tices in order to attain enlightenment or nirvana: (1) generosity or giving (Skt. dāna), offering material goods, the Dharma, and peace; (2) morality or precepts (Skt. śīla);

(3) forbearance or patience (Skt. kṣānti); 4) diligence or effort (Skt. vīrya); (5) med- itation (Skt. dhyāna); and (6) wisdom (Skt. prajñā). See also bodhisattva.

six puriﬁcation days (liuzhai): The eighth, fourteenth, ﬁfteenth, twenty-third, twenty- ninth, and thirtieth days of the month, during which laypeople observe eight precepts (the ﬁve precepts along with additional proscriptions against indulging in adornment or perfume, entertainment, sleeping in a raised bed, or eating after midday) in order to purify themselves. See also ﬁve precepts.

six realms of existence (liudao or liuqu): The six realms of existence into which sentient beings are reborn: the realms of hell, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, asuras (demigods), and devas (heavenly beings). See also three lowest realms of existence.

six relations (liuqin): One’s father, mother, elder and younger brothers, wife, and chil- dren.

six sense organs (liugen): The eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body (tactile sense), and mind. six schools (liujia): The predominant Chinese philosophical schools: Yin-yang, Confucian,

Mohist, Legalist, Nominalist, and Daoist.

śramaṇa (shamen): A Buddhist monk.

śrāmaṇera (shami): A male novice.

śrāvaka: Literally, “hearer,” originally referring to the Buddha’s early disciples who directly heard him teach. The term later came to designate followers of the Hinayana. See also Hinayana; two vehicles.

Sun En (d. 402 C.E.): Leader of the rebel followers of the Way of the Heavenly Master, whose group agitated in Central and Southern China for more than ten years. He called his teaching the Purple Way (zidao) and taught his followers on how to become a Water Transcendent (shuixian). See also Way of the Five Pecks of Grain.

Tathāgata (rulai): One of ten epithets of a buddha, construed as “one who comes from thusness.” See also thusness.

ten epithets of a buddha (shihao): Tathāgata (Thus-come One), Arhat (One Worthy of Alms), Fully Enlightened One, One Having Wisdom and Practice, One who Has

Attained Emancipation, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed, Tamer of Humans, Teacher of Gods and Humans, and World-honored One.

ten powers (shili): Ten powers attributed to a buddha: (1) distinguishing right and wrong;

Three Augusts (sanhuang): Three legendary monarchs of ancient China. There are several different theories about the identity of these ﬁgures. For instance, Sima Qian’s Shiji lists Tianhuang (Emperor of Heaven), Dihuang (Emperor of Earth), and Renhuang (Emperor of People) in the Sanhuangji (Chronicles of the Three Augusts), and Tian- huang, Dihuang, and Qinhuang (the ﬁrst emperor of the Qin dynasty) in the Qin Shi- huangji (Chronicles of the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty). The Chunqiu wei (a book about charms and omens circulated in the Han dynasty as appendices to the Spring and Autumn Annals) lists Fuxi, Shen Nong, and Nüwa as the Three Augusts.

three kinds of emptiness (sankong): The three gates of emancipation: emptiness (kong), devoid of characteristics (wuxiang), and absence of aspiration (wuyuan).

three lowest realms of existence (santu): The three lowest of the six realms into which sentient beings may be reborn, the realms of hell, hungry ghosts, and animals. Also called the three evil paths (san’edao). See also six realms of existence.

three most revered people (zaisan): The sovereign, one’s parents, and one’s teacher. three periods of existence (sanshi): Past, present, and future.

three periods of the Dharma: Three ﬁve-hundred year–periods of the Buddhist teaching: the period of the True Dharma (zhengfa), when the Buddha’s teaching is properly practiced and enlightenment can be attained; the period of the Semblance Dharma (xiangfa), when the teaching is practiced but enlightenment is no longer attainable; and the last period of the Decadent Dharma (mofa), when only the teaching still exists but practice and the attainment of enlightenment are no longer possible.

three poisons (sandu): Greed, anger, and stupidity.

three powers (sancai): Heaven, human beings, and Earth.

three realms (sanjie): The realm of desire (Skt. kāmadhatu), which comprises the realms of hell, hungry ghosts, animals, asuras (demigods), and human beings, and a part of the heavenly realm of devas; the realm of form (Skt. rūpadhātu), which includes part of the lower heaven, and in which there are only reﬁned types of form without sexual desire and other appetitites; and the formless realm (Skt. arūpyadhātu), in which there is no material form, only meditative states.

three robes (sanyi or sanfu): The three types of monks’ robes: (1) a formal robe made out of nine to twenty-ﬁve pieces of cloth (Skt. saṃghāṭī), worn for almsrounds or when a monk is invited to a royal palace; (2) a robe made out of seven pieces of cloth (Skt. uttarāsaṅga), worn when attending services, lectures, and ceremonies; and (3) the everyday robe (Skt. antaravāsaka) worn by a monk day and night.

Three [Spiritual] Ofﬁces (san’guan): In Daoism, the ofﬁce of Heaven, the ofﬁce of Earth, and the ofﬁce of water. In the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain illness was considered to be a punishment meted out to a sinful person by spiritual beings. People who were afﬂicted with illness wrote letters of appeal to the Three Spiritual Ofﬁces, asking that their offenses be pardoned so that they would be relieved of their illness. See also Daoism; Way of the Five Pecks of Grain.

Three Treasures (sanbao): Buddha, Dharma (the Buddhist teachings), and Sangha (the communiy of Buddhist followers.).

three vehicles (sansheng): The three paths of Buddhist teaching and practice for śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. See also bodhisattva; Hinayana; Mahayana; One Vehicle; pratyekabuddha; śrāvaka.

thusness (ru; Skt. tathā): The state of things as they really are; ultimate reality. trichiliocosm (Skt. tri-sāhasra-mahāsāhasra): In ancient Indian cosmology, the entire

universe in which a thousand worlds make a small one-thousand world; a thousand

of these make a medium one-thousand world; and a thousand of these make a great one-thousand world.

Tripiṭaka (sanzang): The three “baskets,” or collections, of the Buddhist teachings; Sutra (discourses of the Buddha), Vinaya (monastic rules), and Abhidharma (treatises).

True Dharma. See three periods of the Dharma.

twelve kinds of Buddhist scriptures (shierbujing): (1) Sūtra, the Buddha’s exposition of the Dharma in prose; (2) geya, verses that repeat the ideas already expressed in prose;

(3) gāthā, verses containing ideas not expressed in the prose section of a sūtra; (4) nidāna, narratives of past occurrences that explain a person’s present state; (5) itivṛttaka, narratives of past lives of the Buddha’s disciples; (6) jātaka, narratives of the Buddha’s past lives; (7) adbhuta-dharma, accounts of miracles performed by the Buddha or other deities; (8) avadāna, exposition of the Dharma through allegories; (9) upadeśa, discussions of doctrine, often in question-and-answer form; (10) udāna, exposition of the Dharma by the Buddha without awaiting questions or requests from his disciples;

(11) vaipulya, full-length, in-depth exposition of principles of truth; and (12) vyākaraṇa,

the Buddha’s predictions of his disciples’ attainment of buddhahood.

two vehicles (ersheng): The two paths of Buddhist teaching and practice for śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. See also pratyekabuddha; śrāvaka; three vehicles.

upāsaka/upāsikā: Buddhist laymen/laywomen. See also four kinds of Buddhist disciples.

Way of the Five Pecks of Grain (Wudoumijidao): An early Daoist order established by Zhang Ling in the Shu region (present-day Sichuan province) in the last years of the Late Han dynasty; also called the Way of the Heavenly Master, since the founder adopted the title Heavenly Master and succeeding patriarchs maintained the title. So called because followers were required to offer ﬁve pecks of grain. See also Zhang Ling.

Way of the Spirit (shendao): In Daoism, the unfathomed mysterious way, the transcendental religious world, or a synonym for a supreme spiritual being.

Zhang Ling: Founder of the Way of the Heavenly Master (Tianshidao), also called the Way of the Five Pecks of Grain; he is also known as Zhang Daoling. His son is Zhang Heng, the second patriarch, and his grandson is Zhang Lu, the third patriarch. See also Way of the Five Pecks of Grain.

Zhang Jiao (d. 184): The leader of the Yellow Turbans, who gained the support of the people of Luoyang who suffered from disease or poverty by offering medical care and religious practice and organized a religious group called Taipingdao (Way of Great Peace) based on the cult of Yellow Emperor and Laozi (Huang-Lao). In 184

C.E. Zhang Jiao led several hundreds of thousands of followers in a rebellion against the Han dynasty, with the intent of bringing about the “world of great peace,” but he died of illness and eventually the rebellion was quelled. His followers wore yellow turbans to distinguish themselves from their enemies.

Bibliography

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Kimura, Eiichi. Eon kenkyū, ibun-hen. Kyoto: Kyōto Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo, 1960.

Kopecki, Andrew J. Cultural Adaptation in the Chinese Acceptance of Buddhism: Selections from the “Hongmingji“: A Thesis. Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, 1981.

Legge, James, trans. Dao de jing ji Zhuangzi quan ji. Taibei: Wen xing shu ju, 1963.

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Morgan, Evan, trans. Tao, The Great Luminant: Essays from Huai nan tzu. Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh Ltd., 1934.

Müller, F. Max, ed. The Sacred Books of the East, 50 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879-1910.

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Index

A

Ai, Lord, 232

animal(s)/beast(s)/creature(s), 5, 6, 11, 32,

54, 58, 60, 63, 64, 79, 101, 105, 121,

123, 148, 235, 237, 238, 240, 252,

256, 262, 268, 269, 270, 272,

300n21, 310n190

alligator, 270

bear, 120, 257, 262, 270, 323n389

boar/hog(s)/pig(s), 60, 97, 120, 170,

178, 257, 269, 270, 271

cat, 270, 303n73

cow(s), 69, 70, 178, 270, 271

deer, 117

dog(s), 257, 270

jiao, 258

raccoon, 22, 270

dragon(s), 6, 7, 24, 52, 58, 69, 129, 171,

260, 267, 268, 272, 275, 276, 283,

285, 304n97

foxes, 22

frog, 79, 95, 105, 306n133

hare(s)/rabbit(s), 63, 117, 182, 189, 263

horse(s), 4, 17, 51, 58, 59, 60, 61, 70,

99, 123, 159, 173, 236, 275, 277,

278, 279, 286, 300n18, 321n359

Daoli, 59

divine, 278, 280

Hualiu, 59, 173, 305n108

Qiji, 305n108

white, 28, 98, 215, 308n153

iguanodons, 52, 304n97

jackal(s), 22, 285

leopard, 270

monkey(s), 270, 300n21

rhinoceroses, 52, 97n97

sheep, 178, 192, 220, 269, 270, 271, 317n297, 318n320

tiger(s), 6, 7, 26, 52, 135, 148, 261, 270,

276, 277, 285, 304n97, 312n225

turtle(s), 262, 267, 270

unicorn, 97

water buffaloes, 261

wolf/wolves, 722, 135, 268, 274

wormlike/vermicular, 91, 121, 237

See also bird(s); ﬁsh(es); insect(s); snake(s)

An Qisheng, 262

anti-Buddhist, xix, xx Archivist. See Laozi Aśoka, King, 149

See also Ayuwang Temple Avalokiteśvara, 136, 277

Ayuwang Temple, 149

B

Bai Qi, 297, 327n446

Ban niyuan jing, 310n192, 319n333

Banzhou sanmei jing (Skt. Pratyutpanna- buddha-saṃmukhāvasthita- samādhi), 181

Baopuzi, 299n9

barbarians, 20, 31, 32, 132, 204, 206

Ba River, 149

Bei, 165

Beihai Ruo, 306n134

Beijing chao, 310n199

bhikṣu(s) (biqiu), 36, 44, 149, 220, 233 two hundred and ﬁfty precepts for, 185 See also Buddhist clergy/monk(s);

Buddhist order/sangha; four kinds of Buddhist disciples; śramaṇa(s)

Bian, 35, 303n63

Bian He, jade of, 59, 167, 305n107 Bian Sizhi, 223, 224, 225, 226

Bi Gan, 58, 305n105

Binguo. See four polar regions

Biographies of Arrayed Transcendents

(Liexian zhuan), 149, 295

See also Liu Xiang

bird(s)/fowl, 6, 14, 34, 59, 60, 63, 65,

178, 179, 262–262, 265, 269, 272,

315n274

crane, 5, 173

dove, 70, 77, 300n194

ju/yuanju, 59, 60

juxu, 68, 74, 75

kingﬁshers, 165

luan, 176, 259, 274, 276

myna, 12

owl(s), 13, 268, 272, 274

peng, 120, 265

phoenix(es), 59, 60, 99, 173, 259, 260,

268, 374n274

qiongqiong, 68, 74, 75

shrike, 13

sparrows, 97, 128

swallows, 97

wild duck(s), 97, 103, 128

zhen, 258

See also animal(s)/beast(s)/creature(s) birth and death, 36, 39. 48, 123, 141,

146, 219, 222, 239, 240, 246, 248,

251, 255, 256, 260, 289, 292, 297

See also rebirth; transmigration

Bo, 33

boat(s)/ferryboat, 4, 51, 106, 127, 192,

231, 255, 259, 274, 327n442

Bocheng, 35

bodhisattva(s), 23, 80, 125, 162, 177,

244, 253, 260, 278, 293, 324n296

images, 21, 31

path/way, 160, 161

practice(s), 163, 244, 253

stages, ten, 24, 35, 276

eighth, 276, 283

ninth, 276

tenth, 125, 282

body and spirit, 49–50, 52, 55, 57, 59, 60,

61, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 75, 85

Book of Changes, 37, 59, 60, 89, 97, 113,

144, 179, 199, 211, 291

Great Appendix, 109

section on gu lines (guyao), 175

See also Five Classics; Yijing

Book of History, 49, 58, 116, 118, 120,

179, 291, 295

Yao dian, 21

See also Five Classics; Shangshu; Shujing

Book of Mountains and Seas, 148

See also Shanhai jing

Book of Odes, 12, 15, 23, 28, 51, 119, 126

“The Bow Adorned with Horn (Jiao- gong),” 34

See also Five Classics; Praise Odes of Lu; Shijing

Book of Rites (Liji), 29, 37, 67, 73, 76,

93, 123, 128, 291, 310n200

“Chapter on Records of Music (Yueji),” 119

“Chapter on Royal Regulations (Wangzhi),” 294

“Chapter on Scholars’ Behaviors (Ru- xing),” 175

“Chapter on the Meaning of Sacriﬁces (Jiyi),” 79, 114, 120

section on “Ceremonial Usages” (Liyun), 79, 307n136

See also Five Classics; Liji

Boyang. See Laozi

Boyou, 49, 59–60, 120, 304n85, 310n189

Boyuan, 133

Boyue, 58

Brahmā King, 282

Brahmanic teaching, 37

buddha(s), 20, 48, 49, 91, 235, 278, 304n98

image(s), 21, 30, 31, 63, 138, 143,

149, 293, 295

Buddha, xix, 18, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 33,

36–38, 61–65, 79, 93, 104, 109,

117, 120, 125, 128, 135, 137–149,

163, 164, 168, 176, 184, 194, 195,

196, 198, 204, 205, 207, 208, 215,

220, 224, 227, 229, 232, 236, 249,

252, 254, 256, 260, 275, 284, 285,

287, 288, 290, 292, 294, 295, 297,

322n368

altruistic/responsive activities, 17, 24,

140, 142, 143, 171, 179, 293, 297

ediﬁcation/teaching, 22, 23, 63, 89,

120, 139, 199, 204, 206, 209, 212,

213, 216, 287, 293, 294, 296,

317n305

exposition of the Dharma, 129, 130

lion’s roar, 286

image(s), 23, 139, 177, 296

manifestation/trace, 24, 27, 140, 141,

143, 144, 145

marks, eighty minor, thirty-two, 26, 283

nirvana, 23, 251

relic(s), 147, 149

power, 148, 280

merit(s)/providence/virtue, 23, 36–37,

88, 147, 221, 288

taking refuge in, 28, 64, 147, 235, 252

ten epithets, 28, 126, 143, 145, 312n220

See also Śākyamuni; Tathāgata Buddhabhadra, 183, 190

Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. See Three Treasures

buddhahood, 28, 44–45, 48, 117, 145, 166,

167, 169, 311n215

buddha lands, 252

See also Pure Land buddha-nature, 28, 42, 90

Buddhism, xx, 4, 11, 13, 14, 15–16, 17,

20, 22, 23, 24, 30, 31, 33, 63, 64, 65,

80, 81, 83, 87, 88, 95, 96, 104, 106,

107, 122, 123, 124, 131, 134, 135,

136, 139, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147,

148, 151, 155, 169, 175, 177, 178,

180, 181, 188, 190, 196, 197–198,

199, 201, 203, 204–205, 206, 207,

208, 212, 213, 218, 221, 222, 223,

224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 231, 239,

244, 246, 247, 250, 252, 255, 261,

262, 279, 287, 289, 294, 297,

308n165

adoption/transmission of, in China/Chi- nese, xx, xxi, 131, 149, 177, 196,

242, 295

and Confucianism/Daoism, 14, 19, 27,

30, 80, 107, 108, 136, 140, 142, 150,

154, 155, 156–157, 180, 207, 225,

226, 253

criticism/doubts/negative views of, xix, 15–17, 18, 33, 34, 61, 62, 136, 139,

147, 152, 227, 254, 296, 299n10

six doubts about, xix, 290 Hinayana, 113, 183

Mahayana, 16, 31 promulgation/protection of, xix, xx, 82,

107

Buddhist(s), xx, xxi, 4, 15, 38, 52, 65,

98, 102, 105, 109, 115, 124, 134,

Buddhist(s) (continued)

147, 156, 157, 175, 180, 181, 196,

197, 200, 218, 220, 223, 224, 229,

261, 289

ceremonies/service(s), 38, 62, 205, 220,

221

decorum/rules of conduct, 176, 198,

205

images, 131, 136, 142, 145, 148

lay/laypeople, xix, xx, xxi, 24, 82,

102, 134, 136, 145, 176, 177, 180,

199, 221, 235

robes/surplice, 165, 221, 232

pagodas/temples, xx, 16, 63, 131, 136,

145, 152, 227, 264, 295

practice(s), 149, 159, 177

precepts, 18, 185, 213, 225, 264

Buddhist clergy/monk(s), xix, xx, 15–20, 24, 28, 29, 31, 34, 61–64, 82, 102,

132, 133, 135, 136, 145, 147–149,

165–167, 169, 172, 176, 177, 180,

182, 183, 190, 191, 194–196,

198–204, 212, 220–225, 227–229,

231, 232, 270

See also bhikṣu(s); śramaṇa(s) Buddhist Dharma, xix, 20, 32, 88, 132,

159, 185, 200, 202, 205, 206, 208,

223, 296

See also Dharma

Buddhist ediﬁcation/doctrine(s)/princi- ples/teaching(s)/tenets, xix, xx, xxi, 14, 16, 17, 32, 37, 42, 79, 84, 85,

92, 99, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107,

117, 121, 123, 124, 127, 130, 132,

133, 135, 149, 159, 166 168, 184,

188, 200, 201, 208, 212, 220, 227,

243, 248, 254, 261, 287, 290, 291,

293, 295, 296

Buddhist order/sangha, xvi, 175, 220,

228, 235

Buddhist scripture(s)/texts, xix, xxi, xxii, 4, 13, 15, 20, 24, 30, 31, 32, 38, 82,

93, 101, 103, 111, 118, 127, 128, 132,

138, 139, 144, 145, 149, 158, 160,

164, 169, 170, 187, 191, 218, 227,

229, 230, 235, 236, 254, 290, 291,

295, 296, 297, 310n194, 324n394

nine kinds of, 106

See also scripture(s); sutra(s) Buddhist Way, 17, 19, 20, 21, 28, 29, 33,

35, 36, 37, 42, 85, 90, 96, 103, 105,

107, 108, 110, 115, 117, 128, 143,

144, 157, 158, 159, 160, 164, 166,

169, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181, 184,

185, 189, 195, 208, 213, 215, 219,

220, 221, 223, 225, 228, 230, 232,

232, 236, 240, 246, 248, 252, 255,

259, 260, 261, 266, 280, 289

See also Great Way; Way, Buddhist/of the Buddha/Śākyamuni/Tathāgata,

C

Cai Mao, 51

Cai Zun, 96

cakravartin. See golden wheel king/ wheel-turning king

Canon of Filial Piety, 59, 66, 70, 71, 89,

113, 119

See also Xiaojing

Cao, Lord, 169

Cao Jingzong, 126–127

Cao Mao, 29

Cao Pi, 160

Cao Siwen, 65, 68, 69, 74, 77, 111, 306n130, 308n164

Cao state, 51

causality/causation, xxi, 19, 99, 109, 132,

144, 207, 210, 239, 240, 251, 254,

263, 298

See also karma/karmic; reward and retribution

Celestial Thearch/Heavenly Thearch, 66, 68, 69, 277, 327n443

See also Five Thearchs; Supreme Thearch

ceremonial cap/dress/gown(s)/robe, 30,

82, 94, 96, 102, 106, 110, 112, 115,

126, 181, 183, 191, 283

ceremony(ies), 19, 30, 116, 118, 119,

120, 130, 192, 194, 203, 220–221,

227, 272, 292, 298, 316n294,

318n320

ﬁve kinds of, 96, 122, 124

sacriﬁcial/of sacriﬁce, 79, 102, 103,

113, 257, 318n320

See also Buddhist, ceremonies/ser- vice(s); rite(s)/ritual(s)

Chan, 195

Chang’an, 10, 16, 32, 190, 193, 196, 296

Changsha, King of, 81, 306n124 Chaofu, 165

Cheng, Emperor, 193, 194, 197

Cheng, King, 134 Chengdu, 313n246

Chengju guangming dingyi jing,

321nn355, 365

Cheng Pu, 297

Chenhua, 5

Chen Ping, 242

Chi Chao, 133, 235, 319n329

Chifu, 262

China, xx, 9, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 30, 31,

38, 51, 89, 96, 120, 131, 133, 135,

139, 147, 149, 163, 165, 176, 177,

179, 183, 186, 187, 190, 196, 202,

204, 213, 242, 254, 273, 283, 285,

287, 290, 294, 295, 299n1, 326n431

Chinese, xix, xx, xxi, 21, 24, 32, 120,

121, 135, 174, 177, 180, 183, 188,

189, 198, 200, 205, 207, 208, 212,

213, 221, 224, 254, 266, 290, 293,

294, 295, 299n3, 303n70, 316nn288,

291; 317n308, 321nn357, 358;

327n447

character(s)/language, xxi, 20, 21, 23,

24, 30–31, 44, 51, 184, 190, 235,

251, 304n98, 305n106, 308n163,

310n191, 311nn203, 207; 312nn219,

229; 313n238, 314n240, 315n277,

317nn298, 304; 319n329, 321n353,

322nn372, 377; 323nn389, 392;

324nn399, 402; 325nn406, 409, 410,

415; 326nn417, 425; 327n443

Chu area/state, 16, 59, 115, 137, 138, 223,

232, 242, 294, 295, 301n28, 314n258

Ying (capital city), 263

See also Mount Chu Chu, Emperor Dowager, 30 Chuiji, 59, 305n107

Chu She, 193, 195, 198, 317n300

Classics, 220, 295

See also Five Classics; Seven Classics; Six Classics

Collection for the Propagation and Clari- ﬁcation of Buddhism, xix–xxii, 175, 307n140, 317n305

Afterword, 289–298

See also Hongmingji; Sengyou

Collection of Records Derived from the Tripiṭaka (Chusanzang jiji), xxi, 320nn336, 340; 321n352

See also Sengyou Confucian, 57, 62, 64, 107

canon/teachings, 143, 169, 295

robe/style of dress, 62, 232

scholars, 35, 38, 119

See also Confucianism/Confucianist(s); Confucius

Confucianism/Confucianist(s), 17, 27, 34,

62, 73, 86, 90, 102, 107, 140, 141,

144, 150, 179, 194, 197, 208, 212,

213, 214, 224, 226, 253, 295, 296,

307n149

Confucianism/Confucianist(s) (continued) and Buddhism, 19, 80, 107, 108, 136,

140, 142, 150,180, 225

and Daoism, xix–xxi

See also nine schools

Confucius, 24, 30, 31, 36, 38, 41, 59, 61,

64, 67, 72, 76, 79, 80, 90, 97, 98,

100, 107, 117, 118, 121, 123, 125,

137, 139, 140, 169, 178, 179, 201,

220, 230, 232, 261, 262, 294, 295,

303n77, 307n147

books/teachings/writings of, 81, 89,

92, 109, 111, 118, 157, 200, 288,

307n151

cited/quoted, 34–35, 67, 71–72, 76,

134, 206, 213, 307n141, 311n210,

312n221, 316n297

and the Duke of Zhou, 20, 59, 111,

119, 138, 140, 142, 143, 145, 178,

207, 210, 283, 288, 291

and Taibo and Yuzheng, 15 and Yang Huo, 58, 59, 60

and Yao, 33, 265

and Youzi, 31

and Yuan Rong, 34

and Zhong You/Zilu, 67, 72, 207 and Zigong, 318n320

and Ziyou and Zixia, 38

See also Canon of Filial Piety; Five Classics; Spring and Autumn Annals

constellations/stars, 72, 144, 262, 267,

268, 269, 271, 272, 277, 279, 285,

288, 304n96, 323n384

Big Dipper, 267, 268, 269

Great Bear, 271

Heavenly Banner, 274

Milky Way, 12, 179, 290

Nanji, 268

North Polar/polar, 262, 277, 294 Palace of the Purple Tenuity, 277 Cultivated Talent (Xiucai), 168, 199

Danzhu, 61

Danyang, 82, 106, 131

dao/Dao, 51, 318n318, 319nn324, 326; 325n411

Daoan, xx, xxi, 176, 177, 183, 190, 296,

325nn410, 414

Daobao, 201

Daobiao, 158, 159–160, 161–163,

164–165, 175

Dao de jing, 117

See also Laozi; Laozi/Laozi Dao de jing

Daogao, 137, 138–139, 141–143

Daohan, 114

Daoheng, 158, 159–160, 161–163,

164–165, 175

Daoism/Daoist teaching, xix–xxii, 4, 8, 13,

14, 23–27, 37, 154, 155, 156–157,

158, 253, 254, 299n1

See also nine schools; wuwei; yin and

yang

Daoist(s), xxi, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 13, 25, 26,

27, 38, 156, 157, 254, 299n10

monk(s)/priest(s), 10, 33, 34, 148 school(s) and titles, xi, xxi, 9, 10–11,

157, 254

scripture(s), 4, 8, 101

See also Dao de jing; Laozi/Laozi Dao de jing; rite(s)/ritual(s); yin and yang

Daosheng, 189, 191, 192, 232

See also Zhu Daosheng Daoxuan, xxii

Daozeng, 299n5

deﬁlement(s), 6, 25, 29, 31, 32, 45, 46, 47,

89, 101, 105, 112, 124, 125, 155, 168,

179, 232, 237, 239, 246, 259, 264,

277, 279, 281, 283, 284, 285, 286

Deer Park, 88, 139

Deng Tong, 51

Deng Xi, 64

Devadatta, 125

Dhammapada (Faju jing), 245, 310n199, 321n361

Dharma, xix, 12, 24, 29, 32, 63, 64, 65,

86, 100, 101, 106, 107, 129, 130,

135, 140, 143, 150, 151, 154, 161,

163, 175, 185, 187, 188, 196, 198,

201, 220, 221, 224, 236, 264, 276,

286, 289, 290, 292, 293, 294, 296

cloud(s), 96, 128, 296

drum(s), 139, 181, 286

gate, 30, 31, 92, 96, 137, 158, 163

great, 105, 147, 159, 160, 168, 184,

188, 202, 203, 204, 230, 232, 237,

293

profund/subtle, 23, 33, 289

robe(s), 35, 159, 161, 164, 165, 180,

204, 208, 220, 221, 224

sound, 42, 106, 142, 286

teacher(s), 31, 87, 92, 93, 99, 101, 107,

108, 109, 116, 117, 123, 125, 126,

159, 162, 163

three periods of:

Decadent, 141, 233

Semblance, 119

True, 119, 123, 138, 139, 143, 285, 294

wheel, 96, 107

See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha;

Buddhist Dharma

dharmakāya, 145

Dharma King, 273, 274, 275, 279, 280

See also Buddha Dharmarakṣaṇa. See Tanwuchen Dian, 65

See also Zeng Shen/Zengzi Dīpaṅkara, 139, 283, 311n215 Discourse on Buddhist Laymen and

Clergy (Baihei lun), 132

See also Huilin

Discourse on Debating to Remove Hin- drances (Bianho lun), 3–13

See also Xuanguang

Discourse on Extinguishing Delusions,

301n32

See also Liu Xie

Discourse on the Achievement of Reality

(Chengshi lun), 43

Discourse on the Coexistence of Opposite Views (Fangsheng zhi lun), 118, 309n180

See also Zhuangzi

Discourse on the Extinction of Man’s Nature (Miexing lun), 129

See also Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit

Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit

(Shenmie lun), 48, 49–65, 68, 69,

70, 73, 79–80, 81, 82, 92, 94, 96,

111, 116, 130, 306nn130, 131

Cao Siwen’s criticisms of, 65–68, 74–77, 306n130, 308n164

See also Fan Zhen/Zizhen

Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life (Daxing lun), 132

See also He Chengtian

Discourse on the Triple Destruction

(Sanpo lun), 13–18, 20, 21–22, 23,

27–38, 299n10

See also Zhang Rong

Discourse on the Way to Reach the Origin of the Two Teachings (Tangyuan lun), 156

See also Shaozi; Zhang Rong

Discourse on the White Horse (Baima lun), 318n315

Discourse on Why Śramaṇas Do Not Bow to the Sovereign (Shamen bujing wangzhe lun), 307n140, 317n305

See also Huiyuan

Discourse to Clarify Buddhism (Mingfo lun), 132, 133, 148, 312n227

See also Zong Bing

Di tribe/tribespeople, 9, 10, 135, 314n264

Dong’an Temple, 190

Dongguan County, 13

Dongli, 127, 310n195 Dongyuangong, 314n251

See also four bright men Duan Ganmu, 164

Du Bo, 48, 297, 327n444

Du Hui, 128

Dunhuang, 6

Du Wei, 163

Du Yi, 99

Du Zigong, 9

dynasty(ies), xxi, 75, 90, 105, 131, 138,

173, 190, 196, 200, 201, 202, 204,

205, 208

E

Eastern Jin dynasty, xix, xx, xxi, 6, 175, 177

See also Jin dynasty/state; Western Jin dynasty

Eastern Mountain, 267, 268, 269

See also Five Peaks/Five Sacred Mountains; Mount Tai

eighteen innocent people, 274, 325n413 Eight Executives, 199, 200, 202, 217, 218

eightfold holy path, 123, 150, 278, 283

eight difﬁculties, 32, 146, 251, 256 eight kinds of gods and demigods that

protect Buddhism, 107

See also gods

eight worldly matters, 246, 321n357 elements:

four great, 253, 356

four small, 118

three great, 199, 207

See also six elemental energies

emptiness, 4, 16, 26, 91, 107, 119, 137,

176, 248, 249, 252–253, 260, 278,

282, 283, 286, 287, 289

contemplation on, 236, 251 four abodes of, 251

three kinds of, 274

enlightenment, 15, 35, 81, 92, 106, 125,

126, 129, 157, 160, 165, 167, 179.

231, 290

aspiration for, 236

path/way to, 123, 150, 178, 277, 278,

283, 289

right, perfect, 64, 156, 182

See also nirvana

Essentials for Believing in the Dharma,

175, 235–253

See also Chi Chao

existence(s), 4, 16, 36, 44, 62, 76, 101,

113, 119, 123, 126, 140, 146, 157,

163, 200, 213, 218, 221, 237, 243,

246, 249, 252, 252, 256, 259, 260,

282, 288, 297

former/previous, 35, 44, 61, 86, 89,

229, 238, 244, 246, 247

future/next, 142, 191, 209, 211, 240,

244

See also nonexistence; realm(s), of existence; three periods of existence

Explanation on Dispelling Delusions

(Shizhi), 154

Extensive Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism, xxii

See also Daoxuan; Guang Hongmingji

F

Fajing, xxii

Faju piyu jing, 321n361 Falang, King, xviii Family Code, 253

Faming, 137, 144, 148

Fan Bolun/Fan Tai, 132, 182, 184, 185,

186, 187, 188, 191

Fangxun, 58, 152, 179

See also Yao/Yao, Emperor Fan River, 173, 276

Fan Shi, 102

Fan Wang, 133

Fan Xiaocai, 102–103

Fan Xiu, 82

Fan Zhen/Zizhen, 48, 49, 61, 67, 68, 73,

83, 86, 95, 102, 119

See also Secretariat Fan; Wulu Chong- zong

Fatie kanwu (Model Book for Errata), 319n329

See also Huang Bosi Faxian, 187

Fayun, 80

Fei Changfang, xxii Fengren, 262

Feng Huai, 193, 195

ﬁlial/ﬁlial piety, xxi, 15, 17, 18, 33, 35,

48, 59, 64, 66, 67, 71, 172,79, 80,

85, 86, 87, 93, 95 96, 99, 100, 104,

105, 107, 109, 110, 113, 114, 125,

127, 150, 151, 152, 171, 200, 207,

218, 219, 222, 236, 302n62,

312n230, 313n233, 324n401

See also Canon of Filial Piety

First Emperor of the Qin dynasty, 4, 153 ﬁsh(es), 42, 64, 148, 163, 182, 212, 236,

263, 265, 270, 272, 284, 285,

318n316, 326n420

kun, 265

See also animal(s)/beast(s)/creature(s) Five Classics, 21, 23, 108, 110, 114, 117,

124, 128, 290, 292, 295, 296

See also Book of Changes; Book of History; Book of Odes; Book of Rites; Seven Classics; Six Classics; Spring and Autumn Annals

ﬁve desires, 101, 155

ﬁve hindrances, 239, 319n331 ﬁve kinds of afﬂictions, 46

ﬁve kinds of disasters, 16, 300n14 ﬁve kinds of happiness, 256, 323n381 ﬁve kinds of principles of human rela-

tionships, 151, 197, 267, 313n233, 324n401

See also Confucianism/Confucianist(s) ﬁve paths, 238, 264

See also realm(s), of existence, ﬁve Five Peaks/Five Sacred Mountains, 121,

267, 269

See also Mount Heng/Huo; Mount Hua; Mount Song; Mount Tai

ﬁve penalties, 35

Five Powers, 138

See also Chu area/state; Jin dynasty; Qi dynasty; Qin dynasty/state; Song dynasty

ﬁve rebellious acts, 3, 17

ﬁve skandhas, 118, 239, 240, 252

Five Thearchs, 18, 22, 23, 32, 105, 121,

138, 140, 143, 145, 178, 192, 294

See also Celestial Thearch/Heavenly Thearch; Shun, Emperor; Supreme Thearch; Yao/Yao, Emperor; Yellow Emperor

Five Thousand Words. See Dao de jing; Laozi/Laozi dao de jing

Former Han dynasty, 16, 153, 170, 300n15, 317n308

See also Han dynasty; Later Han dynasty

Foshuo Beijing chao, 302n54, 314n254, 319n332

Fotudeng, xxi, 33, 135, 149, 293

four bright men, 164, 165, 314n251

See also Dongyuangong; Luli; Qili Ji;

Xiahuanggong

four classes of people, 175

four continents, 107

four criminals, 242, 320n343 four evils, 273, 325n412

fourfold truths/Four Noble Truths, 129, 236

four fruits, 283

four great rivers/Four Holy Rivers, 176, 267

See also Huai River; Ji River; Yangzi River; Yellow River

four immeasurable minds, 16, 236, 237,

245–246, 247, 252, 321n353

four kinds of evil attachments, 112 four methods of winning people over,

277, 283

four polar regions, 290, 291, 326n431

four seas, 169, 264, 294

four seasons, 79, 207, 246, 267 four stages of sainthood, 183 four subjects of learning, 38

four that are great, 92, 137, 224, 307n146, 311n211, 318n318, 319n322

four types of impermanent things, 248 four wicked ones, 152, 313n235

Fu, 242, 320n342

Fu Jian, 135

Fu Jing, 108

Futu. See Buddhism Fuxi, 23, 293

Fu Yue, 51

Fu Yi, 295

G

Gan Bao, 149

Gaṅgānadīvālukā, 281

Ganges River, 282, 283

Gaogui Xiang, Lord. See Cao Mao Gaoseng Faxian zhuan, 315n280 Gaoseng zhuan, 312nn224, 225, 226;

316n290, 327nn438, 439

Gao Yao, 58, 60, 305n104

Gaozu, Emperor, 29, 58, 257

Ge Xuan, 25

god(s), 7, 28, 32, 63, 87, 105, 283, 293

of the earth/land, 267, 271, 292

Green God, 172

Yellow God, 13

See also eight kinds of of gods and demigods that protect Buddhism

golden wheel king/wheel-turning king, 107

Gonggong, 242

Gongsun Duan, 59

Gongsun He, 59

Gongsun Hong, 170

Gongsun Long, 308nn153, 154; 318n315

Gongsun Longzi, “Chapter on the White Horse (Baima lun),” 308n153, 318n315

Gongsun Qing, 4

Gongsun Zan, 173

Gongyang/Gongyang zhuan, 149, 307n151

See also Spring and Autumn Annals

Grand Creator, 256

Grand One, 262

Grand Terminus, 8, 37, 157, 262

Grand Void, 45, 256, 291

See also void/voidness Great Awakened One, 143, 155

See also Buddha Great Law, 12

Great Mass of Nature, 177, 315n278 Great Pervader, 273, 325n411

Great Sage, 140, 141, 168, 259

See also Buddha; Sage King Great Way, 11, 25, 122, 167, 192

See also Way

Guang Hongmingji, xxii, 325nn410, 414 Guangjing, 38

Guangwu, Emperor, 160, 163

Guan Ning, 160

Guanyou area, 296

See also Chang’an Guanzhong, 10, 32, 193, 195

See also Shaanxi province Guan Zhong, 58, 165

Guliang, 149

See also Spring and Autumn Annals

Gun, 120, 242, 257, 310n189

Guo Changzi, 217–218

Guo Jingchen, 9

Guo Pu, 148

Guo Wen, 133

Guo Wenju, 148

Gusou, 61

H

Handan, 129, 166, 167

Han dynasty, xix, xx, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 16,

26, 29, 34, 51, 58, 102, 133, 134,

147, 163, 164, 165, 175, 178, 179,

196, 198, 259, 290, 293, 294, 295,

296, 299n2, 303n77, 307n149,

324n400

See also Former Han dynasty; Later Han dynasty

Han Fei, 64, 243

Han Feizi, 305n116, 314n258 Hangu Pass, 21, 31

Han River, 130

Hao River, 118, 216, 217, 318n316

Heaven, 7, 8, 12, 14, 17, 19, 22, 25, 28, 29,

33, 42, 50, 51, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74,

75, 76, 80, 84, 85, 94, 98, 115, 118,

138, 146, 152, 157, 177, 199, 207,

218, 224, 231, 237, 241, 242, 246,

251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 262, 264,

269, 271, 273, 276, 290, 292, 292,

300n23, 311n211, 313n234, 316n287,

318n318, 319n323, 324n393

correlate(s) of, 67, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76

Gate of, 51, 70

Lord of, 11, 12, 259, 292

law/mandate/will of, 42, 60, 87, 192,

193, 269, 274, 275, 278, 323n381

movement(s) of, 166, 172

rebirth in, 25, 237, 238

saciﬁce(s) to, 71, 72, 73, 292

son of, 34, 120, 175

See also Heaven and Earth; heaven(s); Way of Heaven

Heaven and Earth, 6, 22, 37, 49, 73, 79,

89, 92, 97, 99, 105, 136, 157, 161,

167, 173, 199, 206, 207, 211, 218,

219, 222, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271,

280, 282, 286, 300n18, 305n112,

317n303, 321n359, 324n399

heaven(s), 156, 251

Juntian (Melody Heaven), 66 nine, 66, 258, 268

Paranirmitavaśavartin, 26

Trāyastriṃśa, 285

Tuṣita, 62, 276 twenty-eight:

eighteen, of the realm of form, 322n375

four, of the formless realm, 322n375 six, of the realm of desire, 274, 281,

284, 292, 322n375

heavenly, 8, 36, 241, 249, 262, 271, 274,

275, 276, 278, 279, 283, 311n203

beings, 29, 32, 91, 98, 107, 109, 113,

129, 133, 137, 219, 221, 225, 238,

240, 246, 280, 283, 287, 311n203

bodies, 199, 218

drum, 4, 27

net, 36, 244

ofﬁce, 8, 271, 272

palace, 279, 284, 297

Heavenly Master, 5, 9, 10, 23

See also Zhang Ling

Hebo, 288, 306n134, 326n429

He Chengtian, 132, 136

He Chong, 133, 175, 193, 195, 198, 199,

200, 202, 317n304

Hedong, 149

He Jiong, 103–104

hell(s), 7, 12, 64, 92, 238, 239, 240, 246,

258

Avīci, 37, 47, 62

eighteen, 258, 277 of intense heat, 65 of pincers, 13

of sharp-pointed swords, 65 Henan province, 135, 177

Deng and Fan areas, 123 Heng, 5

See also Zhang Ling Hengyang, 132

heretical, 79, 102, 112, 119, 289

masters, six, 251

schools, nine, 285

heretic(s), 38, 87, 93, 105, 123

He River, 322n380

He Shangzhi, 131, 137

heterodox/heterodoxy, 10, 81, 112, 113,

175

schools, ninety-six, 147

hexagram(s), 103 qian and kun, 37 sixty-four, 109

See also Book of Changes

He Yang, 108–109

He Zhun, 133

Highest Sage. See Buddha Hinayana, 183, 187 Hongmingji, xxi, 303n66

See also Collection for the Propaga- tion and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism

Houji, 66, 67, 70, 72,73, 74, 75, 76, 292

Hu, 33

Huai River, 114, 267

Huan, Duke, 303n63 Huan, Emperor, 295

Huan, King, 271, 306n124, 325n409

Huan, Lord, 58, 59, 288

Huandou, 242

Huang Bosi, 319n329

Huanglan, 265

Huangluozi jing (Sutra on Huangluo), 170, 325n407

Huangshu, 299n5 Huang Xian, 164

Huan Qian, 200, 201 Huan Wen, 325n409

Huan Xuan, 166–167, 175, 199–200,

201–202, 209, 214–216, 217–218,

222–223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228,

230, 318n321, 319n325

Hu Hai, 16 Hui, 309n170

Huiguan, 187, 189, 192

Huilin, 132, 136

Huishi/Huizi, 309n180, 318n316 Huiwen, King, 305n107

Huiyan, 147, 148, 191, 217, 218, 222

Huiyi, 180, 183, 184–185, 186, 187, 188,

191, 192

Huiyuan, xx, xxi, 85, 134, 166, 167–168

175, 227, 228, 307n140, 317n305

Huiyue, 81

Huns, 22, 135

hunters/hunting, 5, 179, 304n97

Hymn for the Hall of Happy Wise People

(Lexiantang song), 178

I

icchantika(s), 84, 117, 125, 129

immortality, of the spirit, 81, 82, 84, 89,

97, 103, 111, 116, 117, 120, 121,

126, 127, 129

immortals, 261

abode/realm of, 6, 34, 176

Imperial Response to His Subjects: The Examination of the Discourse on the Extinction of the Spirit, 79–80

responses to, 80–130

India/Indian, xx, 38, 44, 106, 120, 148,

202, 274, 294, 316n288

identiﬁed as Shendu/Tianzhu, 148

Inner Section of the Mysterious and Sublime (Xuanmiao Neipan), 26

insect(s), 24, 32, 55, 60, 64, 69, 79, 123,

245, 257, 269, 306n133

cicada, 95, 120, 127, 310n190

See also animal(s)/beast(s)/creature(s)

J

Jambudvīpa, 117, 275

Jeta, Prince, 160

Ji, 41–48

See also Shen Ji Ji An/Ji Miao, 153 Jian’an, 5, 193, 195

King of, 81, 97, 100

Jianchu Temple, 1, 148

Jiangnan area, 228

Jiangsu province, 5

Jiangzuo area, 149, 190 Jiang Chong, 299n2 Jiankang, 96, 129, 183, 227

Jiantuole, 293

Jian Wu, 290

Jiaozhou, 137, 218

Jie, King, 72, 74, 75, 80, 125, 135, 280,

287

Jie tribe, 135

Jie Yu, 22, 301n28 Jili, 15, 30

Jilu, 71, 118, 137

See also Zilu

Jin dynasty/state, xix, 26, 30, 50, 59, 99,

129, 136, 149, 164, 170, 173, 190,

193, 194, 195, 198, 288, 290, 293,

294, 295, 296, 314n264

See also Eastern Jin dynasty; Western Jin dynasty

Jingdu sanmai jing, 321n357 Jing, Emperor, 16, 134

Jing, Lord, 11, 136, 297, 327n445

Jing, Marquis, 299n8 Jingnan area, 133

Jing River, 220, 228

Jingzhou, 148

Jingzhuzi (Jingxing Famen), 156, 190

Jinji, 149

See also Gan Bao Jinqu Menxun, 135

Jinyangqiu, 149

See also Sun Sheng Ji River, 267

Jizi (of Yanling), 66, 70, 74, 75

K

kalpa(s), 36, 96, 105, 123, 160, 169, 179,

200, 207, 209, 210, 211, 213, 219,

239, 244, 254, 258, 264, 274, 275,

281, 282, 290, 324n396

bhadrakalpa, 281

Kang, King, 134 Kang Falan, xxi Kapilavastu, 274

karma/karmic, 11, 16, 36–37, 41, 101,

118–119, 120, 129, 144, 145, 150,

179, 219, 243–244, 250

See also causality/causation; reward and retribution

King-Sire of the East (Dong wanggong), 268

Kongōji Temple, 320nn336, 348 Kongming, 163, 165

See also Zhuge Kongming/Liang Kong Zhigui, 149, 154–158

Kou Qianzhi, 299n1

Kṣemaṃkara-paripṛcchā (Pusa shingdi jing), 244

Kuai state, 285, 326n424 Ku, Emperor, 76

Kukkutuṭārāma, 138

Kumārajīva, 20, 31, 162, 164, 190, 296

Kunaichō Library, 315n277

L

Lalitavistara (Puyao jing), 251 Lantai, 295

Lao, Lord, 8, 9

Laozi, 21–22, 24–25, 30, 31, 33, 38, 41,

79, 101, 117, 155, 156, 200, 218,

224, 288, 294

quoted, 20, 27, 118, 157

See also Dao de jing; Laozi/Laozi Dao de jing

Laozi/Laozi Dao de jing, xx, xi, 199, 301nn33, 36; 302nn49, 52, 55;

307n146, 309n181, 311n211,

313nn240, 242; 314n260,

317nn298, 302; 319n326, 320n347,

322nn377, 379; 324n402,

326nn416, 417, 418

See also Dao de jing; Laozi

Later Han dynasty, 20, 23, 149, 160, 299n7

See also Former Han dynasty; Han dynasty

Later Qin dynasty, 158 See also Qin dynasty Later Zhao dynasty, 33

See also Zhao dynasty/state Legalist school, 64

See also nine schools Li, Elder/Sir, 21, 25

See also Laozi Li, King, 314n258

Liang dynasty, xix, 1, 41, 79, 87, 311n207

Liang Xiao. See Boyou Li Bing, 57, 58

Lidai sanbaoji, xxii

See also Fei Changfang Lie Yixuan, 315n281

See also Nanqiao, King of Lie Yu, 173

Lie Yun, 89–90

Liezi, 293, 324n398, 325n403

Li Hong, 26

Liji, 301nn35, 42; 302nn59, 60;

306nn119, 123; 307nn135, 136,

144; 308nn162, 163; 309n184,

310nn187, 196; 316nn283, 294;

317nn299, 306; 318n317, 320n335,

326nn435, 437, 441

See also Book of Rites

Li Lao, 38, 155

See also Laozi Li Lou, 130

Li Miao, 137, 139–140, 143–144

Lin brothers, 133 Linchuan, King of, 80 Ling. See Wen, Lord Lingzhengji, 325n404 Liu Bei, 165

Liu Cheng, 90

Liu Jun. See Liu Shanming Liu Qia, 109–110

Liu Shang, 11

Liu Shanming, 168, 169–170, 171–172,

173–174

Liu-Song dynasty, 7

See also Song dynasty Liu Xiang, 149, 295

Liu Xie, 13, 301

Liu Yixuan. See Nanqiao, King of Li Zhu, 27

Longmen, 171

Lord of Heaven, 11, 12, 259, 292 Lord of the Way, 8

Lotus Sutra, 17, 123, 138 Lü, Empress Dowager, 257 Luan Da, 11

Lu Ao, 128

Lu Cheng, 170

Lu Chui, 115

Lu Fu, 57, 304n99 Lu Gao, 85–86

Lü Jiang. See Lü Shang Luli, 314n251

See also four bright men Lu Lian, 124–125

Luo River, 3, 294

Luoyang, 295

Kaiyang Gate, 295

Lu Qi, 51

Lu Ren, 115

Lü Shang, 51, 170, 171, 304n90

See also Taigong Wang Lu state, 59, 139, 172, 232

Lu Song, 9, 26

Lu Xiujing, 6, 9, 10–11

Lu Xu, 87

M

Ma Fan, 224

Magadha, 138

magic, 271

formula, 6 worm, 299n2

Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū, 139, 274, 275,

283

Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, 26

Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra, 26

Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya (Mohe sengqi lü), 185

Mahayana, 16, 31, 155, 157

scriptures/sutras, 187, 253, 283

Maitreya, 128, 138, 140, 263, 277, 283

Māṇava, 38, 139, 311n215

Mañjuśrī, 277, 283

Ma Ron, 21

Ma Yuanhe, 112–113

medicine, 14, 25, 85, 181, 244, 270

meditation, 14, 19, 36, 105, 110, 112,

182, 229, 250, 251, 286

couch/room/seat, 185, 190, 284

eight kinds of, 101, 106, 126, 129,

283, 287

four-stage/four stages of, 24, 278 nine kinds of, 283

seven kinds of, 129

Mencius, 21, 72–73, 79, 97, 115, 192, 306n134

Meng River, 173, 276

Mengzi, 150, 312n228

merit(s)/meritorious, 5, 8, 10, 23, 25, 36,

45, 62, 64, 88, 136, 141, 147, 159,

163, 164, 167, 169, 172, 178, 190,

206, 229, 231, 236, 241, 243, 245,

246, 247, 251, 252, 276, 279, 280,

281, 284, 287, 288, 297, 327n437

Miaofa lianhua jing, 393nn69, 71; 310n194, 311n214, 312n216,

314n263

Middle Way, 110

See also nondual/nonduality Minchi, 135

See also Henan province

Ming, Emperor, 20, 23, 147, 149, 177,

178, 193, 295, 296

Ming dynasty, 315n277 Ming Shaobin, 117–119

Minyue region, 3

mirror, 73, 173, 281, 286, 288, 292, 327n447

Mi Zixia, 65

Mo Di, 64, 90

Mohism/Mohist(s), 64, 140, 141, 143, 305n114

See also nine schools

Moling county, 10

Moonlight Boy (Candraprabha), 177 Mount Chu, 314n258

Mount Heng, 267, 324n400 Mount Hua, 12, 267

Mount Huo, 267, 324n400

Mount Iron Surroundings (Cakravāḍa) Mount Ji, 164, 166

Mount Jing, 167, 215

Mount Khadiraka, 284

Mount Langfeng, 176

Mount Lu, 166, 217, 227, 228

Mount Panchi, 293

Mount Ruoye, 164

Mount Song, 196, 267

Mount Sumeru, 264, 275, 276, 280, 324n394

Mount Tai, 7, 196, 267, 268, 271

Mount Taixing, 296

Mount Xuanque, 267, 268

Mount Yan, 3

Mount Yanzi, 173

Mount Yuntai, 5

See also Jiangsu province Mount Zhongnan, 164

Mozi, 115

Mu, Duke of, 128

Mu, King, 293, 321n359

Mu. Lord, 66, 68, 69, 297, 327n443

music/musical, 8, 109, 114, 116, 118, 119,

124, 192, 255, 259, 261, 130n123,

316n294

compositions:

Shao, 261, 323n387

Xianchi, 255

of Juntian, 66, 68, 69

N

Nairañjanā River, 130

Nanqiao, King of, 178, 315n281

Nanyang, 177

See also Henan province

Nature, 62, 210, 211, 212, 256, 267, 268

law of, 219, 222

See also Great Mass of Nature Nine August Ones/Nine Augusts, 22,

271, 301n30

Nine Murks, 5

nine schools, 141, 146, 225, 285

nirvana, 14, 23, 27, 96, 140, 223, 227, 246,

251, 288

of the Buddha/Tathāgata, 140, 251, 282

equated with death, 14, 27, 28, 301n32

as wuwei, 29, 227, 251, 260

Nirvana Sutra, 28, 123, 187, 243, 246, 251

Nobility of Heaven, 97, 308n152 Nominalist school, 64

See also nine schools

nonarising, 20, 176, 177, 187, 251, 254,

261, 278, 282, 288

non-Buddhist(s), xx, 98, 109, 124, 289

books/scriptures/text(s), xxi, 30, 82,

112, 127

teaching(s), 17, 24, 43, 84, 85, 98, 102,

115, 117, 127, 139, 225, 226, 228,

279, 319n324

schools, ninety-six, 112, 262

nondual/nonduality, 23, 30, 59, 85, 110,

124, 254

nonexistence, 16, 76, 79, 83, 101, 113,

237, 251, 260, 282, 288

See also existence

non-self, 157, 248, 249, 313n240, 325n412

Northern Sea, 129, 289, 315n274 Northern Song dynasty, 319n329 See also Song dynasty/state Northern Wei dynasty, xx, 299n1

See also Wei dynasty North Temple, 148

numinous, 4, 26, 30, 65, 254, 256, 258,

262, 281

being(s), 55, 71, 129, 255, 265, 268,

271, 292

transcendent, 9, 11

O

One, the, 14, 23

One Vehicle, 24, 32, 84, 101, 155

See also vehicle(s)

P

Pao Sheng, 312n219 Pāpīyas, 284, 287

pāramitās, 250, 278, 281

dāna-, 250, 299n6

six, 16, 128, 232, 250, 252, 287

Pengsheng, 59, 60, 102, 116, 120, 297, 305n111, 310n189, 327n444

Penzu, 38, 303n74 Perfect One. See Buddha Pi Chen, 190, 316n292

Ping, Emperor, 303n77

power(s), 138, 148, 161, 172, 250, 275,

278, 285, 287

supernatural, 14, 22, 25, 38, 280, 284,

296

six, 278

ten, 36

three, 113, 121

Praise Odes of Lu, “Section on Pasture (Jiong),” 260

See also Book of Odes prajñā, 15, 121, 250, 286

See also wisdom

pratyekabuddhas, 260, 282

precepts, 18, 19, 26, 107, 123, 152, 155,

177, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 198,

213, 225, 227, 229, 232, 235, 237,

238, 250, 252, 255, 264, 284, 286,

292, 308n165

ﬁve, 134, 150, 196, 197, 235, 236,

258, 287

ten, 238, 244

two hundred and ﬁfty, 185, 186

province(s), 51, 158, 179 Puban of Hedong, 149 Puqian. See four polar regions

Pure Awakened One. See Buddha Pure Land, 91, 284

Purple Way, 7, 11

Pusa zhengzhai jing/Pusa zhaifa, 320n340

Puyao jing, 319nn330, 332

Q

Qi, 132

Qiang tribe, 135, 294

Qi dynasty/state, 16, 22, 58, 60, 102,

138, 149, 232, 242, 288, 301n29,

305n111, 323n387, 327n444

King/Lord of, 30, 102 Qili Ji, 314n251

See also four bright men

Qin dynasty/state, 4, 11, 16, 22, 153,

165, 243, 295, 296, 314n251,

318n319

See also Later Qin dynasty Qingzhou, 168

Qin Jing, 295

Qiu Zhongfu, 130

Qi Xie, 265, 324n397

Qiyuan Temple, 182, 184, 185, 190, 191

Qiwulun, 314n262

Queen Mother of the West (Xi wangmu), 268

Que Gongze, 261

R

Rāmadatta, King, 33

Ran Boniu, 242

Rāṣṭrapāla, 261, 271

realm(s) of existence:

ﬁve, 27, 123, 126,128, 246, 249, 282,

283, 284, 297

six, 24, 92, 126

three, 20, 25, 33–34, 101, 146, 156,

238, 246, 249, 252, 256, 273, 283,

289

three lowest, 238, 256, 276, 281, 283

See also existence(s) rebirth, 13, 14, 251

See also birth and death; transmigration receptivity, 37, 120, 148, 171, 179, 293,

296, 297

Records of Minor Conquest (Lingzheng ji), 268

Red Eyebrows, 16, 300n15

Red Writing (Chizhang), 9, 12, 13, 33

See also talisman(s)

Renwang huguo boreboluomiduo jing,

323n384

reward and retribution, xxi, 119, 120,

122, 124, 129, 136, 144, 145, 178,

179, 204, 207, 213, 238, 240, 242,

243, 244, 246, 247, 249, 251, 255

See also causality/causation; karma/ karmic

rite(s)/ritual(s), 9–10, 17, 18, 48, 269 Daoist, xxi

canon/scripture of, 93, 104

Confucian, 62

of ﬁlial offering, 80 funeral, 113

instruments and images, 140, 142 Mud and Ash Fête, xxi, 9

Yellow Register Fête, 8

See also Book of Rites; Rites of Zhou Rites of Zhou (Zhouli), 116

Rong tribe, 294, 314n264 Ruo, 289

Ruo River, 123

Ruoshi, 129

Ruyi, 257

S

Sadāprarudita, 4, 80, 275, 284

Sage, 33, 35, 38, 102, 120, 140, 142,

147, 186, 232, 287

See also Buddha; Great Sage; Śākya- muni

Sage King, 285, 311n211, 318n318

See also Buddha; four that are great Śakra-devānām-indra, 283

Śākyamuni, 18, 19, 21, 27, 29, 33, 79,

119, 134, 137, 139, 182, 205, 207,

209, 211, 213, 223, 232, 274, 275,

278, 283

and Confucius, 24, 81, 92, 107, 117,

140, 178

and Laozi/Li Lao, 38, 117, 156

passing of, 27, 31, 208

teaching of, 24, 33, 35, 38, 42, 81, 92,

101, 115, 117, 132, 135, 137, 150,

295

See also Buddha; Sage

śāla trees, twin, 21, 27

Saṃghadeva, 187

Sanfu area, 32

Saṅkha, 138

Sanmiao, chief of, 242

See also four criminals Sanskrit, 23, 325n414

Śāriputra, 232

school(s), 26, 38, 64, 102, 15, 117, 121,

147, 187, 262

Buddhist/of Śākyamuni, 137, 157, 220

Confucian/of Confucius, 107, 137

Daoist, xxi, 9, 157, 254 heterodox/non-Buddhist, ninety-six,

112, 147, 262

nine, 141, 146, 225, 285

six, of philosophy, 64

School of Changes, 157

See also Daoism/Daoist teaching; nine schools

scripture(s), 4, 8, 22, 24, 25, 26, 38, 66,

73, 86, 87, 93, 108, 109, 112, 113,

114, 120, 121, 126, 129, 130, 136,

140, 146, 187, 196, 229, 235, 247,

255, 270, 295, 302n43, 320n340,

324n395

Buddhist, xix, xxi, 4, 13, 15, 20, 24,

30, 31, 32, 38, 93, 101, 103, 106,

107, 109, 111, 118, 127, 128, 132,

138, 139, 144, 145, 149, 158, 160,

164, 169, 170, 187, 191, 218, 227,

229, 230, 236, 254, 255, 290, 291,

295, 296, 297, 310n194, 324n394

twelve kinds of, 235 Chinese, 121, 321n357

Daoist, 4, 8, 101

classical, 93, 95

foreign, 265

non-Buddhist, 30

See also sutra(s)

Scripture on the Clean and Pure Dharma Practice (Qingjing faxing jing), 38, 303n70

Secretariat Fan, 65, 74, 95, 111, 306n130, 308n164

See also Fan Zhen/Zizhen

Seeking Fame (Qiuming), 123, 310n194 Senghui. 10, 20

Senglüe, 162, 164, 165, 166

Sengqian, 162, 163, 164, 314n240

Sengshun, 27

Sengyan, 168–169, 170–171, 172–173

Sengyou, xix–xx, xxii, 1, 289, 315n277, 320n336

sense objects, six, 313n238

sense organs, six, 57, 239–240, 263, 264

See also six desires

senses, 57, 199, 201, 317n305

seven apertures, 56, 58, 69, 305n105

Seven Classics, 144, 145

See also Five Classics; Six Classics seven symptoms, 259, 323n384

seven treasures, 177, 264, 324n396

sexual behavior/practices/relations, 6, 10,

39, 236, 237

Shaanxi province, 10, 32

Yangpeng area, 38

Shan Bao, 27

Shan county, 164

Shandong province, 11, 149

Shang dynasty, 75, 105, 138, 280, 287,

291

See also Yin dynasty Shangjun, 152

Shangqing (Supreme Purity) school, 26

Shangshu, 300n24, 307n148, 320n343, 327n436

See also Book of History

Shang Yang, 22

Shanhai jing, 311n204, 325n408

See also Book of Mountains and Seas

Shaohao Jintian, Emperor, 104 Shaozi. See Zhong Rong

She, Duke of, 316n297 Shen Gun, 99–100

Shen Hong, 128–129

Shen Ji, 41, 97–98

See also Ji

Shenman jing (Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanāda- sūtra), 157

Shen Nong, 23, 293, 301n30

See also Three Augusts Shentu Jia, 233

Shi, 263, 323n391

Shi Baolin, 281

Shi family, 33

Shi Hu, 33, 135, 149

Shiji, 300n12, 302n44, 304nn90, 94, 95,

99, 102; 305nn103, 105, 107, 114,

115; 306n117, 311n210, 312n232,

313n236, 314n250, 315n272,

320nn341, 344; 323n382,

327nn443, 444, 446

Shijing, 300n23, 302nn57, 58; 304n101, 309nn178, 185; 326n427, 327n434

See also Book of Odes

Shi Le, 33, 149

Shi Yu, 80

Shizu. See Wu, Emperor Shu, 163

Shudu. See Huang Xian

Shujing, 304n100, 309nn172, 177; 316n284

See also Book of History

Shun, Emperor, 6, 18, 35, 58, 59, 60, 61,

76, 87, 109, 152, 261, 294,

305n104, 318n319, 323n381

See also Five Thearchs; Yao and Shun Shuxiang, 314n264, 320n342

Shuyu. See Fu

Sichuan province, Ba Shu area, Min region, 11

Si Dai, 59

Sima Jiong, 129–130

Sima Yun, 98–99 Sishierzhang jing, 322n368 Sivi, King, 171

six barbarian tribes/groups of barbarians, 32, 204, 206

Six Classics, 132

See also Five Classics; Seven Classics six coverings, 111, 284, 285, 308n165

six desires/six feelings, 236, 239, 279

See also sense organs, six six dusts, 122,146

six elemental energies, 121, 310n191 six extreme evils, 256, 323n381

six kinds of dreams, 52, 304n96

six kinds of hindrances, 155, 313n238 six relations, 166, 219, 222

Sizi Palace, 299n2

snake(s), 60, 238, 262, 268, 270

python(s), 5, 9. 268, 270

vipers, 238

See also animal(s)/beast(s)/creature(s) Song dynasty/state, 21, 131, 138, 147,

297, 301n27, 315nn277, 281

See also Liu-Song dynasty; Northern Song dynasty

sorcerers/sorcery, 146, 148

South Mountain. See Mount Heng South Sea, 315n274

spirit(s), 5, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 24, 27, 35,

41, 43, 48, 49–50, 51–52, 53,

55–61, 65–76, 83–86, 88, 90, 94,

96, 100, 104, 108, 110, 111, 114,

115, 118, 120, 124, 127, 129, 132,

134, 146, 148, 153, 183, 186, 191,

197, 201, 207, 213, 215, 216, 236,

241, 252, 254–258, 261, 262,

268–269, 272, 274, 275, 279, 289,

291, 292, 304n98, 305n110,

308n158, 310n200, 327n444

ancestral/of ancestors, 12, 67, 73, 76,

119, 124, 125, 127, 128

corpus, 5, 299n4

disembodied, 12, 17, 48, 60, 71, 113,

119

divine/holy/virtuous, 109, 179, 271

evil/mischievous/vicious, 6, 8, 9, 12,

13, 26, 98, 257, 268, 270, 272, 275,

299n4

exquisite, 43, 44, 123 immortality/imperishability/permanence

of, 41, 43, 79, 81, 82, 84, 89, 92, 97,

102, 111, 117, 120, 121, 126, 127,

129, 256

characteristics/essence/origin/nature of, 41, 87, 90, 119, 124

extinction/extinguishment/perishing of, xvii, xix, xxi, 41, 43–44, 48, 49,

52, 59, 61, 65–66, 67, 68–69, 70,

74, 75, 76, 84, 85, 89, 95, 102, 104,

106, 110, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118,

119, 123, 125, 126, 127

tablet, 104, 310n187

transmigration of, xix, 249, 289, 290,

291, 297

See also Way of the Spirit/Way of Spiritual Beings

spiritual, 3, 10, 12, 13, 31, 101, 118, 225,

261, 275, 278, 279, 287, 291, 297,

consciousness/energy/intelligence, 6,

41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 114, 116, 118, 125

darkness, 13, 97, 128

ofﬁcers, 8, 10, 12

soldier(s), 3, 8, 10, 12

spiritual being(s), 9, 12, 26, 60, 116, 118,

119, 120, 121, 124, 146, 151, 204,

238, 248, 260, 291, 308n157

Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu jing), 97, 149

See also Five Classics

Spring and Autumn era, 287, 295

śramaṇas, xx, 19, 30–32, 35, 58, 61, 63,

133, 147, 166, 175, 180–182, 184,

185, 188, 189, 200, 201, 203, 205,

206, 208–210, 212, 215, 218–220,

222–224, 226, 227–232, 295

and bowing to the king, 175, 193–194, 196, 198–205, 207–210, 215, 217,

221–226

See also Buddhist(s), clergy/monk(s) Śrīmitra, 190

Sudāna, Prince, 299n6 Śuddhodana, King, 233 Sui dynasty, 324n400 Sun Bin, 57, 304n99 Sun Chuo, 133

Sun En, 3, 6, 7, 9, 26

Sun Jian, 306n124 Sun Quan, 147, 295

Sun Sheng, 149

Sunshine, 175, 255–266

Sun Yi, 105–106

Sunzi, 11, 237

Supreme One. See Buddha

Supreme Thearch, 67, 71, 76, 178, 292

See also Celestial Thearch/Heavenly Thearch; Five Thearchs

sutra(s), 29, 30, 43, 44, 45, 47, 150, 177,

184, 185, 239, 240, 246, 247, 248,

249, 251, 252, 253, 288, 303n70,

321nn352, 353, 358, 361; 326n428

See also scripture(s)

Sutra of the Twelve Gates (Shierman jing), 240, 244, 320nn336, 348

Sutra on the Complete Accomplishment of the Light Samādhi (Chengju guangming dingyi jing), 245, 246

Sutra on the Formal Puriﬁcation (Zheng- zhai jing), 242

Sutra on the Seven Buddhas (Qi fo jing), 147

Sutra on the Virtue of a Wise Person

(Xianshede jing), 245 Suzu. See Ming, Emperor

sword(s), 29, 51, 52, 65, 74, 75, 151,

258, 264, 272, 276, 286, 306n131,

312n232

Ganjiang, 286

Kunwu, 8

that can cut jade (kunyu), 265, 324n398

T

Taibo, 15, 30

Taigong Wang/Lü Shang, 51, 170

See also Lü Jiang

Taiping yulan, 304n89, 306n124 Taishi era, 16

Taishō canon/Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, xxii, 311n206, 320n340, 321n355, 322n367

Taiwu, 297, 327n445

Taiyuan. See four polar regions Taiyuan era, 325n409

Taizi ruiying benqi jing, xxii, 123, 213, 246, 250, 301n38, 303nn72, 79;

310nn192, 197; 311n215, 321nn353,

357, 361; 322nn366, 371

Taizi Xudana jing, 299n6 talisman(s), 8–9, 12, 23, 25, 146, 148

huangshen and yuezhang, 13, 299n9 Tang dynasty, 299n1

Tangfu village, 165

Tang, King, 23, 59, 65, 72, 74, 75, 280,

283, 287, 291, 305n115, 318n319

See also Three Augusts Tang/Tang Yao, 75, 87, 114, 166

See also Tao Tang; Yao/Yao, Emperor Tanwuchen, 133

Tao Tang, 194, 231, 295

See also Tang/Tang Yao; Yao/Yao, Emperor

Tathāgata, 36, 64, 85, 124, 138, 140, 177,

178, 184, 221, 259–260, 281–283,

288, 312n220

See also Buddha

ten directions, 82, 176, 235, 273, 276,

279, 283

ten evil acts, 238

ten wholesome acts, 107, 134, 150,

237–238, 250, 251, 258

See also precepts, ten

Three Augusts, 18, 22, 23, 32, 37, 118,

121, 138, 140, 143, 145, 178, 268,

283, 294

See also Tang, King; Wu, King; Yu, King

Three Communicating Agencies, 271, 283, 326n419

threefold refuge, 235

three great elements (Heaven, Earth, and the Way), 199, 207, 218

Three Kings/three sovereigns, 22, 120,

192, 291, 294, 316n294

three most revered people (ruler, father, and teacher), 204, 206, 215, 216, 218

Three Ofﬁces, 8, 12

three periods of existence, xix, xxi, 25, 33–34, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88,

100, 103, 113, 118, 120, 122, 124,

125, 126, 127, 132, 139, 140, 142,

144, 145, 147, 178, 179, 207, 244,

253, 264, 290, 291, 292, 297

three revered ones. See Three Treasures three sages, 79, 109, 117, 119, 122

See also Confucius; Laozi; Śākyamuni three teachings, 253

See also Buddhism; Confucianism;

Daoism

three transcendental knowledges, 96, 184,

259

Three Treasures, xix, 3, 124, 148, 150,

160, 221, 228, 231, 236

Tianbo Temple, 232 Tian Chou. See Zitai Tianzhu. See India

titles (Buddhist/Confucianist/Doaist): Attendant of Scriptures, 10 Bandit of Ants, 10

Bandit of Grain, 10

Capped Female Ofﬁcials, 10 Concubine, 11

Controller of Wine, 10 Daoist Priest, 10 Deﬁcient of the Way, 10 Dharma Master, 10

Dharma Master of the Three Grottoes, 10

Dharma Preacher, 10 Family of the Grain, 10

Father of the Way, 10 General of Five Proﬁts, 11 Heavenly Master, 10

Heir Master, 10

King of the Transcendent Lord, 10 Learned Elder(s), 10, 11

Libationer, 10 Lord of Earth, 11 Lord of Heaven, 11

Man of the Way, 10

Master of the Three Daughters, 10 Mother of the Way, 10

People of the Grain, 10 People of the Way, 10, 11

Spiritual Lord, 10

Succeeding Master, 10 Supervisor of Merit, 10 Teacher of Spiritual Beings, 11 True Lord’s Seed People, 10 Vassal, 11

Woman of the Way, 10 Tiying, 89, 302n232

transmigration, 27, 36, 141, 146, 219, 240,

246, 248, 256, 264, 289, 292, 297

See also birth and death; rebirth Tungusic tribe, 135

two polarities, 105, 157, 199, 218, 262,

267, 269, 282

See also Heaven and Earth

U

udāna, 129, 265

Ultimate Source (Benyuan), 273

V

Vaiśālī, 164

Vaiśeṣika (Weishi), 106

Vaiśravaṇa, 272

vajra, 272, 278

Vajragarbha, 276, 281

vapor(s), 10, 133, 248, 257, 267, 268, 269

foul/poisonous/of vicious sprits, 268, 270, 272

life-giving, 206

primordial, 267, 324n399

yin-yang, xxi, 218, 256

Vasudhāra, 284

vehicle(s), 155, 260

three, 124, 219, 260, 283

two, 159, 282

See also One Vehicle Vimalakīrti, 44, 85, 157, 164, 276

Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sūtra, 17, 138, 144,

248, 251

Vimukticandra, 276, 281

Vinaya, xix, 185, 229

text(s), 150, 184, 185

Vipaśyin, 147

void/voidness, 9, 25, 155, 325n411

See also Grand Void

Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakuṭa), 109, 130,

138, 160

W

waiting by a stump, metaphor of, 189 Wang Bin, 87

Wang Dao, 133

Wang Fu, 22

Wang Gai, 255

Wang Gong, 133

Wang Gongqi, 9

Wang Hong, 182, 189, 192

Wang Jian, 87, 88–89

Wang Jing, 113–115

Wang Jun, 51

Wang Lin, 103

Wang Lingqi, 10, 11 Wang Mang, 300n15 Wang Mao, 90–91

Wang Meng, 133

Wang Mi, 138, 201, 202–203, 205–209,

211–214, 216–217

Wang Qi, 100

Wang Sengru, 94

Wang Sengshu, 116–117

Wang Shu, 258

Wang Tai, 95

Wang Tanzhi, 133

Wangxiang, 138, 311n212

Wang Xiang, 170, 171

Wang Yi, 57, 58, 94–95

Wang Ying, 82

Wang Yuan, 133

Wang Yun, 104–105

Wang Zhenguo, 126

Wang Zhi, 83

Wang Zhongxin, 96–97

Wang Zhou, 169

Warring States period, 16, 21, 137, 294, 295, 301n27, 308n154, 318n315

Water Transcendents, 3, 7

See also Sun En

Way, xix, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10–11, 13, 14, 15,

22–25, 35, 38–39, 42, 80, 87, 88,

92, 104, 109, 112, 115, 117, 125,

134, 137, 141, 157, 158, 162, 164,

165, 167, 168, 172, 176, 177, 182,

189, 199, 202, 204, 207, 208, 209,

211–213, 216, 218, 224, 226, 228,

240, 250–254, 261–263, 267–272,

274, 279, 280, 292, 294, 311nn208,

211

correct/right/true, 8, 33, 116, 167, 271

of ﬁlial piety, 17, 86, 87, 93, 95, 100

fundamental, 219, 222

highest, 23, 24, 109, 113, 118, 146, 212

profound/subtle, 118, 103

ultimate, 104, 105, 112, 166, 177, 213,

214, 253, 255, 262

Buddhist/of the Buddha/Śākyamuni/ Tathāgata, 17, 19, 20, 21, 28, 29, 33,

35–37, 42, 85, 90, 96, 103, 105,

107, 108, 110, 115, 117, 120, 128,

139, 143, 144, 157, 159, 160, 164,

166, 169, 175, 177–179, 181, 184,

185, 189, 194, 195, 208, 209, 213,

215, 218–223, 225, 228, 230–232,

236, 240, 246, 248, 252, 255,

259–261, 265, 266, 275, 280, 282,

283, 288, 289

See also Great Way

Way of Heaven, 6, 94, 106, 109, 122,

123, 307n147

Way of the Celestial Master, xxi

Way of the Divine Transcendents, 34, 254 Way of the Eastern Mountain, 268

Way of the Five Pecks of Grain, xxi, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 25

Way of the Spirit/Spiritual Beings/Spiri- tual Intelligence, 7, 10, 19, 41, 48,

106, 118, 135, 194, 196, 207, 223,

227, 247, 255, 258, 267, 269

Wei dynasty/kingdom/period/state, 198,

201, 295, 318n319

See also Northern Wei dynasty Wei Ke, 128, 191, 309n174, 316n293

Weimojie jing, 322nn364, 376, 378 Wei, Prince, 299n2

Wei River, 135, 220, 228

Wei Rui, 101

Wei Shidu, 261

Weimojie suoshuo jing, 303n80, 307nn138, 139; 311n213, 312n218,

313n240, 324nn394, 395, 396;

326n422

Wei Zhi, 171, 315n267

Wen, Duke, 128 Wen, Emperor:

of the Han dynasty, 51, 134, 178

of the Song dynasty, 131, 188 of the Sui dynasty, 324n400

Wen, King, 59, 67, 70, 76, 314n258

of the Wei kingdom, 160

of the Zhou dynasty, 118, 180 Wen, Lord:

of Jin state, 288 of Wei state, 164

Wenxuan, King, 149, 312n227 West/Western region, 135, 137, 138 Western Jin dynasty, xx, 311n207

See also Eastern Jin dynasty; Jin dynasty/state

wheel, golden, 96

See also Dharma, wheel wheel-turning king, 138

White Horse Temple (Baimasi), 123 White Tiger Library (Baifuguan), 107 wisdom, 8, 14, 23, 24, 25, 38, 41, 57, 84,

96, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110,

116, 140, 141, 150, 171, 173, 225,

250, 264, 266, 278, 280, 286, 289,

292, 294, 296, 308n158

axe of, 274, 277, 278

highest, 15, 120

seven factors of, 104, 283

sunlike, 112, 128

transcendental, 105, 155, 187, 260

See also prajñā

Wu (wife of Sun Jian), 306n124

Wu, Emperor, xx, 178, 193, 295, 318n319 of the Former Han dynasty/Han

dynasty, 4, 11, 153, 295, 299n2, 324n400

of the Liang dynasty, 41–42 of the Liu-Song dynasty, 7 of the Qi dynasty, 232

of the Song dynasty, 147, 315n281 Wu, King, 23, 72, 73, 74, 75, 114, 118,

120, 280, 283, 287, 291, 300n14,

314n258

See also Three Augusts

Wu area/region/Wu County, 3, 6, 10,

294, 148

Wu Ding, Emperor, 51, 295

Wugang, 202

Wu kingdom/state, 30, 50, 51, 66, 70,

147, 295, 304n326

Wuling, 164

Wulu Chongzong, 95, 307n149

See also Fan Zhen/Zizhen

wuwei (nonaction), 27, 32, 62, 283, 294, 319n326

as nirvana, 29, 227, 251, 260

Wuxing, 41

Wuzhong area, 30

Wuzi, 137

X

Xi, 242

See also Yangshe Xi

Xia dynasty, 72, 75, 80, 90, 105, 135,

138, 280, 287, 291, 294, 318n319

Xia Ge, 291 Xiahuanggong, 314n251

See also four bright men Xiang, Prince, 154, 158

Xiang, Viscount, 173

Xiang Ji, 59, 59, 60 Xiangwang. See Wangxiang Xiangyang, 178, 183

Xiang Yu. See Xiang Ji Xianyuan tribe. See Huns Xiao Ang, 92–93

Xiao Bing, 84

Xiao Chen, 48–49, 70, 86

Xiao Hong, 81

See also Linchuan, King of

Xiaojing, 59, 300n11, 302n62, 305n109, 306nn120, 125, 126; 309nn167,

168; 312n230

See also Canon of Filial Piety

Xiao Mi, 93–94

Xiao Misu, 106–107

Xiao Mozhi, 131, 132,136

Xiaopin boreboluomi jing, 326n423 Xiao Wei. See Jian’an, King of Xiao Yuanye, 81

Xiao Ziliang, 154

Xie Chuo, 101–102

Xie Fu, 133, 163, 164

Xie Guang, 193, 194–195

Xie Ju, 111–112

Xie Lingyun, 132

Xie Shang, 133

Xi Zaochi, 1176–178

Xie Zhong, 217

Xi He, 259

Xi Ke, 129

Xiuxing benqi jing, 301n39, 314n261, 321nn357, 261

Xuan, King, 48–49, 135, 180, 327n444

Xuanguang, xxi, 3

Xuanni, 41, 303n77

See also Confucius Xuanyuan, 58, 104

See also Yellow Emperor

Xuanzhong ji, 325n407 Xu Fu, 4

Xu Gun. 88

Xu Mian, 84–85

Xunzi, 300n14

Xu You, 163, 164, 165, 166

Y

Yama, 64, 258, 271

Yan family, 308n158 Yangdu, 1

Yang Huo, 58, 59, 60

Yangshe, 242 Yangshe Xi, 320n342

See also Xi

Yan Guangi Ziling, 160, 163

Yang Xuanbao, 137

Yangzhou, 125

Yang Zhu, 90

Yangzi, 115

Yangzi River, 114, 130, 267, 294

Yan Hui, 242, 262

Yan Junping, 163, 313n246 Yanling, 66, 70, 74, 75

Yan region/state, 16, 115

Yan Shan, 127–128

Yan Yannian/Yan Yanzhi, 132, 253

Yan Yuan, 231

Yan Zhizhi, 110–111 Yanzi, 299n8

Yao/Yao, Emperor, 33, 35, 58, 61, 76,

104, 114, 152–153, 164, 165, 166,

179, 231, 265, 295, 300n24,

303n74, 313n235, 318n319,

319n328, 326n424

See also Fangxun; Five Thearchs; Tang, Emperor; Tang/Tang Yao; Tao Tang; Yao and Shun

Yao and Shun, 18, 23, 58, 75, 137,

179–180, 283, 295

See also Shun; Yao/Yao, Emperor Yao Lüe, 149, 175

Yao Xian, 159

Yao Xing Zhilue/Ruler Yao, 158–159, 160–161, 162–163, 164

Ye, 135

Yellow Books (Huangshu),6, 9, 25, 299n5

Yellow Emperor, 58, 76, 104, 124, 138,

155, 156, 255, 318n319

See also Five Thearchs; Three Augusts; Xuanyuan

Yellow River, 3, 23, 135, 163, 189, 267,

288

Yellow Turbans, 7, 210

Yi, Lord, 64

Yijing, 300n20, 305nn110, 112, 113;

307nn143, 150; 308nn155, 156,

158; 309n166, 313n241, 315n273,

316n285, 317n310, 318n312,

320n334, 323nn388, 390; 327n433

See also Book of Changes

Yili (Ceremonies for Courtesy), 19 Yin dynasty/state, 51, 64, 72, 80, 90,

135, 181, 280, 287, 297, 300n14,

305n105, 318n319

See also Shang dynasty

yin and yang, 6, 10, 37, 39, 55, 267, 268, 325n403

vapor(s), xxi, 256

See also Daoism Yin, Prince, 34, 278

Ying (city), 70, 263, 323n391

Ying, King, 16, 295, 304n86

Ying River, 166

Yin Ji, 133

Yin Jun, 6, 122

Yin Zhongwen, 215

Yi River, 294

Yi tribe, 9, 10, 294

Yixi era, 9

Yiyang, 200

Yi Yin, 64, 305n115

Yongjia, 131, 132

Yongping era, 179

Youruo/Youzi, 31

You Yu, 19, 116, 153

Yu, 51

Yu, Emperor/King, 16, 120, 183, 291,

294, 295, 318n319

See also Three Augusts Yuan Ang, 83–84

Yuan dynasty, 315n277

Yuan, Emperor, 295, 307n149 Yuan Gui, 116

Yuan Rang, 34

Yu Bing, 193, 194–195, 199, 200, 202

Yu Chan, 85, 178

Yu Daosui, 133

Yue region, 51, 181 Yuezheng Zi Chun, 95

Yu Falan, 133, 148, 261, 312n225

Yu Heng, 215, 217

Yu Liang, Lord, 175 Yu Qianlou, 119–121

Yu Rang, 173

Yu Tanlong, 93

Yu Yong, 91–92

Yu/Yu Shun, Emperor, 75, 76, 87,

152–153

See also Shun, Emperor Yu Yuangui, 133

Yuzhang, 92, 99, 104

Yuzhong, 15

Z

Zai Kai, 164

Zang Wen Zhong, 33, 294n86 Zeng Shen/Zengzi, 31, 64, 65, 80

Zengyi ahan jing, 302n51, 321n353

See also Collection for the Propaga- tion and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism

Zhan family, 135

Zhang Chang, 201, 317n308 Zhang family, 148

Zhang Fan, 125

Zhang Jia, 57, 58

Zhang Jiao, 9, 26

Zhang Liang, 58

Zhang Ling, 5–6, 9, 24, 25, 34

Zhang Lu, 3, 9, 10, 25

Zhang Mian, 122–124

Zhang Rong, 27, 156, 299n10

Zhang Xin’an, 179–180

Zhang Xuan, 133

Zhang Yi, 27

Zhang Yuanbo, 102

Zhang Zi Lu, 7, 9, 10, 11 Zhao, King, 305n107 Zhao, Lord, 172

Zhao Ding, 57, 58

Zhao dynasty/state, 16, 173, 305n107, 308n153, 318n315

See also Later Zhao dynasty

Zhao Jianzi, 50, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 297, 327n443

Zhan Qin, 172

Zheng Daozi/Zheng Dun, 180–181 Zheng state, 49, 59, 60, 128, 233

Zheng Xuan, 21

Zhenzongjie (Admonitions on the Pil- low), 269, 325n405

Zhi, 125

Zhibo, 37, 173

Zhi Daolin, 230, 319n325 Zhi Dun, xx, 261

Zhong ahan jing, 321n358 Zhongchu, 85

See also Yu Chan Zhonghua, 58, 180

See also Shun, Emperor Zhongjing mulu, xxii Zhongni. See Confucius Zhongrong, 270, 325n408

Zhongyong, 30, 119

Zhong You, 207

See also Zilu

Zhou, Duke of, 21, 66, 70, 71, 80, 98,

114, 115, 120, 138, 140, 145, 172,

178, 291–292

and Confucius, 20, 59, 111, 119, 142,

143, 145, 207, 210, 283, 288, 291

and Houji, 66–67, 70, 72

and King Wu, 114, 120, 291–292

Zhou, King, 72–73, 74, 75, 80, 135, 280,

287, 300n14, 305n105

Zhou Dan, 67, 72, 120

See also Zhou, Duke of

Zhou Dang, 163

Zhou dynasty, 21, 30, 41, 48, 72, 75, 90,

105, 118, 134, 135, 138, 180, 280,

287, 293, 300n14, 318n319,

327nn437, 444

Zhouguan, Zong Boshi section of Chun- guan, 119

Zhouli, 119, 304n96, 309n173

See also Zhouguan

Zhou Yi, 133

Zhuangyan Temple, 80

Zhuang Zhou, 232

Zhuangzi, 21, 27, 34, 35, 38, 39, 66, 69,

70, 100, 118, 167, 192, 216, 217,

241, 265, 288, 309n180, 318n316

Zhuangzi, xx, xxi, 169, 170, 300n18, 21,

25; 301n31, 34, 40; 302nn56, 61;

303nn63, 65, 66, 67, 73, 75, 76;

304n97, 305n108, 306nn118, 133,

134; 309nn175, 180, 182; 310nn190,

191, 198; 311n205, 212; 312n219,

314n256, 315nn274, 278; 316n295,

317nn303, 307; 318n316, 319nn323,

324, 327; 320nn338, 339; 321nn359,

360; 322nn370, 372; 323nn380,

385, 386, 389, 391; 324nn393, 397;

325n411, 326nn420, 424, 429, 430;

327n442

Zhuanxu, 76

See also Five Thearchs Zhu Daosheng, 187

See also Daosheng Zhu Daoshuang, 267 Zhu Duo, 313n237 Zhu family, 148

Zhu Fahu, 133, 148, 261, 296

Zhu Faya, xxii Zhuge Hui, 193, 195

Zhuge Kongming/Liang, 163, 165

See also Kongming Zhuli. See four polar regions

Zhulong, 129, 311n204

Zhu River, 109, 169 Zhu Shixing/Zixing, xx Zhu Tuo, 153

Zhu Yun, 307n149

Zichan, 127, 233, 310n195

Zigao, 35

Zigong, 71, 318n329

Zilu, 67, 71–72, 137, 207

See also Jilu; Zhong You Zi Ming, 9

Ziqi, 130, 319n323

Zitai, 173

Zixia, 38

Ziyou, 38, 319n323

Zizhou, 35

Zong state, 285, 326n424 Zong Bing, 132, 133, 148 Zong Shaowen. See Zong Bing Zou region/state, 50, 139

Zun Zu, 171, 315n267

Zuochi. See Xi Zaochi

Zuozhuan, 30, 35, 116, 120, 135, 149,

179, 184, 299n8, 302nn48, 50;

303n64, 304nn85, 86, 87, 88;

305nn107, 111; 306n128, 307n151,

309n174, 310nn189, 200;

311nn201, 209; 312n231,

313nn233, 235; 314nn255, 264;

316nn286, 291, 293; 317n301,

320n342, 323n383, 324n401,

327nn444, 447

BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series)

Abbreviations

Ch.: Chinese Skt.: Sanskrit Jp.: Japanese

Eng.: Published title

Title Taishō No.

Ch. Skt. Eng.	Chang ahan jing (長阿含經) Dīrghāgama The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses (Volume I, 2015) The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses (Volume II, 2017)	1
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Zhong ahan jing (中阿含經) Madhyamāgama The Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Discourses) (Volume I, 2013)	26
Ch.	Dasheng bensheng xindi guan jing (大乘本生心地觀經)	159
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Fo suoxing zan (佛所行讃) Buddhacarita Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha’s Acts (2009)	192
Ch. Eng.	Zabao zang jing (雜寶藏經) The Storehouse of Sundry Valuables (1994)	203
Ch. Eng.	Faju piyu jing (法句譬喩經) The Scriptural Text: Verses of the Doctrine, with Parables (1999)	211
Ch. Skt.	Xiaopin banruo boluomi jing (小品般若波羅蜜經) Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra	227

371

Ch. Skt. Ch.	Jingang banruo boluomi jing (金剛般若波羅蜜經) Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra Daluo jingang bukong zhenshi sanmoye jing	235 243
	(大樂金剛不空眞實三麼耶經)
Skt.	Adhyardhaśatikā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra
Eng.	The Sutra of the Vow of Fulﬁlling the Great Perpetual
	Enjoyment and Beneﬁting All Sentient Beings Without
	Exception (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)
Ch.	Renwang banruo boluomi jing (仁王般若波羅蜜經)	245
Skt.	*Kāruṇikārājā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra
Ch.	Banruo boluomiduo xin jing (般若波羅蜜多心經)	251
Skt.	Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya-sutra
Ch.	Miaofa lianhua jing (妙法蓮華經)	262
Skt.	Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sutra
Eng.	The Lotus Sutra (Revised Second Edition, 2007)
Ch.	Wuliangyi jing (無量義經)	276
Eng.	The Inﬁnite Meanings Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)
Ch.	Guan Puxian pusa xingfa jing (觀普賢菩薩行法經)	277
Eng.	The Sutra Expounded by the Buddha on Practice of the Way
	through Contemplation of the Bodhisattva All-embracing
	Goodness (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)
Ch.	Dafangguang fo huayan jing (大方廣佛華嚴經)	279
Skt.	Avataṃsaka-sutra
Ch.	Shengman shizihou yisheng defang bianfang guang jing	353
Skt.	Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanāda-sutra
Eng.	The Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion’s Roar (2004)
Ch.	Wuliangshou jing (無量壽經)	360
Skt.	Sukhāvatīvyūha
Eng.	The Larger Sutra on Amitāyus (in The Three Pure Land Sutras,
	Revised Second Edition, 2003)
Ch.	Guan wuliangshou fo jing (觀無量壽佛經)	365
Skt.	*Amitāyurdhyāna-sutra
Eng.	The Sutra on Contemplation of Amitāyus
	(in The Three Pure Land Sutras, Revised Second Edition, 2003)

(勝鬘師子吼一乘大方便方廣經)

Ch.	Amituo jing (阿彌陀經)	366
Skt.	Sukhāvatīvyūha
Eng.	The Smaller Sutra on Amitāyus (in The Three Pure Land Sutras,
	Revised Second Edition, 2003)
Ch.	Da banniepan jing (大般涅槃經)	374
Skt.	Mahāparinirvana-sutra
Eng.	The Nirvana Sutra (Volume I, 2013)
Ch.	Fochuibo niepan lüeshuo jiaojie jing (佛垂般涅槃略説教誡經)	389
Eng.	The Bequeathed Teaching Sutra (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)
Ch.	Dizang pusa benyuan jing (地藏菩薩本願經)	412
Skt.	*Kṣitigarbhapraṇidhāna-sutra
Ch.	Banzhou sanmei jing (般舟三昧經)	418
Skt.	Pratyutpanna-buddhasammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sutra
Eng.	The Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sutra (1998)
Ch.	Yaoshi liuli guang rulai benyuan gongde jing	450
Skt.	Bhaiṣajyaguru-vaiḍūrya-prabhāsa-pūrvapraṇidhāna-viśeṣavistara
Ch.	Mile xiasheng chengfo jing (彌勒下生成佛經)	454
Skt.	*Maitreyavyākaraṇa
Eng.	The Sutra that Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha
	and His Enlightenment (2015)
Ch.	Wenshushili wen jing (文殊師利問經)	468
Skt.	*Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā
Eng.	The Sutra of Mañjuśrī’s Questions (2015)
Ch.	Weimojie suoshuo jing (維摩詰所説經)	475
Skt.	Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sutra
Eng.	The Vimalakīrti Sutra (2004)
Ch.	Yueshangnü jing (月上女經)	480
Skt.	Candrottarādārikā-paripṛcchā
Ch.	Zuochan sanmei jing (坐禪三昧經)	614
Eng.	The Sutra on the Concentration of Sitting Meditation (2009)
Ch.	Damoduoluo chan jing (達磨多羅禪經)	618
Ch.	Yuedeng sanmei jing (月燈三昧經)	639
Skt.	Samādhirāja-candrapradīpa-sutra

(藥師琉璃光如來本願功徳經)

Ch. Skt. Eng.	Shoulengyan sanmei jing (♛楞嚴三昧經) Śūraṅgamasamādhi-sutra The Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sutra (1998)	642
Ch. Skt.	Jinguang ming zuishengwang jing (金光明最勝王經) Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sutra	665
Ch. Skt.	Dasheng rulengqie jing (大乘入楞伽經) Laṅkāvatāra-sutra	672
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Jie shenmi jing (解深密經) Saṃdhinirmocana-sutra The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning (2000)	676
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Yulanpen jing (盂蘭盆經) Ullambana-sutra The Ullambana Sutra* (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)	685
Ch. Eng.	Sishierzhang jing (四十二章經) The Sutra of Forty-two Sections (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)	784
Ch.	Dafangguang yuanjue xiuduoluo liaoyi jing	842

(大方廣圓覺修多羅了義經)

Eng. The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment

(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

Ch. Da Biluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing 848

(大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經)

Skt. Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi-vikurvitādhiṣṭhāna-vaipulyasūtrendra- rājanāma-dharmaparyāya

Eng. The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra (2005)

Ch. Jinggangding yiqie rulai zhenshi she dasheng xianzheng dajiao

wang jing (金剛頂一切如來眞實攝大乘現證大教王經) 865

Skt. Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṃgraha-mahāyānā-bhisamaya-mahākalparāja Eng. The Adamantine Pinnacle Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)

Ch. Suxidi jieluo jing (蘇悉地羯囉經) 893

Skt. Susiddhikara-mahātantra-sādhanopāyika-paṭala

Eng. The Susiddhikara Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)

Ch. Modengqie jing (摩登伽經) 1300

Skt. *Mātaṅgī-sutra

Eng. The Mātaṅga Sutra (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)

Ch. Skt.	Mohe sengqi lü (摩訶僧祇律) *Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya	1425
Ch. Skt.	Sifen lü (四分律) *Dharmaguptaka-vinaya	1428
Ch. Pāli	Shanjianlü piposha (善見律毘婆沙) Samantapāsādikā	1462
Ch. Skt.	Fanwang jing (梵網經) *Brahmajāla-sutra	1484
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Youposaijie jing (優婆塞戒經) Upāsakaśīla-sutra The Sutra on Upāsaka Precepts (1994)	1488
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Miaofa lianhua jing youbotishe (妙法蓮華經憂波提舍) Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-upadeśa The Commentary on the Lotus Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)	1519
Ch. Skt.	Shizha biposha lun (十住毘婆沙論) *Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā	1521
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Fodijing lun (佛地經論) Buddhabhūmisutra-śāstra The Interpretation of the Buddha Land* (2002)	1530
Ch. Skt.	Apidamojushe lun (阿毘達磨倶舍論) Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya	1558
Ch. Skt.	Zhonglun (中論) Madhyamaka-śāstra	1564
Ch. Skt.	Yüqie shidilun (瑜伽師地論) Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra	1579
Ch. Eng.	Cheng weishi lun (成唯識論) Demonstration of Consciousness Only (in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)	1585
Ch. Skt. Eng.	Weishi sanshilun song (唯識三十論頌) Triṃśikā The Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only (in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)	1586

Ch.	Weishi ershi lun (唯識二十論)	1590
Skt.	Viṃśatikā
Eng.	The Treatise in Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only
	(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)
Ch.	She dasheng lun (攝大乘論)	1593
Skt.	Mahāyānasaṃgraha
Eng.	The Summary of the Great Vehicle (Revised Second Edition, 2003)
Ch.	Bian zhongbian lun (辯中邊論)	1600
Skt.	Madhyāntavibhāga
Ch.	Dasheng zhuangyanjing lun (大乘莊嚴經論)	1604
Skt.	Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra
Ch.	Dasheng chengye lun (大乘成業論)	1609
Skt.	Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa
Ch.	Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun (究竟一乘寳性論)	1611
Skt.	Ratnagotravibhāga-mahāyānottaratantra-śāstra
Ch.	Yinming ruzheng li lun (因明入正理論)	1630
Skt.	Nyāyapraveśa
Ch.	Dasheng ji pusa xue lun (大乘集菩薩學論)	1636
Skt.	Śikṣāsamuccaya
Ch.	Jingangzhen lun (金剛針論)	1642
Skt.	Vajrasūcī
Ch.	Zhang suozhi lun (彰所知論)	1645
Eng.	The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable (2004)
Ch.	Putixing jing (菩提行經)	1662
Skt.	Bodhicaryāvatāra
Ch.	Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun	1665
Eng.	The Bodhicitta Śāstra (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)
Ch.	Dasheng qixin lun (大乘起信論)	1666
Skt.	*Mahāyānaśraddhotpāda-śāstra
Eng.	The Awakening of Faith (2005)
Ch.	Shimoheyan lun (釋摩訶衍論)	1668

(金剛頂瑜伽中發阿耨多羅三藐三菩提心論)

Ch. Pāli	Naxian biqiu jing (那先比丘經) Milindapañhā	1670
Ch. Eng.	Banruo boluomiduo xin jing yuzan (般若波羅蜜多心經幽賛) A Comprehensive Commentary on the Heart Sutra (Prajñāpāramitā-hṛdaya-sutra) (2001)	1710
Ch.	Miaofalianhua jing xuanyi (妙法蓮華經玄義)	1716
Ch.	Guan wuliangshou fo jing shu (觀無量壽佛經疏)	1753
Ch.	Sanlun xuanyi (三論玄義)	1852
Ch.	Dasheng xuan lun (大乘玄論)	1853
Ch.	Zhao lun (肇論)	1858
Ch.	Huayan yisheng jiaoyi fenqi zhang (華嚴一乘教義分齊章)	1866
Ch.	Yuanren lun (原人論)	1886
Ch.	Mohe zhiguan (摩訶止觀)	1911
Ch.	Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao (修習止觀坐禪法要)	1915
Ch. Eng.	Tiantai sijiao yi (天台四教儀) A Guide to the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)	1931
Ch.	Guoqing bai lu (國清百録)	1934
Ch. Eng.	Zhenzhou Linji Huizhao chanshi wulu (鎭州臨濟慧照禪師語録) The Recorded Sayings of Linji (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)	1985
Ch. Eng.	Foguo Yuanwu chanshi biyan lu (佛果圜悟禪師碧巖録) The Blue Cliff Record (1998)	2003
Ch. Eng.	Wumen guan (無門關) Wumen’s Gate (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)	2005
Ch. Eng.	Liuzu dashi fabao tan jing (六祖大師法寶壇經) The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (2000)	2008
Ch. Eng.	Xinxin ming (信心銘) The Faith-Mind Maxim (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)	2010
Ch.	Huangboshan Duanji chanshi chuanxin fayao	2012A

(黄檗山斷際禪師傳心法要)

Eng. Essentials of the Transmission of Mind (in Zen Texts, 2005)

Ch. Yongjia Zhengdao ge (永嘉證道歌) 2014

Ch. Chixiu Baizhang qinggui (勅修百丈清規) 2025

Eng. The Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations (2007)

Ch. Yibuzonglun lun (異部宗輪論) 2031

Skt. Samayabhedoparacanacakra

Eng. The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines (2004)

Ch. Ayuwang jing (阿育王經) 2043

Skt. Aśokāvadāna

Eng. The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka (1993)

Ch. Maming pusa zhuan (馬鳴菩薩傳) 2046

Eng. The Life of Aśvaghoṣa Bodhisattva

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Longshu pusa zhuan (龍樹菩薩傳) 2047

Eng. The Life of Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Posoupandou fashi zhuan (婆藪槃豆法師傳) 2049

Eng. Biography of Dharma Master Vasubandhu

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Datang Daciensi Zanzang fashi zhuan (大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳) 2053

Eng. A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (1995)

Ch. Gaoseng zhuan (高僧傳) 2059

Ch. Biqiuni zhuan (比丘尼傳) 2063

Eng. Biographies of Buddhist Nuns

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (高僧法顯傳) 2085

Eng. The Journey of the Eminent Monk Faxian

(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

Ch. Datang xiyu ji (大唐西域記) 2087

Eng. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (1996)

Ch. Youfangjichao: Tangdaheshangdongzheng zhuan 2089-(7) (遊方記抄: 唐大和上東征傳)

Ch. Eng.	Hongming ji (弘明集) The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Volume I, 2015) The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (Volume II, 2017)	2102
Ch.	Fayuan zhulin (法苑珠林)	2122
Ch. Eng.	Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan (南海寄歸内法傳) Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia (2000)	2125
Ch.	Fanyu zaming (梵語雑名)	2135
Jp. Eng.	Shōmangyō gisho (勝鬘經義疏) Prince Shōtoku’s Commentary on the Śrīmālā Sutra (2011)	2185
Jp. Eng.	Yuimakyō gisho (維摩經義疏) The Expository Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sutra (2012)	2186
Jp.	Hokke gisho (法華義疏)	2187
Jp.	Hannya shingyō hiken (般若心經秘鍵)	2203
Jp.	Daijō hossō kenjin shō (大乘法相研神章)	2309
Jp.	Kanjin kakumu shō (觀心覺夢鈔)	2312
Jp. Eng.	Risshū kōyō (律宗綱要) The Essentials of the Vinaya Tradition (1995)	2348
Jp. Eng.	Tendai hokke shūgi shū (天台法華宗義集) The Collected Teachings of the Tendai Lotus School (1995)	2366
Jp.	Kenkairon (顯戒論)	2376
Jp.	Sange gakushō shiki (山家學生式)	2377
Jp. Eng.	Hizōhōyaku (秘藏寶鑰) The Precious Key to the Secret Treasury (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2426
Jp. Eng.	Benkenmitsu nikyō ron (辨顯密二教論) On the Differences between the Exoteric and Esoteric Teachings (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2427
Jp. Eng.	Sokushin jōbutsu gi (即身成佛義) The Meaning of Becoming a Buddha in This Very Body (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2428

Jp. Eng.	Shōji jissōgi (聲字實相義) The Meanings of Sound, Sign, and Reality (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2429
Jp. Eng.	Unjigi (吽字義) The Meanings of the Word Hūṃ (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2430
Jp. Eng.	Gorin kuji myōhimitsu shaku (五輪九字明秘密釋) The Illuminating Secret Commentary on the Five Cakras and the Nine Syllables (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2514
Jp. Eng.	Mitsugonin hotsuro sange mon (密嚴院發露懺悔文) The Mitsugonin Confession (in Shingon Texts, 2004)	2527
Jp. Eng.	Kōzen gokoku ron (興禪護國論) A Treatise on Letting Zen Flourish to Protect the State (in Zen Texts, 2005)	2543
Jp. Eng.	Fukan zazengi (普勧坐禪儀) A Universal Recommendation for True Zazen (in Zen Texts, 2005)	2580
Jp. Eng.	Shōbōgenzō (正法眼藏) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume I, 2007) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume II, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume III, 2008) Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume IV, 2008)	2582
Jp. Eng.	Zazen yōjin ki (坐禪用心記) Advice on the Practice of Zazen (in Zen Texts, 2005)	2586
Jp. Eng.	Senchaku hongan nenbutsu shū (選擇本願念佛集) Senchaku Hongan Nembutsu Shū: A Collection of Passages on the Nembutsu Chosen in the Original Vow (1997)	2608
Jp. Eng.	Kenjōdo shinjitsu kyōgyō shōmon rui (顯淨土眞實教行証文類) Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Enlightenment (2003)	2646
Jp. Eng.	Tannishō (歎異抄) Tannishō: Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith (1996)	2661
Jp. Eng.	Rennyo shōnin ofumi (蓮如上人御文) Rennyo Shōnin Ofumi: The Letters of Rennyo (1996)	2668
Jp.	Ōjōyōshū (往生要集)	2682

Jp. Risshō ankoku ron (立正安國論) 2688

Eng. Risshōankokuron or The Treatise on the Establishment of the Orthodox Teaching and the Peace of the Nation (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)

Jp. Kaimokushō (開目抄) 2689

Eng. Kaimokushō or Liberation from Blindness (2000)

Jp. Kanjin honzon shō (觀心本尊抄) 2692

Eng. Kanjinhonzonshō or The Most Venerable One Revealed by Introspecting Our Minds for the First Time at the Beginning of the Fifth of the Five Five Hundred-year Ages (in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)

Ch. Fumu enzhong jing (父母恩重經) 2887

Eng. The Sutra on the Profundity of Filial Love

(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

Jp. Hasshūkōyō (八宗綱要) extracanonical Eng. The Essentials of the Eight Traditions (1994)

Jp. Sangō shīki (三教指帰) extracanonical

Jp. Mappō tōmyō ki (末法燈明記) extracanonical Eng. The Candle of the Latter Dharma (1994)

Jp. Jūshichijō kenpō (十七條憲法) extracanonical

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The Collection for the Propagation and Clarification of Buddhism = Hongming ji =

All Rights Reserved

BDK English Tripiṭaka Series

(Taishō Volume 52, Number 2102)

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripiṭaka

Editorial Foreword

Publisher’s Foreword

Contents

Translator’s Introduction

Historical Background

Characteristics and Significance

Questions on the Compilation

Note on the Translation

Preface

of Cangwu Prefecture4

The Discourse to Correct Faulty Accusations

Fascicle Two

The Discourse to Clarify Buddhism

Fascicle Three

Response to He Chengtian’s Letter by Layman Zong Bing:

He’s Letter to Zong

Zong’s Response to He’s Letter

He’s Second Response to Zong

Fascicle Four

The Discourse on the Full Understanding of Life (Daxinglun)

by He Chengtian

by Yan Yanzhi (384–456)

Response to Yan of Yongjia

The Second Expatiation to He of Hengyang

The Second Response to Yan of Yongjia

The Third Expatiation to He of Hengyang

Fascicle Five

The Discourse on Regeneration

Sun Changsha’s Letter [to Luo Junzhang] by Anguo (Sun Sheng)

Response to Sun [Sheng]

Section One: Lay Buddhists

Section Two: The Buddhist Clergy

Section Three: Those Who Pursue the Ultimate Law of Nature Do Not Follow the Principle of the Mutation [of Birth and Death

Section Four: Those Who Have Mastered the Ultimate Way Do Not Respond to the World by Serving Both [for Relief by Politics and Emancipation by Religion]

Section Five: The Body is Mortal but the Spirit is Immortal

The Discourse on the Śramaṇa’s Robe Worn with a Bared Shoulder

A Criticism by He [Wuji], Zhennan [General]

Dharma Teacher [Hui]yuan’s Response [to He]

to Huan [Xuan] of Nanjun

Fascicle Six

The Discourse to Elucidate the Refutation (Shibolun)

by Shi Daoheng (346–417)

by Ming Zhengjun

Director of] Shan

A Letter Given to He [Dian], He [Yin], Kong [Zhigui], Kong [Zhongzhi], and Zhou [Yong, Director of] Shan, Shanci466

Response to Zhang’s Letter Together with Questions to Zhang

The Second Letter Given to Zhou with Answers to His Questions

The Second Response and Further Questions by Zhou Yong

Letter to the Daoist Gu [Huan] (420–483) by Xie Zhenzhi

The Second Letter Given to the Daoist Gu

Fascicle Seven

by Zhu Guangzhi

by Huitong at Yecheng [Temple]

Notes

Glossary

Bibliography

Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

R